{ "built": "2026-11-01 21:12", "claims": [ { "id": "darwin1859-intro-01", "key": "0da57d3c2faa11b4", "label": "External conditions alone cannot explain complex coadaptations", "statement": "Complex adaptations and coadaptations between organisms, such as the woodpecker's feeding structures or the misseltoe's dependence on particular trees, birds and insects, cannot be accounted for by the direct effects of external conditions such as climate and food.", "quote": "it is preposterous to attribute to mere external conditions, the structure, for instance, of the woodpecker, with its feet, tail, beak, and tongue, so admirably adapted to catch insects under the bark of trees.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Introduction", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.485, "truth": 0.965, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.98 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.95 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.62, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA2EouTpXmzVEz6G2kPm8shIdYxExiD9Anjy06kQOvOV4", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-intro-02", "key": "c9a3d96394deb7d9", "label": "Overproduction plus slight profitable variation leads to natural selection", "statement": "Because more individuals of each species are born than can survive, there is a recurring struggle for existence, so any individual that varies even slightly in a way profitable to itself has a better chance of surviving and thus of being naturally selected.", "quote": "As many more individuals of each species are born than can possibly survive; and as, consequently, there is a frequently recurring struggle for existence, it follows that any being, if it vary however slightly in any manner profitable to itself, under the complex and sometimes varying conditions of life, will have a better chance of surviving, and thus be _naturally selected_.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Introduction", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "proved", "proof": "lean", "verification": "lean", "math": true, "theorem": true, "notation": "N_0 r^t \\to \\infty\\ (r > 1),\\ \\sup_t N_t \\le K \\Rightarrow \\prod_{i p", "lean_theorems": [ "DarwinLaws.Struggle.not_all_survive", "DarwinLaws.Struggle.survivalProduct_tendsto_zero", "DarwinLaws.Struggle.selectedFrequency_gt", "DarwinLaws.Struggle.selectedTrajectory_tendsto_one" ], "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.605, "truth": 0.935, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.96 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.91 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.67, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAWT8vqjkgkXGOhtkezXeKEk3PTww-1mAqhwqjd2Si1CQ", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-intro-03", "key": "739bac71f0d607c6", "label": "Natural selection causes extinction of less improved forms and divergence", "statement": "Natural selection almost inevitably causes much extinction of less improved forms of life and produces divergence of character.", "quote": "we shall then see how Natural Selection almost inevitably causes much Extinction of the less improved forms of life and induces what I have called Divergence of Character.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Introduction", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.553, "truth": 0.595, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.71 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.48 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.66, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAALjAPNccESwuHXpsVqZkcAdUu-u9wIrWpXuPyHnpqik", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-intro-04", "key": "ebca60ff2ff78ee8", "label": "Species are not immutable but descend from other, mostly extinct, species", "statement": "Species are not independently created and immutable; species of the same genus are lineal descendants of some other, generally extinct, species, just as varieties of one species descend from that species.", "quote": "I am fully convinced that species are not immutable; but that those belonging to what are called the same genera are lineal descendants of some other and generally extinct species, in the same manner as the acknowledged varieties of any one species are the descendants of that species.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Introduction", "kind": "historical-inference", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.784, "truth": 0.97, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.97 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.97 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.82, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAySxeLNSfALU3_Faii6_V0UaSQ7yYwKQUn9Ju89YEbkc", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-intro-05", "key": "0e8e1e8df279280c", "label": "Natural selection is the main but not exclusive means of modification", "statement": "Natural selection has been the main, but not the only, cause of the modification of species.", "quote": "Furthermore, I am convinced that Natural Selection has been the main but not exclusive means of modification.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Introduction", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.412, "truth": 0.845, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.91 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.78 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.58, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAFtRKzkblJszyRrcfCvlXFF1dnkY0dqtvCHvTRUd9XJw", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch01-01", "key": "5f010f038e416e16", "label": "Domesticated forms vary more among individuals than wild species do", "statement": "Individuals of the same variety of long-cultivated plants and domesticated animals generally differ much more from each other than individuals of any one species or variety in nature.", "quote": "they generally differ much more from each other, than do the individuals of any one species or variety in a state of nature.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. I: Variation under Domestication", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.635, "truth": 0.485, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.57 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.4 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.72, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAWt2GFAX0dk-U8_xOok0h2PwcBr2TAj7At0CzJ-Cmgt8", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch01-02", "key": "2221eed4bfe27964", "label": "Greater domestic variability is caused by changed, less uniform conditions", "statement": "The greater variability of domestic productions is due to their being raised under conditions of life less uniform than, and somewhat different from, those of their parent species in nature.", "quote": "I think we are driven to conclude that this greater variability is simply due to our domestic productions having been raised under conditions of life not so uniform as, and somewhat different from, those to which the parent-species have been exposed under nature.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. I: Variation under Domestication", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.43, "truth": 0.28, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.28 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.28 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.62, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA-Y9mYe2UkEgnFCbe7I9RkTw8JCiHYG9OVCKJ83vZP3k", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch01-03", "key": "efdc5ab9424376f7", "label": "Variability arises mainly from effects on reproductive elements before conception", "statement": "The most frequent cause of variability is that the male and female reproductive elements have been affected by the conditions of life before conception, the reproductive system being more sensitive to changed conditions than any other part of the organisation.", "quote": "But I am strongly inclined to suspect that the most frequent cause of variability may be attributed to the male and female reproductive elements having been affected prior to the act of conception.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. I: Variation under Domestication", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.344, "truth": 0.135, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.12 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.15 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.66, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAz-w712X-CXRVZ3JcY860nFglzltkaii1eQjElhmnDW4", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch01-04", "key": "0f9414f86b4b1c92", "label": "Inherited effects of use and disuse modify domestic animals", "statement": "Habitual use and disuse of parts produce inherited changes in domestic animals; for example, domestic ducks have lighter wing bones and heavier leg bones relative to the skeleton than wild ducks because they fly less and walk more.", "quote": "I find in the domestic duck that the bones of the wing weigh less and the bones of the leg more, in proportion to the whole skeleton, than do the same bones in the wild-duck; and I presume that this change may be safely attributed to the domestic duck flying much less, and walking more, than its wild parent.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. I: Variation under Domestication", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.504, "truth": 0.08, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.08 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.08 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.69, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAZKMTFN2BgMlW4t867RlvKKlR_Cg-kIpXnihgd3B45Lw", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch01-05", "key": "cfb310a4d80f7fb2", "label": "Selecting one trait unconsciously modifies other correlated parts", "statement": "Because of laws of correlation of growth, when man selects for and augments any peculiarity, he almost certainly also modifies other parts of the structure without intending to.", "quote": "Hence, if man goes on selecting, and thus augmenting, any peculiarity, he will almost certainly unconsciously modify other parts of the structure, owing to the mysterious laws of the correlation of growth.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. I: Variation under Domestication", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.682, "truth": 0.89, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.88 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.9 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.75, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAZTYR0loXzs7x2vtT_pkOmbR2ZtLgjQMRbyA1TcoXRtk", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch01-06", "key": "b3c695dafa997a54", "label": "Inherited peculiarities appear in offspring at the age they appeared in parent", "statement": "A peculiarity tends to appear in the offspring at the same period of life at which it first appeared in the parent, though sometimes earlier.", "quote": "A much more important rule, which I think may be trusted, is that, at whatever period of life a peculiarity first appears, it tends to appear in the offspring at a corresponding age, though sometimes earlier.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. I: Variation under Domestication", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.516, "truth": 0.69, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.62 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.76 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.65, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAzvgGj4awXj_xMKwd07CqtZtuc9d0zFEs7kz8hxW9faQ", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch01-07", "key": "c7786782e4e26a7d", "label": "Domestic races differ like congeneric species, but usually less", "statement": "Apart from their lesser uniformity, their often monstrous development of one part, and their fertility when crossed, domestic races of a species differ from each other in the same manner as closely allied species of a genus in nature, though in most cases to a lesser degree.", "quote": "domestic races of the same species differ from each other in the same manner as, only in most cases in a lesser degree than, do closely-allied species of the same genus in a state of nature.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. I: Variation under Domestication", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.545, "truth": 0.705, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.77 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.64 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.635, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAwBG1q1hadDgrYxhRKHQD-GmjVLjG6qJ9NhqIOaVws5s", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch01-08", "key": "072253dbc10ada78", "label": "Any wild species domesticated as long would vary as much as existing domestics", "statement": "Domesticated species were not chosen for an unusual inherent tendency to vary; any comparable set of wild animals and plants, bred under domestication for as many generations, would on average vary as much as the parent species of existing domesticated productions have.", "quote": "I cannot doubt that if other animals and plants, equal in number to our domesticated productions, and belonging to equally diverse classes and countries, were taken from a state of nature, and could be made to breed for an equal number of generations under domestication, they would vary on an average as largely as the parent species of our existing domesticated productions have varied.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. I: Variation under Domestication", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.334, "truth": 0.48, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.41 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.55 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.715, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAEDKy5AZRo_z0HborQxa8wKyJbbZVnAJ396IWWDFp46Y", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch01-09", "key": "cdb590c5bbf8b929", "label": "Domestic dogs descend from several wild species", "statement": "Domestic dogs have probably descended from several distinct wild species rather than from a single one.", "quote": "from geographical and other considerations, I think it highly probable that our domestic dogs have descended from several wild species.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. I: Variation under Domestication", "kind": "historical-inference", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "refutes", "evidence_kind": "biological", "data_test": { "verdict": "refutes", "confidence": 0.85, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "biological", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/darwin-origin/darwin1859-ch01-09/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Using complete mitochondrial genomes from GenBank (a systematic one-in-three sample of all 'Canis lupus familiaris' records, every wild 'Canis lupus' record, and every record of the other wild canid species), with CYTB and COX1 coding sequences extracted and compared by ungapped p-distance: at least 3 dog sequences AND at least 2 % of sampled dog sequences have their nearest non-dog sequence in a species other than Canis lupus. That outcome supports a multi-species origin.", "disconfirming_observation": "Zero dog sequences are nearer to a non-wolf species than to wild wolves: refutes (every maternal lineage sampled is wolf-derived). One or two such sequences (consistent with mislabelled hybrids) or the per-cent threshold unmet: mixed. If fewer than 100 dog sequences or fewer than 20 wild wolf sequences can be retrieved and parsed: inconclusive (underpowered).", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: genbank-canid-mitogenomes", "inference_method": "analysis.py runs eight esearch queries (complete mitochondrial genomes of dog, wild wolf, coyote, golden jackal, African wolf, Ethiopian wolf, dhole, African wild dog), takes every third dog UID (453 of 1,357) and all UIDs for the other groups, efetches GenBank flat files, extracts the CYTB and COX1 CDS from the feature table (IUPAC codes kept as N so coordinates are preserved), keeps records with the modal gene lengths (1,140 + 1,545 bp), and computes pairwise ungapped p-distances over the 2,685 bp concatenation. For each dog it records the distance to the nearest wild wolf and to the nearest sequence of each other species; the measured value is the number of dogs whose nearest non-dog sequence is not Canis lupus.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": { "verdict": "faithful-with-narrower-scope", "assessors": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "verdict": "faithful-with-narrower-scope", "confidence": 0.96, "file": "test-data/claim-tests/darwin-origin/darwin1859-ch01-09/faithfulness.json" } ], "status": "agreed" } }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.86, "truth": 0.075, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.09 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.06 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.895, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA4HYkXEfFBzmXM4_7JD3FdEJIoiGDG-pVircknJmXOIY", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch01-10", "key": "129a14f81bd1b9e5", "label": "All domestic pigeon breeds descend from the rock-pigeon", "statement": "All domestic pigeon breeds, however different, have descended from the rock-pigeon (Columba livia) and its geographical sub-species, not from several aboriginal wild stocks.", "quote": "I can feel no doubt that all our domestic breeds have descended from the Columba livia with its geographical sub-species.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. I: Variation under Domestication", "kind": "historical-inference", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "supports", "evidence_kind": "biological", "data_test": { "verdict": "supports", "confidence": 0.75, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "biological", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/darwin-origin/darwin1859-ch01-10/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Using GenBank mitochondrial records of Columba livia and of all other Columba species, aligned by best ungapped offset to the COI and CYTB genes of the C. livia reference mitogenome NC_013978: every domestic-labelled sequence (organism 'Columba livia domestica', a /breed qualifier, or a breed name in the record) has its nearest non-domestic sequence in C. livia (or in a wild C. livia subspecies), and the maximum p-distance from any domestic sequence to the nearest C. livia sequence is < 2 %. Requires >= 10 domestic-labelled sequences from >= 5 named breeds or 'domestica' records; otherwise inconclusive (underpowered).", "disconfirming_observation": "At least 2 domestic sequences from at least 2 different breeds (or records) are nearer to another Columba species (C. rupestris, C. oenas, C. palumbus, C. guinea, C. leuconota, C. hodgsonii, etc.) than to any C. livia sequence, or exceed 2 % from all C. livia sequences while being within 2 % of another species: refutes (a second wild stock contributes maternal ancestry). Exactly one such sequence: mixed.", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: genbank-columba-mitochondrial-records", "inference_method": "analysis.py fetches every GenBank mitochondrial record of Columba livia and of all other Columba species, extracts COI and CYTB from the C. livia reference NC_013978.1, and places each record on those genes by best ungapped k-mer-anchored offset (>= 400 bp overlap, >= 80 % identity; complete mitogenomes contribute their annotated genes). Records are domestic if the organism is 'domestica', a /breed qualifier or 'breed:' note is present, or a breed name occurs in the record; breed names are parsed from those fields. For each domestic record and gene, p-distances over >= 300 shared positions give the nearest non-domestic C. livia record and the nearest record of each other Columba species ('Columba sp.' excluded as unidentified). The measured value is the number of domestic records nearer to another species than to C. livia.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.86, "truth": 0.975, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.98 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.97 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.89, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAXYwUX54HNK8X2LuBc72dI82hXZEoGoqLLuHXCASjRps", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch01-11", "key": "20264d59c3d4a2c6", "label": "Domestic breeds arise mainly by man's accumulation of successive variations", "statement": "Domestic breeds were not produced suddenly in their present useful form; their key cause is man's accumulative selection, nature supplying successive variations and man adding them up in directions useful to him.", "quote": "The key is man’s power of accumulative selection: nature gives successive variations; man adds them up in certain directions useful to him.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. I: Variation under Domestication", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.567, "truth": 0.895, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.95 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.84 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.67, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAL1HmsTLvWT_Pyguz3rv8opHWrkdSQk-PPWxz-jXWKEc", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch01-12", "key": "78f63c69c12dc35f", "label": "Races differ most in the parts man selects", "statement": "Continued selection of slight variations in one part valued by man, such as leaves, flowers or fruit, produces races that differ from each other chiefly in that part, while other parts differ only slightly.", "quote": "as a general rule, I cannot doubt that the continued selection of slight variations, either in the leaves, the flowers, or the fruit, will produce races differing from each other chiefly in these characters.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. I: Variation under Domestication", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.669, "truth": 0.865, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.91 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.82 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.73, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA_dmEmkszeJlsx4za4y7bZvKP0_aGL480_ovHDVgfZR4", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch01-13", "key": "fc4aca2ed4aa4570", "label": "Unconscious selection over centuries modifies any breed", "statement": "Unconscious selection, in which people simply breed from their best animals without aiming to change the breed, would over centuries improve and modify any breed, as methodical breeders have done within their lifetimes.", "quote": "Nevertheless I cannot doubt that this process, continued during centuries, would improve and modify any breed, in the same way as Bakewell, Collins, etc., by this very same process, only carried on more methodically, did greatly modify, even during their own lifetimes, the forms and qualities of their cattle.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. I: Variation under Domestication", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.469, "truth": 0.795, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.76 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.83 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.61, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAXPM-M2uZ_33CDMlaCQSW6hZJRcCizrH8DrdLwQAtSQo", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch01-14", "key": "7af825814e23e190", "label": "Slow accumulated change hides the wild parents of old cultivated plants", "statement": "Because a large amount of change has been slowly and unconsciously accumulated in long-cultivated plants, in many cases their wild parent-stocks can no longer be recognised.", "quote": "A large amount of change in our cultivated plants, thus slowly and unconsciously accumulated, explains, as I believe, the well-known fact, that in a vast number of cases we cannot recognise, and therefore do not know, the wild parent-stocks of the plants which have been longest cultivated in our flower and kitchen gardens.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. I: Variation under Domestication", "kind": "historical-inference", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.649, "truth": 0.76, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.72 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.8 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.715, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAjxcsHI4xV-XdCkNUpUCRJD2FFWCTcd8vAo_5eniLO1g", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch01-15", "key": "e39b4797f40060b0", "label": "Domestic races differ greatly externally but little internally", "statement": "Because man can select mainly on externally visible deviations, domestic races differ greatly in external characters and relatively slightly in internal parts or organs.", "quote": "We can, I think, further understand the frequently abnormal character of our domestic races, and likewise their differences being so great in external characters and relatively so slight in internal parts or organs.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. I: Variation under Domestication", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.541, "truth": 0.535, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.71 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.36 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.655, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA8kOWQP1sB9kohLleJ6N8lw5Vq-JJGWVzogx1B7rLFeE", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch01-16", "key": "a9202dfb191dc2c3", "label": "Keeping large numbers of individuals favours successful selection", "statement": "Because useful variations appear only occasionally, keeping a large number of individuals greatly increases the chance of useful variations appearing and is of the highest importance to success in selection.", "quote": "But as variations manifestly useful or pleasing to man appear only occasionally, the chance of their appearance will be much increased by a large number of individuals being kept; and hence this comes to be of the highest importance to success.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. I: Variation under Domestication", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "proved", "proof": "lean", "verification": "lean", "math": true, "theorem": true, "notation": "P(\\text{some favourable variation among } N) = 1 - (1-p)^N,\\ \\text{strictly increasing in } N,\\ \\to 1", "lean_theorems": [ "DarwinLaws.Struggle.probAnyFavourable_strictMono", "DarwinLaws.Struggle.probAnyFavourable_tendsto_one" ], "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.589, "truth": 0.95, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.97 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.93 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.705, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA3EDjXIu7XxBop8RsS1rGq0_ClP69dSYHEjZ-VJBIpNo", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch01-17", "key": "1bf24edd4902fdfe", "label": "Accumulative selection is the predominant cause of change in domestic races", "statement": "Among the causes of change in domestic races, including conditions of life, use and disuse, correlation and crossing, the accumulative action of selection, whether methodical or unconscious, is by far the predominant power.", "quote": "Over all these causes of Change I am convinced that the accumulative action of Selection, whether applied methodically and more quickly, or unconsciously and more slowly, but more efficiently, is by far the predominant Power.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. I: Variation under Domestication", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.481, "truth": 0.835, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.89 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.78 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.61, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAGG5Y2WGfHtfOj6nZhD18twOU3GNco-Q2EpYx_kavHcg", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch02-01", "key": "0a0354c73a018ba3", "label": "Individual differences supply the material for natural selection", "statement": "The slight individual differences among members of a species provide the materials that natural selection accumulates, in the same way that man accumulates individual differences in domestic productions.", "quote": "These individual differences are highly important for us, as they afford materials for natural selection to accumulate, in the same manner as man can accumulate in any given direction individual differences in his domesticated productions.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. II: Variation under Nature", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.623, "truth": 0.97, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.98 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.96 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.715, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAxqrOP81CxREpPqq0OWNhS5JYqCgMgBhYIUTdfhUrVS0", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch02-02", "key": "90cdcb103b67a41d", "label": "Polymorphic genera vary in traits of no use, unfixed by selection", "statement": "In polymorphic genera such as Rubus, Rosa and Hieracium, the inordinate variation concerns structures that are of no service or disservice to the species and so have not been seized on and made definite by natural selection.", "quote": "I am inclined to suspect that we see in these polymorphic genera variations in points of structure which are of no service or disservice to the species, and which consequently have not been seized on and rendered definite by natural selection", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. II: Variation under Nature", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.456, "truth": 0.35, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.38 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.32 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.59, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAEq6kz99tWYuENZtuzJhyZxDUIgVGqgpy-j8pu5Rs9io", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch02-03", "key": "024aae526effea89", "label": "Doubtful forms of mobile animals are rare within a country but common between areas", "statement": "Among highly locomotive animals that unite for each birth, doubtful forms ranked as species by some and varieties by others are rarely found within the same country but are common in separated areas.", "quote": "Amongst animals which unite for each birth, and which are highly locomotive, doubtful forms, ranked by one zoologist as a species and by another as a variety, can rarely be found within the same country, but are common in separated areas.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. II: Variation under Nature", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.663, "truth": 0.725, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.69 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.76 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.715, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RACqlQHUNco5mVimmLFbNcjCGBH82d8AAMHAiDB4eq6R4", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch02-04", "key": "1eedc11c17530d11", "label": "No clear line separates species, sub-species, varieties and individual differences", "statement": "No clear line of demarcation exists between species and sub-species, between sub-species and well-marked varieties, or between lesser varieties and individual differences; they blend into one another in an insensible series.", "quote": "Certainly no clear line of demarcation has as yet been drawn between species and sub-species—that is, the forms which in the opinion of some naturalists come very near to, but do not quite arrive at the rank of species; or, again, between sub-species and well-marked varieties, or between lesser varieties and individual differences.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. II: Variation under Nature", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.717, "truth": 0.835, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.94 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.73 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.77, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAocgPE82Y3ZDouys2Uv9tCVSYthiWKrcERwQ5_p74-_s", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch02-05", "key": "d0c5223823c5fec5", "label": "Natural selection turns slight varieties into more distinct ones and species", "statement": "Individual differences lead to slight varieties, these to more distinct and permanent varieties, then to sub-species and species, the passage being mainly due to natural selection accumulating structural differences in definite directions, so that a well-marked variety is an incipient species.", "quote": "I attribute the passage of a variety, from a state in which it differs very slightly from its parent to one in which it differs more, to the action of natural selection in accumulating (as will hereafter be more fully explained) differences of structure in certain definite directions.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. II: Variation under Nature", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.552, "truth": 0.605, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.73 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.48 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.65, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA2FDjKrXbVMM897vZPLqH-kuAFG11Dj-J8YsD9wOa8g0", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch02-06", "key": "c00c6d8a09a5bc92", "label": "The term species is arbitrary and not essentially different from variety", "statement": "The term species is given arbitrarily, for convenience, to a set of closely resembling individuals and does not differ essentially from the term variety, which is given to less distinct and more fluctuating forms.", "quote": "I look at the term species, as one arbitrarily given for the sake of convenience to a set of individuals closely resembling each other, and that it does not essentially differ from the term variety, which is given to less distinct and more fluctuating forms.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. II: Variation under Nature", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.403, "truth": 0.53, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.72 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.34 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.7, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAjK-xza7XnprNwD1FHDQHm_cgU3Fo1Aob-HE60K-GK8M", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch02-07", "key": "0e58a6d497709e55", "label": "Dominant species, widespread and abundant, produce the most varieties", "statement": "The dominant species, those that range widely over the world, are most diffused in their own country and are most numerous in individuals, most often produce well-marked varieties.", "quote": "Hence it is the most flourishing, or, as they may be called, the dominant species,—those which range widely over the world, are the most diffused in their own country, and are the most numerous in individuals,—which oftenest produce well-marked varieties, or, as I consider them, incipient species.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. II: Variation under Nature", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.698, "truth": 0.665, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.66 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.67 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.745, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RArV7CMiyALJXvL5X0y5Dn0lbpLLJ-M-ZEOgqY0pPE0mI", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch02-08", "key": "473d7fe55ccdf6d8", "label": "Species of larger genera more often present varieties", "statement": "Within a country, a larger proportion of the species in larger genera present varieties than of the species in smaller genera, and those that vary have on average more varieties.", "quote": "it has invariably proved to be the case that a larger proportion of the species on the side of the larger genera present varieties, than on the side of the smaller genera.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. II: Variation under Nature", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.735, "truth": 0.615, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.68 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.55 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.775, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAvhv2WnPl13D-WuWXBJ1uVHv9s7VqJAUkN7UTtmgOsX0", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch02-09", "key": "012e138c6b7180c3", "label": "Small genera often grow large while large genera peak, decline and vanish", "statement": "Over geological time small genera have often increased greatly in number of species, and large genera have often reached a maximum, declined and disappeared.", "quote": "geology plainly tells us that small genera have in the lapse of time often increased greatly in size; and that large genera have often come to their maxima, declined, and disappeared.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. II: Variation under Nature", "kind": "historical-inference", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.749, "truth": 0.865, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.96 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.77 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.79, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAQKXOKReqvGodeo9elx0pOfgjsSrZDaNyBZYNWguDecg", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch02-10", "key": "c5043d826d8e5605", "label": "Where many species of a genus have formed, many are still forming", "statement": "On the view that species are strongly marked varieties, where many species of a genus have been formed, on average many new species should still be forming.", "quote": "All that we want to show is, that where many species of a genus have been formed, on an average many are still forming; and this holds good.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. II: Variation under Nature", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.621, "truth": 0.535, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.55 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.52 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.665, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RARGyHJbeDUb_2_udnn30kOojDkDPGwziSSPvVg9CNMQo", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch02-11", "key": "8be571a320206c20", "label": "Species in large genera differ from one another by small amounts", "statement": "In large genera the amount of difference between species is often exceedingly small, so that their species resemble varieties more than do species of small genera.", "quote": "Now Fries has remarked in regard to plants, and Westwood in regard to insects, that in large genera the amount of difference between the species is often exceedingly small. I have endeavoured to test this numerically by averages, and, as far as my imperfect results go, they always confirm the view.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. II: Variation under Nature", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.739, "truth": 0.605, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.65 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.56 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.77, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RActHg5xCi8P5eLmgX8OnRjsfIbi2D7j0gzRR3TadJc1k", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch02-12", "key": "7e90b6bdbe74e410", "label": "Species of large genera cluster unequally around certain species", "statement": "Species of large genera are not equally distinct from one another but are clustered in little groups around certain other species, as varieties are clustered around their parent species.", "quote": "As Fries has well remarked, little groups of species are generally clustered like satellites around certain other species.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. II: Variation under Nature", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.68, "truth": 0.825, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.82 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.83 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.715, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAmPibehkwZhZupy3rz0mi9_k2E5jWhMpjnQcvmEqlIFM", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch02-13", "key": "5dc603cb24656794", "label": "Species very closely allied to others have restricted ranges, like varieties", "statement": "Species that are very closely allied to other species, and so resemble varieties, often have much restricted ranges, similar to the restricted ranges of acknowledged varieties.", "quote": "But there is also reason to believe, that those species which are very closely allied to other species, and in so far resemble varieties, often have much restricted ranges.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. II: Variation under Nature", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "mixed", "evidence_kind": "biological", "data_test": { "verdict": "mixed", "confidence": 0.65, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "biological", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/darwin-origin/darwin1859-ch02-13/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Within genera, species with shorter terminal branches (closer nearest relatives) occupy fewer native regions.", "disconfirming_observation": "Within genera, range size is unrelated to or larger for species with the closest relatives.", "admissible_datasets": "A dated phylogeny of a broad plant clade built from sequence data (not from range data) and an independent expert-curated native-range checklist; open access; genera adequately sampled in the tree.", "inference_method": "Within-genus Spearman correlation between terminal branch length and number of native level-3 regions, combined across genera by weighted Fisher z; thresholds rho >= 0.10 with p < 0.01 and positive in most genera for support, rho <= 0 for refutation.", "explicit": true }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.77, "truth": 0.645, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.61 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.68 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.795, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAUbPOjCA8ynKH050vQuhGFm9qkuB5uKMmR07MynyUCbs", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch02-14", "key": "6a58c031d1b82023", "label": "Analogies between species of large genera and varieties support descent", "statement": "The analogies between species of large genera and varieties (more varieties, small and unequal differences, restricted ranges) are understandable if species once existed as varieties, and inexplicable if each species was independently created.", "quote": "And we can clearly understand these analogies, if species have once existed as varieties, and have thus originated: whereas, these analogies are utterly inexplicable if each species has been independently created.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. II: Variation under Nature", "kind": "historical-inference", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.588, "truth": 0.905, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.95 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.86 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.63, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAt9LOyzRS0KeHo9fLXqKLZxeqeNNzgnDDWeyuZCdsQV4", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch02-15", "key": "75374004eed49611", "label": "Larger genera tend to grow larger and dominant forms more dominant", "statement": "Because the dominant species of larger genera vary most and varieties become new species, larger genera tend to become larger, and dominant forms tend to become more dominant by leaving many modified, dominant descendants.", "quote": "The larger genera thus tend to become larger; and throughout nature the forms of life which are now dominant tend to become still more dominant by leaving many modified and dominant descendants.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. II: Variation under Nature", "kind": "prediction", "status": "proved", "proof": "lean", "verification": "lean", "math": true, "theorem": true, "notation": "\\mathbb{E}[n(t)] = n_0 e^{\\lambda t};\\ \\mathbb{E}[n(t)] - n_0 = n_0(e^{\\lambda t} - 1);\\ \\frac{\\mathbb{E}[n_1(t)]}{\\mathbb{E}[n_2(t)]} = \\frac{n_1}{n_2};\\quad n_1 > n_2,\\ \\lambda > 0 \\Rightarrow (n_1 - n_2)e^{\\lambda t} \\text{ strictly increasing in } t", "lean_theorems": [ "DarwinLaws.Tree.expectedGain_proportional", "DarwinLaws.Tree.expectedGenusSize_ratio", "DarwinLaws.Tree.expectedGenusSize_gap_strictMono" ], "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.623, "truth": 0.405, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.44 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.37 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.67, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAzPEDyzLCma_5ztIL2MZXQS2y7R0cubXbKYt8mE_WuMs", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch03-01", "key": "38a0eb28a9bdbca4", "label": "Overproduction makes a struggle for existence inevitable", "statement": "Because all organisms tend to increase at a high (geometrical) rate, more individuals are produced than can survive, so every species must undergo a struggle for existence with members of its own species, with other species, or with physical conditions.", "quote": "A struggle for existence inevitably follows from the high rate at which all organic beings tend to increase.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. III: Struggle for Existence", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "proved", "proof": "lean", "verification": "lean", "math": true, "theorem": true, "notation": "N_t = N_0 r^t,\\ r > 1:\\ \\forall K\\ \\exists t\\ N_t > K;\\quad \\sup_t N_0 r^t \\prod_{i 1,\\ t \\ge \\frac{\\log(M/N_0)}{\\log \\lambda} \\Rightarrow N_0 \\lambda^t \\ge M", "lean_theorems": [ "DarwinLaws.Struggle.growthMultiplier_lt_of_survival_lt", "DarwinLaws.Struggle.geometricPopulation_reaches_in_log_time" ], "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.649, "truth": 0.845, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.85 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.84 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.715, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAel35kU_UAGgrdfJn19hDVJo4Zoo9VVyAxMI-uVV1VGw", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch03-03", "key": "c381e00d9d44afa0", "label": "Average abundance depends only indirectly on fecundity", "statement": "The average number of individuals of an animal or plant species depends only indirectly on how many eggs or seeds it produces; high fecundity mainly compensates for heavy destruction, usually early in life.", "quote": "So that in all cases, the average number of any animal or plant depends only indirectly on the number of its eggs or seeds.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. III: Struggle for Existence", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "proved", "proof": "lean", "verification": "lean", "math": true, "theorem": true, "notation": "r s N = N,\\ N \\ne 0 \\Rightarrow s = 1/r", "lean_theorems": [ "DarwinLaws.Struggle.stationary_survival_eq" ], "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.662, "truth": 0.835, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.89 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.78 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.735, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAgdaWnMXYRaAqY3jgIaIZevG1c-6joRX2ylenHb71xr0", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch03-04", "key": "a5020eb0ef882f5c", "label": "Predation, more often than food supply, sets average numbers", "statement": "Although food sets the upper limit to a species' increase, very often it is destruction by predators rather than food supply that determines the species' average numbers.", "quote": "The amount of food for each species of course gives the extreme limit to which each can increase; but very frequently it is not the obtaining food, but the serving as prey to other animals, which determines the average numbers of a species.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. III: Struggle for Existence", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.519, "truth": 0.57, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.59 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.55 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.65, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAb7UiMeYv5aoFcR1d01w_02OIlnrrMByQ4mJQIHfIAwI", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch03-05", "key": "56f39803a745cf8e", "label": "Periodic extreme cold or drought is the most effective check", "statement": "Climate plays an important part in determining the average numbers of a species, and periodic seasons of extreme cold or drought are the most effective of all checks on increase.", "quote": "Climate plays an important part in determining the average numbers of a species, and periodical seasons of extreme cold or drought, I believe to be the most effective of all checks.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. III: Struggle for Existence", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.582, "truth": 0.38, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.42 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.34 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.675, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RANsLB5eFlfK8nPKf_Dob14LAwFmUii8PQoUOjx3rQULs", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch03-06", "key": "5a9fd9fedc74783f", "label": "Competitors decline poleward, so climate acts more directly there", "statement": "The number of species, and therefore of competitors, decreases going northward, so that going north or up a mountain one more often finds stunted forms caused by the direct harmful action of climate than going south or downhill.", "quote": "for the number of species of all kinds, and therefore of competitors, decreases northwards; hence in going northward, or in ascending a mountain, we far oftener meet with stunted forms, due to the _directly_ injurious action of climate, than we do in proceeding southwards or in descending a mountain.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. III: Struggle for Existence", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.671, "truth": 0.685, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.63 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.74 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.71, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAclYDIaH1mK4WsVhX7hRbF9wL6e1nuH06jYETtH9OnkE", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch03-07", "key": "c0866dff16a14491", "label": "Climate limits species mainly indirectly, by favouring competitors", "statement": "Climate limits species mainly indirectly, by favouring their competitors and enemies; for example, many garden plants that tolerate the local climate never become naturalised because they cannot compete with native plants or resist native animals.", "quote": "That climate acts in main part indirectly by favouring other species, we may clearly see in the prodigious number of plants in our gardens which can perfectly well endure our climate, but which never become naturalised, for they cannot compete with our native plants, nor resist destruction by our native animals.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. III: Struggle for Existence", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.573, "truth": 0.535, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.55 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.52 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.67, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAIkY1Po-SDPNlDSQH4fqRMGLujdLQZSqvHmLZX-pXuN8", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch03-08", "key": "cf9edfce7969b081", "label": "Many species need a large local stock to persist", "statement": "In many cases a large number of individuals of a species, relative to the number of its enemies, is necessary for the species to survive, which explains why rare plants can be very abundant in the few spots where they occur.", "quote": "On the other hand, in many cases, a large stock of individuals of the same species, relatively to the numbers of its enemies, is absolutely necessary for its preservation.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. III: Struggle for Existence", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.528, "truth": 0.66, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.57 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.75 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.635, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAxcCgT3QOZCoQIAjgMHO4ec3E2gVXDb6OTWLHEKy6VF8", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch03-09", "key": "caeb4ee9e8cbd0ba", "label": "Balanced struggles keep communities uniform over long periods", "statement": "Although competition between organisms constantly recurs with shifting outcomes, the opposing forces are so finely balanced that community composition stays roughly the same for long periods, even though a trifling change could tip the balance toward one organism.", "quote": "Battle within battle must ever be recurring with varying success; and yet in the long-run the forces are so nicely balanced, that the face of nature remains uniform for long periods of time, though assuredly the merest trifle would often give the victory to one organic being over another.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. III: Struggle for Existence", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.567, "truth": 0.67, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.68 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.66 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.605, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAhesOtXo82yf37rRA13fvIb81U_oCsRZVcFg0EcPt7Fk", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch03-10", "key": "8d6a007f9a3cf704", "label": "Chains of interaction link distant species' abundances", "statement": "Very different organisms are linked by chains of interaction, so that the abundance of one species can determine the frequency of another through intermediate species; for example, cats may control the frequency of red clover and heartsease by way of field-mice and humble-bees.", "quote": "Hence it is quite credible that the presence of a feline animal in large numbers in a district might determine, through the intervention first of mice and then of bees, the frequency of certain flowers in that district!", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. III: Struggle for Existence", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.592, "truth": 0.905, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.94 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.87 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.695, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAssWrQRiIU-EYV4rob41boeUaThb9wuEjiwdZ9bqGgQY", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch03-11", "key": "eec77a87ada4d53c", "label": "Struggle is most severe between members of the same species", "statement": "The struggle for existence is almost always most severe between individuals of the same species, because they live in the same places, need the same food and face the same dangers; between varieties of a species it is nearly as severe.", "quote": "But the struggle almost invariably will be most severe between the individuals of the same species, for they frequent the same districts, require the same food, and are exposed to the same dangers.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. III: Struggle for Existence", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "proved", "proof": "lean", "verification": "lean", "math": true, "theorem": true, "notation": "\\alpha(u,v) = \\frac{\\sum_i u_i v_i}{\\sqrt{\\sum_i u_i^2}\\sqrt{\\sum_i v_i^2}};\\quad \\alpha(u,u) = 1,\\ \\alpha(u,v) \\le \\alpha(u,u)", "lean_theorems": [ "DarwinLaws.Islands.nicheOverlap_self", "DarwinLaws.Islands.nicheOverlap_le_self" ], "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.561, "truth": 0.73, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.72 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.74 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.68, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAO1QsnBIDdyqivifFY4c46GBzeCoLP46VIEoA_9y_vYY", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch03-12", "key": "5b208c3f929cda4c", "label": "Congeners compete more severely than species of different genera", "statement": "Because species of the same genus are usually similar in habits and constitution and always in structure, competition between them is generally more severe than between species of different genera.", "quote": "As species of the same genus have usually, though by no means invariably, some similarity in habits and constitution, and always in structure, the struggle will generally be more severe between species of the same genus, when they come into competition with each other, than between species of distinct genera.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. III: Struggle for Existence", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.637, "truth": 0.64, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.74 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.54 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.725, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA_KHUY-hwx8f_Texfk8wvPI054vnKkOY_cTbzza9pfeU", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch03-13", "key": "1a015c3eb18cd41f", "label": "Each organism's structure is shaped by its relations to other organisms", "statement": "The structure of every organism is related, in essential but often hidden ways, to the structure of the other organisms with which it competes, from which it must escape, or on which it preys.", "quote": "A corollary of the highest importance may be deduced from the foregoing remarks, namely, that the structure of every organic being is related, in the most essential yet often hidden manner, to that of all other organic beings, with which it comes into competition for food or residence, or from which it has to escape, or on which it preys.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. III: Struggle for Existence", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.476, "truth": 0.745, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.91 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.58 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.59, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAmFVYBo1jFi7xu7gtm35srzgULmbPAqWoHtkefiNnfY4", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch03-14", "key": "f356f3ea1aaba0fb", "label": "Few species reach range edges where climate alone kills them", "statement": "Only a few plants or animals extend their ranges so far that they are destroyed by the severity of climate alone; competition continues everywhere except at the extreme limits of life.", "quote": "we have reason to believe that only a few plants or animals range so far, that they are destroyed by the rigour of the climate alone.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. III: Struggle for Existence", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.591, "truth": 0.315, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.31 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.32 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.71, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAg_XR9FlXtiy-PqIvu0OIS-2cUQBdqIVA_eDVd52KUhA", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch04-01", "key": "c9f08cb573739c98", "label": "Natural selection preserves favourable and destroys injurious variations", "statement": "Because more individuals are born than can survive, individuals with any advantage, however slight, have the best chance of surviving and reproducing, while injurious variations are eliminated; this preservation of favourable and rejection of injurious variations is natural selection.", "quote": "This preservation of favourable variations and the rejection of injurious variations, I call Natural Selection.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. IV: Natural Selection", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "proved", "proof": "lean", "verification": "lean", "math": true, "theorem": true, "notation": "p' = \\frac{p w_A}{p w_A + (1-p) w_B};\\ w_A > w_B \\Rightarrow p' > p;\\ w_A < w_B \\Rightarrow p' < p;\\quad p_t = \\frac{p_0 w_A^t}{p_0 w_A^t + (1-p_0) w_B^t} \\to 1\\ (w_A > w_B)", "lean_theorems": [ "DarwinLaws.Struggle.selectedFrequency_gt", "DarwinLaws.Struggle.selectedFrequency_lt", "DarwinLaws.Struggle.selectedTrajectory_succ", "DarwinLaws.Struggle.selectedTrajectory_tendsto_one" ], "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.611, "truth": 0.925, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.91 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.94 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.7, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAMwBQq6qjysp45BbYYpdzKy7ASSKW3SAiT0RwCscBnFk", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch04-02", "key": "9e33c36867809ca0", "label": "Neutral variations escape selection and remain fluctuating", "statement": "Variations that are neither useful nor harmful are not acted on by natural selection and stay variable, which may explain the variability of so-called polymorphic species.", "quote": "Variations neither useful nor injurious would not be affected by natural selection, and would be left a fluctuating element, as perhaps we see in the species called polymorphic.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. IV: Natural Selection", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.598, "truth": 0.53, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.44 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.62 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.705, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAafCL6m1Yc2O0lBw7yPMB9702_wfnYad4BP7uN6mgpQ0", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch04-03", "key": "7e7bc7a94874eab6", "label": "No native biota is so well adapted that it cannot be improved", "statement": "No country's native inhabitants are so perfectly adapted that none could be improved, as shown by introduced species having established firmly in every country.", "quote": "No country can be named in which all the native inhabitants are now so perfectly adapted to each other and to the physical conditions under which they live, that none of them could anyhow be improved; for in all countries, the natives have been so far conquered by naturalised productions, that they have allowed foreigners to take firm possession of the land.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. IV: Natural Selection", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.658, "truth": 0.865, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.87 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.86 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.74, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAlASQBUtBs_q4MOuXuW16mVqu2HjlkWhwyzkx-UWszOQ", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch04-04", "key": "bb16f4e0324c7c21", "label": "Protective colours matching backgrounds are maintained by selection", "statement": "Seemingly trivial characters such as colour can be shaped by natural selection; colours that match the background, as in green leaf-eating insects and heather-coloured grouse, protect their bearers from predators that hunt by sight.", "quote": "When we see leaf-eating insects green, and bark-feeders mottled-grey; the alpine ptarmigan white in winter, the red-grouse the colour of heather, and the black-grouse that of peaty earth, we must believe that these tints are of service to these birds and insects in preserving them from danger.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. IV: Natural Selection", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.626, "truth": 0.97, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.98 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.96 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.75, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAREn44toNsipuH-0x4F7qqCCKGimFAgRtTxqxSymDZ94", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch04-05", "key": "a76158c8c675b2bf", "label": "Natural selection can modify organisms at any age", "statement": "Because variations arising at a particular life stage tend to be inherited at the same stage, natural selection can modify organisms at any age, for instance adapting larvae independently of adults.", "quote": "natural selection will be enabled to act on and modify organic beings at any age, by the accumulation of profitable variations at that age, and by their inheritance at a corresponding age.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. IV: Natural Selection", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.566, "truth": 0.905, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.96 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.85 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.675, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA2QXcwJCby_TYrACAWdXh3lMpeAtm_9v6a6Tn9RmwBok", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch04-06", "key": "bc94d9f05e1f5cc6", "label": "Males of polygamous species fight most and carry special weapons", "statement": "Fighting between males for females is perhaps most severe in polygamous animals, and the males of such species are the most often equipped with special weapons.", "quote": "The war is, perhaps, severest between the males of polygamous animals, and these seem oftenest provided with special weapons.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. IV: Natural Selection", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.621, "truth": 0.805, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.79 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.82 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.71, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAuMgAJGN6ELL8EBqqgdv09FwZ5nNyiJ3eh_gwevJhhe4", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch04-07", "key": "4ae79b1ac76d9149", "label": "Female choice over many generations can produce male ornaments", "statement": "Female birds, by choosing the most melodious or beautiful males over thousands of generations, can produce a marked change in male song or plumage.", "quote": "I can see no good reason to doubt that female birds, by selecting, during thousands of generations, the most melodious or beautiful males, according to their standard of beauty, might produce a marked effect.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. IV: Natural Selection", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.524, "truth": 0.94, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.96 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.92 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.665, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAY95YN_UauiKt6JJbZxuXtRqVhvvrP4xQ-aKkr--VG6c", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch04-08", "key": "8d872d8e106f5bf2", "label": "Sex differences in species with shared habits are mainly sexually selected", "statement": "When males and females of a species share the same general habits of life but differ in structure, colour or ornament, those differences were mainly caused by sexual selection, although not all such differences are.", "quote": "Thus it is, as I believe, that when the males and females of any animal have the same general habits of life, but differ in structure, colour, or ornament, such differences have been mainly caused by sexual selection", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. IV: Natural Selection", "kind": "historical-inference", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.566, "truth": 0.825, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.87 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.78 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.68, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RABB5OATXVhpc_li3vPSHMWqsncjuoLHqRlqP6ePs8pCY", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch04-09", "key": "15377fe41949a042", "label": "Flowers and their insect visitors become mutually adapted", "statement": "A flower and a bee can slowly become modified and adapted to each other, at the same time or one after the other, by the continued preservation of individuals with mutually favourable slight differences in structure.", "quote": "Thus I can understand how a flower and a bee might slowly become, either simultaneously or one after the other, modified and adapted in the most perfect manner to each other, by the continued preservation of individuals presenting mutual and slightly favourable deviations of structure.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. IV: Natural Selection", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.604, "truth": 0.935, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.98 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.89 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.7, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAyoijCb-oKrFuKIDWQnpXwyZd7IN7-Ta2zfClNgWeL0Y", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch04-10", "key": "8d9fb1da339815b0", "label": "Natural selection works only by accumulating very small modifications", "statement": "Natural selection acts only by preserving and accumulating very small inherited modifications, each profitable to its bearer, and so excludes continued creation of new organisms or large sudden changes of structure.", "quote": "Natural selection can act only by the preservation and accumulation of infinitesimally small inherited modifications, each profitable to the preserved being", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. IV: Natural Selection", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.621, "truth": 0.285, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.35 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.22 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.69, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAteIWTMmkG56mmB3wE9h57_g2IJDvWkunKGtWroCUSWo", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch04-11", "key": "bb3448a27cf1e31a", "label": "Crossing increases vigour; close interbreeding decreases it", "statement": "In animals and plants, crosses between different varieties or between different strains of the same variety give vigour and fertility to the offspring, while close interbreeding reduces vigour and fertility.", "quote": "a cross between different varieties, or between individuals of the same variety but of another strain, gives vigour and fertility to the offspring; and on the other hand, that _close_ interbreeding diminishes vigour and fertility", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. IV: Natural Selection", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.7, "truth": 0.895, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.91 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.88 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.775, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA1Uiis0IcFgyPdexn62YiQzVNnRGfcgRyJcLg5HAdhQA", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch04-12", "key": "ac0d17b51abf9c77", "label": "No organism self-fertilises indefinitely; occasional crosses are needed", "statement": "It is a general law of nature that no organism fertilises itself for an unlimited number of generations; an occasional cross with another individual, perhaps at long intervals, is indispensable, even in hermaphrodites.", "quote": "it is a general law of nature (utterly ignorant though we be of the meaning of the law) that no organic being self-fertilises itself for an eternity of generations; but that a cross with another individual is occasionally—perhaps at very long intervals—indispensable.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. IV: Natural Selection", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.651, "truth": 0.19, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.08 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.3 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.74, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAIb6Z9iB_6f6QLvyGC8goNKv-7U1DjSM98I1CwHB2lFA", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch04-13", "key": "c42bb36c8ca77c09", "label": "Trees more often have separate sexes than other plants", "statement": "Trees, across all plant orders, have separate male and female flowers more often than other plants do, which helps pollen move between trees (though Hooker reported the rule fails in Australia).", "quote": "That trees belonging to all Orders have their sexes more often separated than other plants, I find to be the case in this country", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. IV: Natural Selection", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "supports", "evidence_kind": "biological", "data_test": { "verdict": "supports", "confidence": 0.7, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "biological", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/darwin-origin/darwin1859-ch04-13/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered. Using the GIFT database public API, join the sexual-system trait (3.4.1: dioecious / monoecious / bisexual) to the growth-form trait (1.2.1: tree / shrub / herb / other) for angiosperm species (Angiospermae in the GIFT taxonomy), keeping species whose growth-form value is a single category. 'Separate sexes' = dioecious or monoecious. The claim is SUPPORTED if (i) the odds ratio of separate sexes in trees versus herbs is >= 1.5 with two-sided Fisher exact p < 0.01, and (ii) among orders with at least 10 trees and at least 10 herbs in the joined data, the proportion of species with separate sexes is higher in trees than in herbs in at least two-thirds of orders.", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered. The claim is REFUTED if the odds ratio is <= 1.0 or p >= 0.05, or if trees exceed herbs in fewer than half of the qualifying orders. Other outcomes are 'mixed'. Supplementary: the same odds ratio for trees vs shrubs, for dioecy alone, and the proportion of separate-sexed species in each growth form.", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: gift-api-traits, gift-api-taxonomy", "inference_method": "GIFT trait 3.4.1 (sexual system; 2,977 species) was joined to trait 1.2.1 (growth form; 222,598 species, 23 API pages) by work_ID, species were assigned to orders and to Angiospermae through the GIFT nested-set taxonomy, and 1,865 angiosperm species with a single growth-form value (146 trees, 242 shrubs, 1,477 herbs) were analysed. Separate sexes (dioecious or monoecious) in trees vs herbs was tested with a Fisher exact test (odds ratio), with trees vs shrubs and dioecy-only as supplementary comparisons, and the direction of the difference checked within each order having >= 10 trees and >= 10 herbs.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.807, "truth": 0.785, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.73 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.84 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.82, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAppRJnlD8Bf2YOL2bfg_8RSiq6FcEpEh9fQP2oll1Gxk", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch04-14", "key": "7f0c75534dc4fac7", "label": "Large populations favour natural selection by supplying more variations", "statement": "A large number of individuals favours natural selection because it gives a better chance for profitable variations to arise within a given period, compensating for lower variability in each individual.", "quote": "A large number of individuals, by giving a better chance for the appearance within any given period of profitable variations, will compensate for a lesser amount of variability in each individual, and is, I believe, an extremely important element of success.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. IV: Natural Selection", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "proved", "proof": "lean", "verification": "lean", "math": true, "theorem": true, "notation": "P_N = 1 - (1-p)^N;\\ m < n \\Rightarrow P_m < P_n;\\ P_N \\to 1\\ (N \\to \\infty)", "lean_theorems": [ "DarwinLaws.Struggle.probAnyFavourable_strictMono", "DarwinLaws.Struggle.probAnyFavourable_tendsto_one" ], "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.599, "truth": 0.93, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.93 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.93 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.7, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA95P9yaoXCv4mfauy9K9fOnqgzxwn8AwRB6KDFFGqDYM", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch04-15", "key": "f1215a345954643d", "label": "Large areas produce more, faster-forming and wider-spreading new species", "statement": "Although small isolated areas can favour new species, modification is generally faster on large areas, and forms produced there, having beaten many competitors, spread most widely and give rise to the most new varieties and species.", "quote": "Finally, I conclude that, although small isolated areas probably have been in some respects highly favourable for the production of new species, yet that the course of modification will generally have been more rapid on large areas; and what is more important, that the new forms produced on large areas, which already have been victorious over many competitors, will be those that will spread most widely", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. IV: Natural Selection", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.625, "truth": 0.59, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.58 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.6 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.7, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAsucVZetizc_4Kh5nTxM-04988ib9eyuTeXMQ_ECjU4Q", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch04-16", "key": "70cd25162130cdf8", "label": "Freshwater biotas evolve and go extinct more slowly, keeping relict forms", "statement": "Because all freshwater basins together form a small area, competition among freshwater organisms has been less severe, so new forms have arisen more slowly and old forms have been exterminated more slowly there, which is why fresh water holds ancient and anomalous forms.", "quote": "All fresh-water basins, taken together, make a small area compared with that of the sea or of the land; and, consequently, the competition between fresh-water productions will have been less severe than elsewhere; new forms will have been more slowly formed, and old forms more slowly exterminated.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. IV: Natural Selection", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.621, "truth": 0.29, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.3 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.28 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.7, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA5UVq61MbCPbRRiZr4iiT6U6l7DcKJiMGkWXSIuFPORE", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch04-17", "key": "237e98cc4e21fa09", "label": "Natural selection acts slowly, intermittently and on few species at a time", "statement": "Natural selection always acts very slowly, often only at long intervals of time, and generally on only a very few of the inhabitants of a region at the same time.", "quote": "On the other hand, I do believe that natural selection will always act very slowly, often only at long intervals of time, and generally on only a very few of the inhabitants of the same region at the same time.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. IV: Natural Selection", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.515, "truth": 0.2, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.15 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.25 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.625, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA69BksvpCpGSbTWg82IHwXBTdtKaFr33BLcxwUrO1yfo", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch04-18", "key": "cd52af5d83121dca", "label": "Favoured forms make less favoured forms rare, and rarity precedes extinction", "statement": "Because every area is already fully stocked, as a favoured form increases in number the less favoured forms decrease and become rare, and rarity precedes extinction.", "quote": "it follows that as each selected and favoured form increases in number, so will the less favoured forms decrease and become rare. Rarity, as geology tells us, is the precursor to extinction.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. IV: Natural Selection", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "proved", "proof": "lean", "verification": "lean", "math": true, "theorem": true, "notation": "w_A < w_B \\Rightarrow p' < p,\\ p_t \\to 0\\ \\text{(less favoured)};\\quad N_t \\le N_{t+1} + 1,\\ N_a \\ge 1,\\ N_{a+d} = 0 \\Rightarrow \\exists t \\in [a, a+d],\\ N_t = 1", "lean_theorems": [ "DarwinLaws.Struggle.selectedFrequency_lt", "DarwinLaws.Struggle.selectedTrajectory_tendsto_one", "DarwinLaws.Succession.rarity_precedes_extinction" ], "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.702, "truth": 0.66, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.69 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.63 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.77, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAH13D0haONkWyeF0Wnodb9pqxhBJGh8j4V2aY2eCNtYE", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch04-19", "key": "3885d0989e982bf2", "label": "New forms press hardest on and tend to exterminate their nearest relatives", "statement": "Because the most closely related forms compete most severely, each new variety or species, while forming, presses hardest on its nearest relatives and tends to exterminate them.", "quote": "Consequently, each new variety or species, during the progress of its formation, will generally press hardest on its nearest kindred, and tend to exterminate them.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. IV: Natural Selection", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.601, "truth": 0.485, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.57 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.4 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.68, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA8RB5SctTy_he2ajlo04CkCjxB2hW7z2JnXzJUnlJ4Sc", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch04-20", "key": "0bb4afbc1565b136", "label": "Divergence of character maximises the life an area supports", "statement": "The greatest amount of life can be supported in an area by great diversification of structure among its inhabitants.", "quote": "The truth of the principle, that the greatest amount of life can be supported by great diversification of structure, is seen under many natural circumstances.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. IV: Natural Selection", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "proved", "proof": "lean", "verification": "lean", "math": true, "theorem": true, "notation": "L(U) = \\sum_{i \\in U} K_i,\\ K_i > 0;\\quad U \\subsetneq I \\Rightarrow L(U) < L(I);\\quad A \\subseteq B \\Rightarrow L(A) \\le L(B)", "lean_theorems": [ "DarwinLaws.Islands.supportedLife_mono", "DarwinLaws.Islands.supportedLife_lt_of_unused", "DarwinLaws.Islands.supportedLife_increases_with_new_niche" ], "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.665, "truth": 0.79, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.8 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.78 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.735, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAGfrClXvmUtiC21ChRy8Q0T5XS8ygajEWUg9AUVmLc8c", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch04-21", "key": "a9aac42c139e287d", "label": "The closest-competing neighbours tend to belong to different genera and orders", "statement": "Where organisms compete most closely, as on a small patch of ground, the advantages of diversification mean that the coexisting inhabitants generally belong to different genera and orders.", "quote": "where they come into the closest competition with each other, the advantages of diversification of structure, with the accompanying differences of habit and constitution, determine that the inhabitants, which thus jostle each other most closely, shall, as a general rule, belong to what we call different genera and orders.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. IV: Natural Selection", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.687, "truth": 0.56, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.67 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.45 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.74, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAo7QR2vsccOyCko74ccSW5RLbadMKmcceixpsY2UU1uk", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch04-22", "key": "15e3ccc46d0d9aa2", "label": "Naturalised floras add proportionally more new genera than new species", "statement": "Floras gain far more new genera than new species from naturalised plants, relative to the native numbers of genera and species, so naturalised plants tend to differ from the natives at the genus level.", "quote": "floras gain by naturalisation, proportionally with the number of the native genera and species, far more in new genera than in new species.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. IV: Natural Selection", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "supports", "evidence_kind": "biological", "data_test": { "verdict": "supports", "confidence": 0.55, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "biological", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/darwin-origin/darwin1859-ch04-22/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered. For every TDWG level-3 botanical country in the World Checklist of Vascular Plants with at least 100 native accepted species and at least 20 introduced accepted species, compute r_sp = (introduced species not native to the area) / (native species) and r_gen = (genera represented only by introduced species) / (genera with at least one native species). The claim is SUPPORTED if r_gen > r_sp in at least 80% of qualifying areas AND the median of r_gen / r_sp across areas is at least 1.25.", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered. The claim is REFUTED if r_gen > r_sp in 50% or fewer of qualifying areas, or if the median r_gen / r_sp is 1.0 or less. Intermediate outcomes are 'mixed'. As a secondary, non-decisive analysis, the observed number of new genera per area is compared with the expectation when the same number of species is drawn at random from the global pool of species not native to that area (200 draws per area), to show whether the excess is more than a taxonomic-rank artefact.", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: kew-wcvp", "inference_method": "WCVP v16 (zip of 2026-06-04) was downloaded; 358,113 accepted non-hybrid species were joined to the level-3 distribution table (location_doubtful rows excluded; a species both native and introduced to an area counted as native). For each of the 337 botanical countries with >= 100 native and >= 20 introduced species, r_sp = introduced/native species and r_gen = genera represented only by introduced species / genera with native species were computed, with the fraction of areas where r_gen > r_sp and the median r_gen/r_sp as the pre-registered statistics. A null expectation for new genera was obtained by 200 random draws per area of the same number of species from all species not native to that area.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.839, "truth": 0.57, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.56 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.58 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.84, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAa0Jk38pwWoWosz0OAxWfJxWHXrZEg-PtuO0xvdsS44Y", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch04-23", "key": "ecd73f76e2825902", "label": "Intermediate forms and parent species tend to go extinct", "statement": "In a fully stocked country, improved descendants of a species tend to supplant their predecessors, so the intermediate forms between earlier and later states, and the original parent species itself, generally tend to become extinct.", "quote": "Hence all the intermediate forms between the earlier and later states, that is between the less and more improved state of a species, as well as the original parent-species itself, will generally tend to become extinct.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. IV: Natural Selection", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.543, "truth": 0.505, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.57 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.44 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.645, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAPODm7EsA6X1aggz8S90MULDusC3VP_p9veSBgVlWvzg", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch04-24", "key": "1faba115ac5932d0", "label": "Extinct species are often intermediate between living groups", "statement": "Extinct species, though generally in the same orders, families or genera as living ones, are often somewhat intermediate in character between existing groups, because they lived when the branching lines of descent had diverged less.", "quote": "the diagram throws light on the affinities of extinct beings, which, though generally belonging to the same orders, or families, or genera, with those now living, yet are often, in some degree, intermediate in character between existing groups", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. IV: Natural Selection", "kind": "prediction", "status": "proved", "proof": "lean", "verification": "lean", "math": true, "theorem": true, "notation": "d(x,y) = d(x,a) + d(a,y),\\ a = \\mathrm{lca}(x,y),\\ d \\ge 0 \\Rightarrow d(x,a) \\le d(x,y) \\wedge d(a,y) \\le d(x,y)", "lean_theorems": [ "DarwinLaws.Tree.ancestor_between" ], "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.66, "truth": 0.825, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.93 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.72 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.725, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RACBzqsMXCnCMRXXqgOt5OS_4GExMT--MXZRbxjU62DrI", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch04-25", "key": "46e60c4998058641", "label": "Differences between varieties grow into differences between species and genera", "statement": "Through natural selection and divergence of character, the small differences between varieties of a species steadily increase until they equal the larger differences between species of the same genus, or even between genera.", "quote": "Thus the small differences distinguishing varieties of the same species, will steadily tend to increase till they come to equal the greater differences between species of the same genus, or even of distinct genera.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. IV: Natural Selection", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.51, "truth": 0.8, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.82 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.78 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.64, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAK9JIM4b_ptT67eHnxkhoDHCdOhBNIjF1A-NRp3hwQmk", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch04-26", "key": "aae7390060b105af", "label": "Very few species of past periods have living descendants", "statement": "Like a tree in which only a few early twigs grew into surviving branches, very few of the species that lived in long-past geological periods now have living modified descendants, and many whole orders, families and genera have died out entirely.", "quote": "Of the many twigs which flourished when the tree was a mere bush, only two or three, now grown into great branches, yet survive and bear all the other branches; so with the species which lived during long-past geological periods, very few now have living and modified descendants.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. IV: Natural Selection", "kind": "historical-inference", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.686, "truth": 0.955, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.96 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.95 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.72, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAtIVl1T4iFPWidCQIWgneogEQVRmH0ia0SH2d2IErz_Y", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch05-01", "key": "c30a2cb636bfa308", "label": "Variability is induced by changed conditions acting on the reproductive system", "statement": "Deviations of structure arise in some way from the conditions of life to which parents and their ancestors have been exposed over several generations, acting chiefly by disturbing the reproductive system; hence variability is greater under domestication or cultivation than in nature.", "quote": "But the much greater variability, as well as the greater frequency of monstrosities, under domestication or cultivation, than under nature, leads me to believe that deviations of structure are in some way due to the nature of the conditions of life, to which the parents and their more remote ancestors have been exposed during several generations.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. V: Laws of Variation", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.515, "truth": 0.18, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.18 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.18 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.665, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA0HOFkCGTGeXKwTNZRg1IuZuR8_eZZFhvUWfTRK_P2AM", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch05-02", "key": "6d1ae1bae2283b74", "label": "Direct effects of climate and food on organisms are small", "statement": "The direct effect of differences in climate, food and similar conditions on an organism's structure is very small in animals and perhaps somewhat larger in plants, and cannot account for the complex co-adaptations between organisms.", "quote": "How much direct effect difference of climate, food, etc., produces on any being is extremely doubtful. My impression is, that the effect is extremely small in the case of animals, but perhaps rather more in that of plants.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. V: Laws of Variation", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.531, "truth": 0.49, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.58 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.4 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.66, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAeuGQarh7cl87rJlItZGuuF3at_kWhPkMZKLglYmpenc", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch05-03", "key": "a1fe787d923ba2e4", "label": "Flightlessness of birds on predator-free oceanic islands is caused by disuse", "statement": "The nearly wingless condition of several birds living on oceanic islands that lack beasts of prey has been caused by disuse of the wings.", "quote": "I believe that the nearly wingless condition of several birds, which now inhabit or have lately inhabited several oceanic islands, tenanted by no beast of prey, has been caused by disuse.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. V: Laws of Variation", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.578, "truth": 0.095, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.12 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.07 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.705, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAG2PF-AE2-i7nFfUL6YvnHls71fuBxDWZHhkYoouTnas", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch05-04", "key": "8c14ebb5dd339b4b", "label": "Wingless Madeira beetles result mainly from selection against being blown to sea", "statement": "The high proportion of flightless beetles on windswept islands such as Madeira is mainly due to natural selection favouring individuals that fly least and so avoid being blown out to sea, probably combined with disuse.", "quote": "these several considerations have made me believe that the wingless condition of so many Madeira beetles is mainly due to the action of natural selection, but combined probably with disuse.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. V: Laws of Variation", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.559, "truth": 0.66, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.55 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.77 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.675, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAnyVWGXpN6c5CDolo0C96frmdoxyO80-nCoufkAcF6pk", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch05-05", "key": "9fee97ccd32644cb", "label": "Blindness in cave animals results from disuse", "statement": "Because useless eyes are unlikely to be harmful in total darkness, the loss of eyes in most cave-dwelling animals is due to disuse alone rather than to natural selection.", "quote": "As it is difficult to imagine that eyes, though useless, could be in any way injurious to animals living in darkness, I attribute their loss wholly to disuse.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. V: Laws of Variation", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.55, "truth": 0.045, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.03 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.06 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.7, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAJyt4CULYYKV33i-5FHblUdOluAgm7TbPgVb3kUvBsjw", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch05-06", "key": "0777cb5e603422b6", "label": "Cave animals are related to surface fauna of their own continent", "statement": "Blind cave animals of America should be most closely allied to other inhabitants of America, and those of Europe to inhabitants of Europe, rather than the cave faunas of the two continents being specially similar to each other.", "quote": "Notwithstanding such modifications, we might expect still to see in the cave-animals of America, affinities to the other inhabitants of that continent, and in those of Europe, to the inhabitants of the European continent.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. V: Laws of Variation", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "supports", "evidence_kind": "biological", "data_test": { "verdict": "supports", "confidence": 0.8, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "biological", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/darwin-origin/darwin1859-ch05-06/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered. Using the Open Tree of Life synthetic tree induced on the taxa listed in derived/taxa.csv (continent assignment verified with GBIF occurrences), for every cave taxon compute the node-count distance to the nearest same-continent taxon (cave or surface, d_same) and to the nearest other-continent cave taxon (d_othercave). The claim is SUPPORTED if (i) d_same <= d_othercave for at least 70% of cave taxa, and (ii) the induced tree contains no clade that includes at least one North American and at least one European cave taxon while containing no surface taxon ('exclusive transcontinental cave clade').", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered. The claim is REFUTED if fewer than 50% of cave taxa satisfy d_same <= d_othercave, or if two or more independent exclusive transcontinental cave clades occur (in different taxonomic groups). Results between the two thresholds, or a single such clade, are recorded as 'mixed'. If fewer than 10 cave taxa (across at least 3 groups) can be placed in the tree, the verdict is inconclusive/underpowered.", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: open-tree-of-life-synth-v15, gbif-occurrence-api", "inference_method": "81 pre-registered species (40 obligate cave, 41 surface; 5 groups) were matched to Open Tree taxonomy with the TNRS (1 unmatched: Neaphaenops tellkampfi), and their continent was checked against GBIF occurrence counts in North America vs Europe (1 dropped: Crangonyx pseudogracilis, now mostly recorded in Europe where it is introduced). The induced subtree of synthetic tree opentree16.1 was requested for the remaining 79 taxa. For each of the 38 cave taxa the node-count distance to the nearest same-continent taxon and to the nearest other-continent cave taxon was computed, and all clades were scanned for ones containing cave taxa of both continents but no surface taxon.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.84, "truth": 0.94, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.95 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.93 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.845, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAhp4xcQCxEl7AfuX4lO4cQpIfvSHLkn2keoCb7ozLAGQ", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch05-07", "key": "fb86c2d73094fa42", "label": "Species ranges are limited by competition as much as by climate", "statement": "Species in nature are limited in their geographic ranges by competition with other organisms at least as much as, or more than, by adaptation to particular climates.", "quote": "We have reason to believe that species in a state of nature are limited in their ranges by the competition of other organic beings quite as much as, or more than, by adaptation to particular climates.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. V: Laws of Variation", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.603, "truth": 0.425, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.45 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.4 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.7, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA_ameqHNTAc04yyXgmvQyg4gCL_DKwrxbkBsxWmU2HT4", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch05-08", "key": "be4c6fcd5a16238d", "label": "Homologous parts tend to vary together", "statement": "Parts of the body that are homologous and alike early in embryonic development, such as left and right sides or fore and hind limbs, tend to vary in a correlated way.", "quote": "The several parts of the body which are homologous, and which, at an early embryonic period, are alike, seem liable to vary in an allied manner", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. V: Laws of Variation", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.62, "truth": 0.865, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.86 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.87 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.71, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAVGmBbgvPyE6Mc8dTYEkP_se8A2yk6g_UfMjYglHvfGc", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch05-09", "key": "f485f5052a8c6726", "label": "Taxonomically important characters may be useless products of correlated growth", "statement": "Structural differences that systematists treat as highly important, such as differences between outer and inner seeds of Umbelliferae, may arise entirely from unknown laws of correlated growth without being of any use to the species.", "quote": "Hence we see that modifications of structure, viewed by systematists as of high value, may be wholly due to unknown laws of correlated growth, and without being, as far as we can see, of the slightest service to the species.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. V: Laws of Variation", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.41, "truth": 0.865, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.88 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.85 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.59, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAtAZsos_pecxWfnst6i1u8EN-5mS0bt4FCSgPqpT46Sc", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch05-10", "key": "47a62501fe716c3a", "label": "Natural selection reduces superfluous parts without compensatory enlargement", "statement": "Natural selection will in the long run reduce any part of the organisation once it becomes superfluous, saving nutriment, without necessarily causing another part to enlarge; and it can enlarge an organ without requiring reduction of an adjoining part.", "quote": "Thus, as I believe, natural selection will always succeed in the long run in reducing and saving every part of the organisation, as soon as it is rendered superfluous, without by any means causing some other part to be largely developed in a corresponding degree.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. V: Laws of Variation", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.498, "truth": 0.515, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.57 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.46 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.63, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAS88zoPJlMbSyLiErWUDuwsHli1DnGk9pRpsd5AXk8F0", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch05-11", "key": "c7f90175672644e9", "label": "Parts repeated many times in an individual are variable in number", "statement": "When a part or organ is repeated many times in one individual, such as snake vertebrae or stamens of polyandrous flowers, its number is variable, whereas parts present in small numbers are constant in number.", "quote": "when any part or organ is repeated many times in the structure of the same individual (as the vertebræ in snakes, and the stamens in polyandrous flowers) the number is variable; whereas the number of the same part or organ, when it occurs in lesser numbers, is constant.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. V: Laws of Variation", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.667, "truth": 0.735, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.63 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.84 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.74, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAaUplxqeKs0Yt1dMrZo5mKHB6FLGLC2JV2oZH5_bU9B0", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch05-12", "key": "82e60326c7b6772e", "label": "Parts unusually developed relative to congeners are highly variable", "statement": "A part developed to an extraordinary degree or in an extraordinary manner in one species, compared with the same part in closely allied species, tends to be highly variable within that species; the rule does not apply when the unusual part is shared by a whole group.", "quote": "_A part developed in any species in an extraordinary degree or manner, in comparison with the same part in allied species, tends to be highly variable_.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. V: Laws of Variation", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.634, "truth": 0.625, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.59 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.66 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.71, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA2CzgPyrc1ox-mBhz1LV9H_jkuE-enrU5Sepf9yPNba4", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch05-13", "key": "7c01aa4c32f0ff54", "label": "Specific characters are more variable than generic characters", "statement": "Characters that distinguish species within a genus are more variable within species than characters shared by all species of the genus, because the former have varied since the species branched from a common progenitor.", "quote": "It is notorious that specific characters are more variable than generic.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. V: Laws of Variation", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.597, "truth": 0.625, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.52 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.73 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.685, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAmCBLyhcu3XhtubY80MMMSWZDOWE2wisMJGFVyM1Xpig", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch05-14", "key": "8f7149417bb3f9c2", "label": "Congeners differ more in secondary sexual characters than in other parts", "statement": "Secondary sexual characters are highly variable, and species of the same group differ from one another more in their secondary sexual characters than in other parts of their organisation.", "quote": "species of the same group differ from each other more widely in their secondary sexual characters, than in other parts of their organisation", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. V: Laws of Variation", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.619, "truth": 0.835, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.78 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.89 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.695, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAVakh5_BJglccAsQmcZ0myTOGTQ9mJNstBMEoOctO-6M", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch05-15", "key": "cbe9dfb45b772c8a", "label": "Long-lost characters reappear through a tendency transmitted each generation", "statement": "When a character lost in a breed reappears after many generations, the cause is a tendency to produce that character transmitted in every generation which at last prevails under favourable conditions, not a sudden resemblance to a distant ancestor.", "quote": "When a character which has been lost in a breed, reappears after a great number of generations, the most probable hypothesis is, not that the offspring suddenly takes after an ancestor some hundred generations distant, but that in each successive generation there has been a tendency to reproduce the character in question, which at last, under unknown favourable conditions, gains an ascendancy.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. V: Laws of Variation", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.437, "truth": 0.715, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.72 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.71 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.595, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA7--koCiVrgLz_i-CZTwKIbtRdzeQowoI_BTOMjqN9Zw", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch05-16", "key": "ec01a41313e9e331", "label": "Horse, ass, hemionus, quagga and zebra descend from a striped common ancestor", "statement": "The domestic horse, ass, hemionus, quagga and zebra are descended from a common ancestor that was striped like a zebra, which explains the occasional appearance of stripes in horses, asses and their hybrids.", "quote": "For myself, I venture confidently to look back thousands on thousands of generations, and I see an animal striped like a zebra, but perhaps otherwise very differently constructed, the common parent of our domestic horse, whether or not it be descended from one or more wild stocks, of the ass, the hemionus, quagga, and zebra.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. V: Laws of Variation", "kind": "historical-inference", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.737, "truth": 0.55, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.74 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.36 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.74, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAAxZWCCrevJhE5f1UyCO6KPVxtyTh7u0GS2WeeTOSBYI", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch05-17", "key": "6737a19ac33075b0", "label": "Related species with shared constitution produce analogous variations", "statement": "Species that inherit nearly the same constitution from a common parent and are exposed to similar influences tend to produce analogous variations, so that a variety of one species may resemble another species of the same genus.", "quote": "Species inheriting nearly the same constitution from a common parent and exposed to similar influences will naturally tend to present analogous variations", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. V: Laws of Variation", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.554, "truth": 0.885, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.9 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.87 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.65, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAo2yt71Si2-NZgt0vvKL2ZnfJOQBnMDPdUuUlbyXUk6E", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch06-01", "key": "827d70ed03650d18", "label": "Formation of a new form exterminates its parent and transitional varieties", "statement": "Because each new form tends in a fully stocked country to supplant and exterminate its less improved parent and other competing forms, the parent and all transitional varieties are generally exterminated by the process that forms the new species.", "quote": "Hence, if we look at each species as descended from some other unknown form, both the parent and all the transitional varieties will generally have been exterminated by the very process of formation and perfection of the new form.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. VI: Difficulties on Theory", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.527, "truth": 0.335, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.35 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.32 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.64, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RALCqyNIxL0zNsEoWy2DaGpiknXIq97jTGJMHzU13L1X4", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch06-02", "key": "3e96cca71566c0b7", "label": "Zones of overlap between representative species are narrow", "statement": "Where closely allied or representative species replace each other over a continuous area, the neutral territory between them is generally narrow compared with the territory occupied by each, and species become somewhat abruptly rarer towards their range limits.", "quote": "Hence the neutral territory between two representative species is generally narrow in comparison with the territory proper to each.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. VI: Difficulties on Theory", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.746, "truth": 0.555, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.51 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.6 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.78, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAyKvLXz9P0RN7lHqa15bf4hYAf8xItw-_i31WoPx_PKw", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch06-03", "key": "f2a179a500115a4a", "label": "Intermediate varieties are numerically rarer than the forms they connect", "statement": "Where varieties intermediate between two other forms occur in nature, they are generally much rarer numerically than the forms they connect, because they inhabit narrower intermediate zones.", "quote": "generally when varieties intermediate between two other forms occur, they are much rarer numerically than the forms which they connect.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. VI: Difficulties on Theory", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.591, "truth": 0.56, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.44 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.68 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.68, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAL26BS1s5umIXs0lIgM-0xTypBjUZh6aR88OHuJp20nQ", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch06-04", "key": "176755fe36b167ec", "label": "Common forms improve faster and supplant rare intermediate forms", "statement": "Forms existing in larger numbers have a better chance in any given period of presenting favourable variations for natural selection, so they are improved faster and supplant the less numerous intermediate varieties between them.", "quote": "For forms existing in larger numbers will always have a better chance, within any given period, of presenting further favourable variations for natural selection to seize on, than will the rarer forms which exist in lesser numbers.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. VI: Difficulties on Theory", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.501, "truth": 0.5, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.38 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.62 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.63, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAF4pWDhhU1dSrnUpHG5dEJPXl0ZNZvAD5dAi6zO43pLo", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch06-05", "key": "04e7919846c9974f", "label": "Bat flight arose from an apparatus for gliding", "statement": "Bats were derived from gliding animals, and the wing membrane extending to the tail and hind legs in some bats is a trace of an apparatus originally built for gliding rather than flight.", "quote": "In bats which have the wing-membrane extended from the top of the shoulder to the tail, including the hind-legs, we perhaps see traces of an apparatus originally constructed for gliding through the air rather than for flight.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. VI: Difficulties on Theory", "kind": "historical-inference", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.683, "truth": 0.59, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.88 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.3 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.715, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RASqtnUbTMH-zal2_a15GzoQvLUlJAgdrGXl_sd7tKV8U", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch06-06", "key": "84b9bf05e1a76f7a", "label": "Habits can change without corresponding change of structure", "statement": "Species sometimes have habits that do not match their structure, such as upland geese with webbed feet that rarely enter water or ground-living woodpeckers, showing that habits can change before structure changes.", "quote": "In such cases, and many others could be given, habits have changed without a corresponding change of structure.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. VI: Difficulties on Theory", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.692, "truth": 0.935, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.94 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.93 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.745, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAVqRva0BkLwAIXWK5jeOO6VKVFEjlWZ-XoEmmXUKOaI8", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch06-07", "key": "d39bc629dd001874", "label": "Complex eyes can be built by selection through graded useful steps", "statement": "Natural selection could have converted a simple optic nerve coated with pigment and covered by transparent membrane into a highly perfect eye through a series of graded steps, each useful to its possessor, as shown by the graduated diversity of eyes in living crustaceans.", "quote": "I can see no very great difficulty (not more than in the case of many other structures) in believing that natural selection has converted the simple apparatus of an optic nerve merely coated with pigment and invested by transparent membrane, into an optical instrument as perfect as is possessed by any member of the great Articulate class.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. VI: Difficulties on Theory", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.543, "truth": 0.95, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.96 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.94 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.67, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RABB97Fz01oc5LPdhpwyHyzn3Ag6d0drvT_9a3k3opaGQ", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch06-08", "key": "0a408f9798dc91b2", "label": "Theory fails if a complex organ could not arise by slight steps", "statement": "If any complex organ were shown to exist that could not possibly have been formed by numerous, successive, slight modifications, the theory of natural selection would break down; no such case is known.", "quote": "If it could be demonstrated that any complex organ existed, which could not possibly have been formed by numerous, successive, slight modifications, my theory would absolutely break down.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. VI: Difficulties on Theory", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.24, "truth": 0.92, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.91 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.93 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.72, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAJN9-vmRYhQZuloSCaF9rPE2_wnkcoTI4XxbYcVt_uS4", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch06-09", "key": "db8866f86fa66842", "label": "Lung-bearing vertebrates descend from an ancestor with a swimbladder", "statement": "All vertebrates with true lungs have descended from an ancient ancestor that had a swimbladder used for flotation, which natural selection converted into a lung.", "quote": "I can, indeed, hardly doubt that all vertebrate animals having true lungs have descended by ordinary generation from an ancient prototype, of which we know nothing, furnished with a floating apparatus or swimbladder.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. VI: Difficulties on Theory", "kind": "historical-inference", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.698, "truth": 0.07, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.08 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.06 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.76, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA_j75Xu6Qh71EZKisftUpimePpHYqbCXNKach3xTnEK8", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch06-10", "key": "5c2f3377d9d29c77", "label": "Selection can independently produce similar organs in distantly related beings", "statement": "Natural selection, acting on analogous variations, has sometimes modified parts in nearly the same way in two distantly related organisms, as with electric organs in unrelated fishes, so that similar organs need not be inherited from a common ancestor.", "quote": "so natural selection, working for the good of each being and taking advantage of analogous variations, has sometimes modified in very nearly the same manner two parts in two organic beings, which owe but little of their structure in common to inheritance from the same ancestor.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. VI: Difficulties on Theory", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "supports", "evidence_kind": "biological", "data_test": { "verdict": "supports", "confidence": 0.95, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "biological", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/darwin-origin/darwin1859-ch06-10/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered: on the Open Tree of Life synthetic tree induced on a fixed list of electric-organ-bearing fish families and a fixed list of non-electric fish families, count (i) the Dollo minimum number of independent origins = number of maximal clades whose tips are all electric, and (ii) the Fitch parsimony minimum number of state changes. SUPPORTS if, for the electric-fish case, (i) >= 3 and (ii) >= 3 (no reconstruction with a single origin and fewer than three changes exists). The insect light-organ case is scored the same way and reported; it does not decide the verdict because the claim is existential ('has sometimes').", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered: REFUTES if the electric-organ-bearing families form a single clade in the synthetic tree (Dollo origins = 1, Fitch changes = 1). MIXED if Dollo origins = 2, or if the two statistics disagree about whether >= 3 changes are needed. If the Open Tree API is unreachable or fewer than 80% of the listed families map to the tree, the result is inconclusive (data-unavailable).", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: opentree-synthetic-tree-api", "inference_method": "The pre-registered family names were resolved with the Open Tree TNRS (exact matches only, context Vertebrates / Arthropods) and an induced subtree of the synthetic tree was requested for the matched ott ids. Taxa pruned from the synthesis (Lamnidae) or non-monophyletic in it and mapped to an internal node already containing other sampled tips were dropped; the rest were coded 1 (electric / luminous) or 0 (background). Unary node chains were collapsed, then the number of maximal all-1 clades (Dollo minimum number of independent origins) and the Fitch parsimony minimum number of state changes were computed on the induced tree.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.782, "truth": 0.965, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.97 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.96 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.81, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAZUyE_gLQUSVc2qxZsmXfNl-pavsvxISSjbKFcj9JL-M", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch06-11", "key": "9689b9cb34093710", "label": "Few organs lack any known transitional grade", "statement": "Despite the small proportion of living and known forms relative to extinct and unknown ones, it is rare to find an organ toward which no transitional grade is known to lead.", "quote": "I have been astonished how rarely an organ can be named, towards which no transitional grade is known to lead.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. VI: Difficulties on Theory", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.42, "truth": 0.67, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.7 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.64 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.615, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA5xUh-KM5Xd_YiWuc137sIuYqZPjiT-Rkb5XRaonFQG4", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch06-12", "key": "bbff8120ca4936f1", "label": "Most of an organism's structure is due to inheritance, not current use", "statement": "The chief part of each organism's structure is simply inherited, so that many structures, such as the shared bones of monkey arm, horse leg, bat wing and seal flipper, have no direct relation to the species' present habits of life.", "quote": "by far the most important consideration is that the chief part of the organisation of every being is simply due to inheritance; and consequently, though each being assuredly is well fitted for its place in nature, many structures now have no direct relation to the habits of life of each species.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. VI: Difficulties on Theory", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.593, "truth": 0.955, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.97 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.94 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.66, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA0sIN-y9vB5B-Uc9Eyw-3yZ5hJZHXlLCopnifkDQx3Lg", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch06-13", "key": "7f9ce7514c35ae54", "label": "No structure exists solely for the good of another species", "statement": "Natural selection cannot produce any structure in one species exclusively for the good of another species, though it can produce structures that harm other species; proof of such a structure would refute the theory.", "quote": "Natural selection cannot possibly produce any modification in any one species exclusively for the good of another species", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. VI: Difficulties on Theory", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.384, "truth": 0.9, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.93 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.87 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.625, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RANuFqFJ2AFku1K79JDOYGAMJJ-8pPfZRk54W8Es4OIL4", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch06-14", "key": "cfe0f345bcbd92f1", "label": "Selection makes organisms only as perfect as their local competitors", "statement": "Natural selection only makes each organism as perfect as, or slightly more perfect than, the other inhabitants of its own country, so endemic species of a region such as New Zealand may yield to species introduced from a larger region.", "quote": "Natural selection tends only to make each organic being as perfect as, or slightly more perfect than, the other inhabitants of the same country with which it has to struggle for existence.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. VI: Difficulties on Theory", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.667, "truth": 0.67, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.54 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.8 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.715, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAfDwLlPoDgv6hl_PK1utKaOIEExkIZXF0_0bJhWv7utI", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch06-15", "key": "2da7a00062c8fdf3", "label": "Traits from laws of growth are later co-opted by descendants", "statement": "Many modifications arose wholly from laws of growth and were at first of no advantage to a species, but were later taken advantage of by its further modified descendants, as skull sutures that arose in egg-laying animals were later used in mammalian birth.", "quote": "we may confidently believe that many modifications, wholly due to the laws of growth, and at first in no way advantageous to a species, have been subsequently taken advantage of by the still further modified descendants of this species.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. VI: Difficulties on Theory", "kind": "historical-inference", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.48, "truth": 0.845, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.86 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.83 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.605, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RACKn5jhCTFa7-cdYaagjbisWFZPaC8k1QLAykRvtCY7s", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch06-16", "key": "d6f87d55456921db", "label": "Nature makes no leaps when past as well as present forms are included", "statement": "The rule that nature makes no leaps is not strictly true of living organisms alone, but if all past organisms are included it must be strictly true.", "quote": "This canon, if we look only to the present inhabitants of the world, is not strictly correct, but if we include all those of past times, it must by my theory be strictly true.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. VI: Difficulties on Theory", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.437, "truth": 0.28, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.29 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.27 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.62, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAovYvW0y_yQKkjjMPr41Vjnzl81xI1rxAqMlF4ogNap4", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch06-17", "key": "cf45f4453e59a8f5", "label": "Unity of type is explained by unity of descent", "statement": "The fundamental agreement in structure among organisms of the same class, independent of their habits of life, is explained by their common descent.", "quote": "On my theory, unity of type is explained by unity of descent.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. VI: Difficulties on Theory", "kind": "historical-inference", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.803, "truth": 0.98, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.99 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.97 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.82, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RALLsfy5NVb2-63zZfTDElozAB8iY3YQY7uVij7DmQSns", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch07-01", "key": "1d95c4859e2ac157", "label": "Instincts arise mainly by selection of accidental variations, not inherited habit", "statement": "Complex instincts originate chiefly through natural selection preserving and accumulating slight accidental variations of instinct; the inherited effects of habit play only a subordinate role.", "quote": "But I believe that the effects of habit are of quite subordinate importance to the effects of the natural selection of what may be called accidental variations of instincts", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. VII: Instinct", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.449, "truth": 0.92, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.94 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.9 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.61, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAbEGBRpB1KC2zwQn_Jbh3Mg7cjYUcCexfqayX7XWGN8A", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch07-02", "key": "323da449d2c41c27", "label": "Complex instincts are reached by gradations visible in related species", "statement": "Complex instincts are built up by slow, gradual steps, so gradations leading to them should be found among the instincts of related species in collateral lines of descent; instincts, like bodily organs, do not change by leaps.", "quote": "The canon of “Natura non facit saltum” applies with almost equal force to instincts as to bodily organs.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. VII: Instinct", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.526, "truth": 0.785, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.8 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.77 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.65, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAYm3OZLIo1ig7gEpjXftj1ChSr-ueOPCA2LgIIwA-53o", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch07-03", "key": "07e9c4313c1bc01d", "label": "No instinct exists for the exclusive good of another species", "statement": "No animal performs an instinctive action solely for the benefit of another species, although each species takes advantage of the instincts of others.", "quote": "Although I do not believe that any animal in the world performs an action for the exclusive good of another of a distinct species, yet each species tries to take advantage of the instincts of others", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. VII: Instinct", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.394, "truth": 0.895, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.91 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.88 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.62, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAeySKJbNnieyzFWqyn_n-5rys367ic2XpJlx4wRH_qPE", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch07-04", "key": "656a761f73bce9de", "label": "Instincts vary within species in a state of nature", "statement": "Instincts vary within species under natural conditions, for example the migratory instinct varies in extent and direction and may be lost entirely, and nest construction varies between regions.", "quote": "instincts certainly do vary—for instance, the migratory instinct, both in extent and direction, and in its total loss.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. VII: Instinct", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "mixed", "evidence_kind": "biological", "data_test": { "verdict": "mixed", "confidence": 0.7, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "biological", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/darwin-origin/darwin1859-ch07-04/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Primary (AVONET, Tobias et al. 2022, BirdLife taxonomy sheet): P = share of bird species with a coded Migration score that are coded 2 (partially migratory) among all species, and Q = share coded 2 among non-sedentary species (score 2 or 3). Secondary (GBIF occurrence counts, Northern Hemisphere, years 2000 onward, non-fossil non-captive records, 5-degree latitude bands 0-80 N): for 12 pre-registered species, W = fraction of December-February records that fall in the latitude bands holding the central 80 % of June-July records (winter residency index). Partial-migrant set: Erithacus rubecula, Turdus merula, Sylvia atricapilla, Fringilla coelebs, Sturnus vulgaris, Turdus migratorius. Obligate-migrant set: Hirundo rustica, Apus apus, Phylloscopus trochilus, Setophaga striata, Tyrannus tyrannus, Cuculus canorus. Supports if P >= 0.20 and W is higher in the partial-migrant set than in the obligate set by a one-sided Mann-Whitney test at p < 0.05 with median W of the partial set >= 0.25.", "disconfirming_observation": "Refutes if P < 0.05 (within-species variation in migratory extent is a rare anomaly) or if the obligate set has median W >= the partial set (the trait classification does not correspond to any measurable difference in winter residency). Otherwise mixed. The nest-construction clause is not tested (no public, geographically coded nest-architecture dataset at the within-species level was identified) and is recorded as untested in caveats.", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: avonet-supplementary-dataset-1, gbif-occurrence-api-birds", "inference_method": "analysis.py downloads the AVONET xlsx, reads the Migration column of the AVONET1_BirdLife sheet and computes P (share coded 2 among all scored species) and Q (share coded 2 among species coded 2 or 3), plus a per-order table (derived/avonet_migration_by_order.csv). For each of the 12 pre-registered species it resolves the GBIF taxon key and counts records in sixteen 5-degree latitude bands from 0 to 80 N for June-July and for December plus January-February (GBIF month ranges cannot wrap the year, so winter is two calls). The summer core is the set of bands overlapping the 10th-90th percentile of summer records; W is the share of winter records in those bands. Partial and obligate sets are compared with a one-sided Mann-Whitney U test. The verdict follows the pre-registered thresholds (P 0.20 / 0.05; W medians; p < 0.05).", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.84, "truth": 0.97, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.98 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.96 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.85, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAicyJF6-YXzzCVWInBdmcwKtD1iZotiVG7l7Y9AvS6FA", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch07-05", "key": "009d0fdc46ffc8ea", "label": "Fear of man is acquired slowly by animals exposed to human persecution", "statement": "Fear of humans is slowly acquired by animal populations persecuted by man, so animals on uninhabited islands are tame and heavily hunted large birds are wilder than small ones.", "quote": "But fear of man is slowly acquired, as I have elsewhere shown, by various animals inhabiting desert islands", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. VII: Instinct", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.607, "truth": 0.8, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.93 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.67 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.68, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAVQodRV21XFt7xtHGy6X-9ESnAitCClavHyTLubBRwZA", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch07-06", "key": "1886fb2d096e49b8", "label": "Domestic instincts arise from habit and from human selection of chance variations", "statement": "Under domestication new instincts have been acquired and natural instincts lost partly through inherited habit and partly through human selection, methodical or unconscious, of chance mental peculiarities, usually with both acting together.", "quote": "Hence, we may conclude, that domestic instincts have been acquired and natural instincts have been lost partly by habit, and partly by man selecting and accumulating during successive generations, peculiar mental habits and actions, which at first appeared from what we must in our ignorance call an accident.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. VII: Instinct", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.558, "truth": 0.535, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.72 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.35 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.65, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAptWscIEp-P0m-MEJtJUjsXZe__bgijAl-LdvLyGI1AQ", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch07-07", "key": "09de8baab8ff1fe0", "label": "Cuckoo brood parasitism evolved from occasional laying in other birds’ nests", "statement": "The brood-parasitic instinct of the European cuckoo was generated by natural selection from an ancestor that built its own nest but occasionally laid eggs in other birds’ nests, where the fostered young fared better.", "quote": "By a continued process of this nature, I believe that the strange instinct of our cuckoo could be, and has been, generated.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. VII: Instinct", "kind": "historical-inference", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.641, "truth": 0.855, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.86 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.85 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.71, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA1e32WqxITP9sFxrE8SB6DqoyPxN3FToV8LpVZz7OLJA", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch07-08", "key": "756554c0861bab5f", "label": "Slave-making in ants arose from capturing pupae as food", "statement": "The slave-making instinct of ants arose when pupae of other species, originally collected as food, were reared and proved useful as workers, and natural selection strengthened this habit until some species became wholly dependent on slaves.", "quote": "the habit of collecting pupæ originally for food might by natural selection be strengthened and rendered permanent for the very different purpose of raising slaves.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. VII: Instinct", "kind": "historical-inference", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.531, "truth": 0.57, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.43 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.71 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.645, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAyp7lwwATFLWaJlaekGHC7lSi1YZz9rDN6VUYTiJvKZU", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch07-09", "key": "87676c65a7536c89", "label": "Hive-bee comb building evolved by gradual modification of simpler bee instincts", "statement": "The cell-making instinct of the hive-bee was acquired through natural selection by slight successive modifications of simpler instincts, of the kind seen in a graded series from humble-bees through Melipona to the hive-bee.", "quote": "By such modifications of instincts in themselves not very wonderful,—hardly more wonderful than those which guide a bird to make its nest,—I believe that the hive-bee has acquired, through natural selection, her inimitable architectural powers.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. VII: Instinct", "kind": "historical-inference", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.589, "truth": 0.835, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.93 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.74 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.665, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAnPVCS9MVkNaHsC8dVx4wQx792b5TXGpnVtwKXHPDgBE", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch07-10", "key": "820abe5945e296b5", "label": "Hive-bee cells form by bees sweeping equal spheres and building at intersections", "statement": "Hexagonal hive-bee cells result from many bees standing at equal distances from one another, each excavating equal spherical hollows, and building up or leaving unexcavated the planes where these spheres would intersect.", "quote": "The work of construction seems to be a sort of balance struck between many bees, all instinctively standing at the same relative distance from each other, all trying to sweep equal spheres, and then building up, or leaving ungnawed, the planes of intersection between these spheres.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. VII: Instinct", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.633, "truth": 0.31, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.22 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.4 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.7, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA99ZKzkAmPQuwdb_bEXk86djyXCfXNcWRIyoKsnA-ITI", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch07-11", "key": "e5e11d40c0adab00", "label": "The hive-bee comb is maximally economical of wax", "statement": "The comb of the hive-bee is absolutely perfect in economising wax, so natural selection, driven by the saving of wax, could carry comb architecture no further.", "quote": "Beyond this stage of perfection in architecture, natural selection could not lead; for the comb of the hive-bee, as far as we can see, is absolutely perfect in economising wax.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. VII: Instinct", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.632, "truth": 0.455, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.12 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.79 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.69, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAdXuYKtc30U1vjHozYXCIHA-CLHD7YVXxzJcn3zBjIPc", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch07-12", "key": "c3132fdd039da131", "label": "Selection on the family explains traits of sterile social-insect workers", "statement": "Traits of sterile workers in social insects can evolve because selection acts on the family: fertile parents whose colonies produce sterile members with a useful modification flourish and transmit the tendency to produce such members.", "quote": "selection may be applied to the family, as well as to the individual, and may thus gain the desired end.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. VII: Instinct", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.663, "truth": 0.96, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.99 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.93 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.73, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RANwjN1i6MoCMrkiGaTv70xJ0b4PCkAh2SucPQ0UsusUE", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch07-13", "key": "d5d8769a40068901", "label": "Neuter insects of one nest should show graded structural differences", "statement": "If worker modifications spread gradually through selection of fertile parents, sterile workers of the same species in the same nest should sometimes show gradations of structure, and such gradations are in fact often found.", "quote": "On this view we ought occasionally to find neuter-insects of the same species, in the same nest, presenting gradations of structure; and this we do find, even often", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. VII: Instinct", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.689, "truth": 0.87, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.89 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.85 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.735, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RARM603lXKp2KsnZOhmZC3xBHLImYrS5cpGzI3OdmTr0s", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch07-14", "key": "306037cb0fd3c224", "label": "Discrete worker castes arose by selection eliminating intermediate forms", "statement": "Distinct castes of sterile workers in one nest arose when a graduated series of workers was first formed and then selection on the fertile parents favoured production of the most useful extreme forms until intermediates were no longer produced.", "quote": "a graduated series having been first formed, as in the case of the driver ant, and then the extreme forms, from being the most useful to the community, having been produced in greater and greater numbers through the natural selection of the parents which generated them; until none with an intermediate structure were produced.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. VII: Instinct", "kind": "historical-inference", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.545, "truth": 0.665, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.63 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.7 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.635, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAndue1o110-8LfSQODcGiLxwfN4V7xJ6WcUt6NA3nzjY", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch07-15", "key": "aaaf43d914a1f082", "label": "Allied species in distant regions retain nearly the same instincts", "statement": "Closely allied but distinct species living in distant parts of the world under different conditions often retain nearly the same instincts, which is explained by inheritance from a common ancestor.", "quote": "This theory is, also, strengthened by some few other facts in regard to instincts; as by that common case of closely allied, but certainly distinct, species, when inhabiting distant parts of the world and living under considerably different conditions of life, yet often retaining nearly the same instincts.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. VII: Instinct", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.604, "truth": 0.885, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.92 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.85 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.655, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RANK-WcMUcWsDklieRBLz6zaZUMepP4AgydxfELqrDRfY", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch08-01", "key": "f82bf3f25324c061", "label": "Sterility of first crosses differs from sterility of hybrids", "statement": "The sterility of first crosses between pure species, whose reproductive organs are perfect, is a different phenomenon from the sterility of their hybrids, whose reproductive organs are functionally impotent.", "quote": "Pure species have of course their organs of reproduction in a perfect condition, yet when intercrossed they produce either few or no offspring. Hybrids, on the other hand, have their reproductive organs functionally impotent", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. VIII: Hybridism", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.678, "truth": 0.85, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.84 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.86 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.73, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAhjs2EDDbWJEFRRBJFXN2o-p0I-JuahTnKyGb06wy17s", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch08-02", "key": "dafab5a058b07dfe", "label": "Close interbreeding lowers fertility while occasional crossing raises it", "statement": "Close interbreeding lessens fertility, while an occasional cross with a distinct individual or variety increases it; this explains much of the declining fertility of hybrids kept for successive generations.", "quote": "that close interbreeding lessens fertility, and, on the other hand, that an occasional cross with a distinct individual or variety increases fertility", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. VIII: Hybridism", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "supports", "evidence_kind": "biological", "data_test": { "verdict": "supports", "confidence": 0.65, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "biological", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/darwin-origin/darwin1859-ch08-02/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Dataset 1 (Auclair et al. 2025, Pyrenean brown bear, Dryad doi:10.5061/dryad.w9ghx3g1s, file litter_size_dt.csv): the slope of litter size on maternal inbreeding coefficient (ordinary least squares, one row per litter; if the file supplies repeated mothers, a mother-level mean is also reported) is negative with one-sided p < 0.05, or, if the coefficient is categorical, mean litter size of the most inbred category is below that of the least inbred with p < 0.05. Dataset 2 (Pekkala et al. 2014, Drosophila littoralis, Dryad doi:10.5061/dryad.10154): (a) mean fecundity of inbred populations is below the outbred control in at least two of the three population-size treatments (N = 2, 10, 40), and (b) mean fecundity of inter-population crosses exceeds that of within-population matings (heterosis > 0) in a majority of population pairs or treatments for which both are reported. Verdict 'supports' if dataset 1 passes and both 2(a) and 2(b) pass; 'mixed' if dataset 1 passes but only one of 2(a)/2(b), or dataset 1 fails while both 2(a) and 2(b) pass; 'refutes' if litter size does not decline with inbreeding and inbred fecundity is not below control.", "disconfirming_observation": "Refuted if the litter-size slope on inbreeding is >= 0 (or not significantly negative) and inbred Drosophila populations are not less fecund than the outbred control. Clause (ii)(b) failing alone (no heterosis) with the others passing gives 'mixed'. If either Dryad archive cannot be downloaded, that dataset is recorded as unavailable and the verdict rests on the other; if neither can be obtained, the verdict is 'inconclusive' with reason 'data-unavailable'.", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: dryad-auclair2025-pyrenean-brown-bear-inbreeding, dryad-pekkala2014-drosophila-littoralis-inbreeding-heterosis", "inference_method": "Bear: ordinary least-squares regression of litter size on the mother's pedigree inbreeding coefficient over 66 litters (29 mothers), one-sided test for a negative slope; the litter's own inbreeding coefficient and mother-level means are reported as extras. Fly: the DATA sheet of the Dryad workbook was parsed; offspring fecundity ('F eggs per vial') of within-population random crosses (type 1) in the inbred treatments was compared with the outbred control, and inter-population crosses (type 2) were compared with within-population crosses in each population-size x generation cell (relative heterosis), plus a pooled one-sided Mann-Whitney test.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.75, "truth": 0.665, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.73 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.6 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.785, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAVfmj0gNoQngJr6IGrgWwH55puOZ3YPuhMdEA-phVCI0", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch08-03", "key": "b3aaf848c0e055a3", "label": "Hybrid sterility can be removed under domestication", "statement": "Because many domestic animals are believed to descend from two or more distinct species that are now fully fertile together, sterility between species is not indelible but can be removed by domestication.", "quote": "we must look at sterility, not as an indelible characteristic, but as one capable of being removed by domestication.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. VIII: Hybridism", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.532, "truth": 0.32, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.38 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.26 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.645, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAgCkL1mInMAe7IbQonJ2DLdVzHEugoKkfhAOEoAN6ius", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch08-04", "key": "5623caf884492f64", "label": "Some sterility in crosses between species is very general but not universal", "statement": "Some degree of sterility in first crosses between species and in their hybrids is an extremely general result, but it is not absolutely universal.", "quote": "Finally, looking to all the ascertained facts on the intercrossing of plants and animals, it may be concluded that some degree of sterility, both in first crosses and in hybrids,is an extremely general result; but that it cannot, under our present state of knowledge, be considered as absolutely universal.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. VIII: Hybridism", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.642, "truth": 0.92, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.91 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.93 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.695, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA2sv5x2d1WYQQ1HUZ7nABimfKKrk5TGix7RkFW2Y7_-4", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch08-05", "key": "9f197e52b4522dc3", "label": "Difficulty of first cross and sterility of hybrids correspond only loosely", "statement": "Species that are hard to cross generally produce very sterile hybrids, but the correspondence between the difficulty of a first cross and the sterility of the resulting hybrids is by no means strict.", "quote": "Hybrids from two species which are very difficult to cross, and which rarely produce any offspring, are generally very sterile; but the parallelism between the difficulty of making a first cross, and the sterility of the hybrids thus produced—two classes of facts which are generally confounded together—is by no means strict.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. VIII: Hybridism", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.695, "truth": 0.885, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.91 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.86 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.745, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA4BvBY_jKhGPFcND5KOKFAbdWcxIGyTJZAqg_9nX4x84", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch08-06", "key": "43a4ca919bfcfaa7", "label": "Cross fertility is largely governed by systematic affinity", "statement": "The fertility of first crosses between species and of their hybrids is largely, though not strictly, governed by systematic affinity, so that species of distinct families never produce hybrids while closely allied species generally cross easily.", "quote": "Now the fertility of first crosses between species, and of the hybrids produced from them, is largely governed by their systematic affinity.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. VIII: Hybridism", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.722, "truth": 0.765, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.65 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.88 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.755, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA7EkK7LOKq8wQaovZ8qO7U2vLsFMQ3Ap9MTLlhAGtC-0", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch08-07", "key": "74bdd5487ffb11f1", "label": "Reciprocal crosses between the same two species often differ greatly in success", "statement": "The ease of crossing two species often differs greatly depending on which species is the father and which the mother, showing that crossing capacity depends on imperceptible differences confined to the reproductive system.", "quote": "There is often the widest possible difference in the facility of making reciprocal crosses.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. VIII: Hybridism", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.7, "truth": 0.9, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.95 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.85 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.755, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAgSnMrudnw_BmIKr_Um9Xt80F_VjulkwxYt1QjGO_Bd4", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch08-08", "key": "81d11d72d9b10f45", "label": "Cross sterility is incidental on reproductive differences, not specially endowed", "statement": "The sterility of first crosses and of hybrids is not a quality specially endowed to keep species distinct but is incidental on unknown differences, chiefly in the reproductive systems, of the species crossed.", "quote": "The foregoing rules and facts, on the other hand, appear to me clearly to indicate that the sterility both of first crosses and of hybrids is simply incidental or dependent on unknown differences, chiefly in the reproductive systems, of the species which are crossed.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. VIII: Hybridism", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.548, "truth": 0.91, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.91 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.91 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.61, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAdfVIM5e4iWBRxB9potK7tIdQuYfMmanxInHdiROm8wE", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch08-09", "key": "01a47c8d0c44a08c", "label": "Early embryo death is a frequent cause of sterility in first crosses", "statement": "A very frequent cause of sterility in first crosses between species is the early death of the embryo, which may be exposed to unsuitable conditions within the mother or the egg or seed.", "quote": "the early death of the embryo is a very frequent cause of sterility in first crosses.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. VIII: Hybridism", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.63, "truth": 0.84, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.87 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.81 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.68, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA6IQ8pwVdIoRYP2Q8fHsUdhhkz8fKFw3xKdYb-5ZpWeI", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch08-10", "key": "1ee482f6bea2a65c", "label": "Hybrid sterility resembles sterility caused by unnatural conditions", "statement": "The sterility of hybrids closely resembles the sterility induced in pure species by unnatural conditions of life: in both cases the reproductive system is disturbed independently of general health, by disturbed conditions in one case and by two organisations compounded into one in the other.", "quote": "Thus we see that when organic beings are placed under new and unnatural conditions, and when hybrids are produced by the unnatural crossing of two species, the reproductive system, independently of the general state of health, is affected by sterility in a very similar manner.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. VIII: Hybridism", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.489, "truth": 0.38, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.39 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.37 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.6, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAGbfCeRU-cMOWuazcmCs8C4gtZkr-N_u8-zUh9obYU5U", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch08-11", "key": "1a46baf99debbae2", "label": "Slight changes of conditions and slight crosses both increase vigour and fertility", "statement": "Slight changes in conditions of life benefit organisms, and crosses between slightly different members of the same species give vigour and fertility to offspring, whereas greater changes and wider crosses tend to cause sterility.", "quote": "Hence it seems that, on the one hand, slight changes in the conditions of life benefit all organic beings, and on the other hand, that slight crosses, that is crosses between the males and females of the same species which have varied and become slightly different, give vigour and fertility to the offspring.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. VIII: Hybridism", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.583, "truth": 0.5, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.55 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.45 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.65, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAONpt1FSRm1OQlSP1lrJ-kyEi582dKRa18YUHpFTKDoA", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch08-12", "key": "25c994fea96a9a22", "label": "Fertility of crossed varieties is not universal nor a species criterion", "statement": "The fertility of varieties when crossed is very general but cannot be shown to be universal, so it does not form a fundamental distinction between varieties and species; some varieties, such as certain maize and Verbascum varieties, are partly sterile together.", "quote": "I do not think that the very general fertility of varieties can be proved to be of universal occurrence, or to form a fundamental distinction between varieties and species.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. VIII: Hybridism", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.646, "truth": 0.935, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.96 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.91 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.695, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA3KENQ65SvJgjskJw8zXeZwe0UYoMXSCT1LGo1lX7oV4", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch08-13", "key": "901d79db558a2663", "label": "Hybrids vary little in the first generation but greatly in later generations", "statement": "Hybrids are only slightly variable in the first generation but extremely variable in succeeding generations, because the reproductive system of the hybrids themselves is disturbed.", "quote": "The slight degree of variability in hybrids from the first cross or in the first generation, in contrast with their extreme variability in the succeeding generations, is a curious fact and deserves attention.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. VIII: Hybridism", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "mixed", "evidence_kind": "biological", "data_test": { "verdict": "mixed", "confidence": 0.5, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "biological", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/darwin-origin/darwin1859-ch08-13/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Dataset: Dryad doi:10.25338/B8QS5T (Cakile edentula x C. maritima artificial crosses with F1, F2 and backcross generations; CC0). For every continuous trait recorded for both F1 and F2 individuals from the artificial crosses (identified from the data files after download; traits with < 8 individuals in either generation are excluded), compute the variance of log-transformed values (equivalent to a squared coefficient of variation for positive traits; for traits with zero or negative values use the variance of the trait divided by its squared mean) in F1 and in F2. Primary statistic: the median across traits of the variance ratio F2/F1. Pass ('supports') if the median ratio is >= 1.5 AND the F2 variance exceeds the F1 variance in a majority of traits with an exact binomial sign-test p < 0.05. 'Mixed' if F2 exceeds F1 in a majority of traits with p < 0.05 but the median ratio is between 1.0 and 1.5 (more variable, but not 'extremely' so relative to F1), or if the median ratio is >= 1.5 but the sign test is not significant. The comparison of F1 variance with parental variance is reported as an extra and does not enter the verdict.", "disconfirming_observation": "Refuted if F2 hybrids are not more variable than F1 hybrids: the median F2/F1 variance ratio is <= 1.0, or F2 exceeds F1 in half or fewer of the traits. If the archive cannot be downloaded, the verdict is 'inconclusive' with reason 'data-unavailable'.", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: dryad-cakile-hybrids-B8QS5T", "inference_method": "The artificial-cross table was read; 21 continuous traits had >= 8 F1 and F2 plants. For each trait the mean-scaled variance (variance of log values, or variance over squared mean for traits with zeros) was computed in F1 (n = 81 plants) and F2 (n = 36 plants); the median F2/F1 ratio and an exact sign test on the number of traits with ratio > 1 were evaluated against the pre-registered thresholds. F1 variance was also compared with both parental species.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.752, "truth": 0.525, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.75 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.3 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.79, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAK1DFSsN46dAQ5-hHXW_46vp1zOemsRi40IwHCVeYIEc", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch08-14", "key": "0a7ce5f1fa663a2b", "label": "Apart from fertility, offspring of crossed species and crossed varieties are alike", "statement": "Apart from fertility, the offspring of crossed species and of crossed varieties are closely similar in their variability, prepotency, reversion and resemblance to their parents.", "quote": "Laying aside the question of fertility and sterility, in all other respects there seems to be a general and close similarity in the offspring of crossed species, and of crossed varieties.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. VIII: Hybridism", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.546, "truth": 0.8, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.83 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.77 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.62, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA0NWkUaBRy1pNGORGsK1uunkitdG3hWR-nYm6INgeHek", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch08-15", "key": "276793107c41a1d8", "label": "No fundamental distinction exists between species and varieties", "statement": "The facts of hybridism do not oppose, and rather support, the view that there is no fundamental distinction between species and varieties.", "quote": "Finally, then, the facts briefly given in this chapter do not seem to me opposed to, but even rather to support the view, that there is no fundamental distinction between species and varieties.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. VIII: Hybridism", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.362, "truth": 0.815, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.93 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.7 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.66, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAr0v1Q5LSZOZy4NmdKiBj8ZCYtYHP2E-79liDXR2lFxE", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch09-01", "key": "0aa32c64430ef7ba", "label": "Extinct intermediates connect each species to a common progenitor, not to each other", "statement": "The extinct intermediate forms required by descent with modification link each species to a common, usually unknown, progenitor, and that progenitor will generally have differed in some respects from all of its modified descendants, so forms directly intermediate between two living species should not be expected.", "quote": "we should always look for forms intermediate between each species and a common but unknown progenitor; and the progenitor will generally have differed in some respects from all its modified descendants.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. IX: On the Imperfection of the Geological Record", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.681, "truth": 0.95, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.98 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.92 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.735, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAak2_QW3VIud7agjakc6XlBBjPuAoZqpB90UaZnXvLXg", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch09-02", "key": "df3ea096fdf99132", "label": "The number of past intermediate and transitional links was inconceivably great", "statement": "Because all living species are connected through extinct parent-species back to the common ancestor of each great class by steps no greater than those between varieties, the number of intermediate and transitional forms that have lived on earth must have been inconceivably great.", "quote": "So that the number of intermediate and transitional links, between all living and extinct species, must have been inconceivably great.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. IX: On the Imperfection of the Geological Record", "kind": "historical-inference", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.448, "truth": 0.895, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.91 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.88 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.57, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA4dtNTeRmxwlx62sO2zdUVexLGaeqg2W4kfTcf9ynkY8", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch09-03", "key": "91c797602a12bfc6", "label": "Denudation of the Weald implies roughly 300 million years since the late Chalk", "statement": "Assuming sea erosion of about one inch per century on a 500-foot cliff, the denudation of the Weald required about 300 million years, so far more than 300 million years have elapsed since the latter part of the Secondary period.", "quote": "At this rate, on the above data, the denudation of the Weald must have required 306,662,400 years; or say three hundred million years.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. IX: On the Imperfection of the Geological Record", "kind": "historical-inference", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "refutes", "evidence_kind": "physical", "data_test": { "verdict": "refutes", "confidence": 0.98, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "physical", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/darwin-origin/darwin1859-ch09-03/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "The age of the Cretaceous-Paleogene (Mesozoic-Cenozoic) boundary in the current International Chronostratigraphic Chart, as served by Macrostrat and cross-checked against the Paleobiology Database timescale, is >= 300 Ma; equivalently the maximum possible duration of post-Chalk denudation (time since the youngest Chalk) is >= 300 Myr.", "disconfirming_observation": "The age of the Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary is < 300 Ma. The claim is refuted outright (not merely imprecise) if it is < 150 Ma, i.e. less than half of Darwin's figure, since the denudation of the Weald cannot have taken longer than the time elapsed since the youngest Chalk was deposited.", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: macrostrat-international-intervals, pbdb-international-timescale, bgs-lexicon-chalk-group", "inference_method": "analysis.py downloads the international periods, ages and eras tables from Macrostrat, the ICS-derived international time scale from the Paleobiology Database, and the Chalk Group record from the BGS Lexicon, and reads the top age of the Cretaceous, the Mesozoic and the Maastrichtian from each server and the youngest-age value of the Chalk Group from BGS. The largest of these seven readings (the most generous to Darwin) is taken as the time elapsed since the latter part of the Chalk, and compared with the pre-registered thresholds of 300 Ma (pass) and 150 Ma (outright refutation).", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": { "verdict": "not-representative", "assessors": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "verdict": "not-representative", "confidence": 0.94, "file": "test-data/claim-tests/darwin-origin/darwin1859-ch09-03/faithfulness.json" }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "verdict": "faithful", "confidence": 0.86, "file": "test-data/claim-tests/darwin-origin/darwin1859-ch09-03/faithfulness.grok.json" } ], "status": "contested" } }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.945, "truth": 0.02, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.02 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.02 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.925, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAAqxTQVDJo0WtGjyIrMunSDHYteAWEF4v5oB0YAcRr_Y", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch09-04", "key": "ba76a01d061eb9a9", "label": "Soft-bodied organisms and remains on non-depositing sea floor are not preserved", "statement": "Wholly soft-bodied organisms are not preserved as fossils, and shells and bones decay and disappear where they lie on parts of the sea floor where sediment is not accumulating, so the fossil record is strongly biased.", "quote": "No organism wholly soft can be preserved. Shells and bones will decay and disappear when left on the bottom of the sea, where sediment is not accumulating.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. IX: On the Imperfection of the Geological Record", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "mixed", "evidence_kind": "biological", "data_test": { "verdict": "mixed", "confidence": 0.85, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "biological", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/darwin-origin/darwin1859-ch09-04/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered. Wholly soft-bodied phyla: Ctenophora, Platyhelminthes, Nemertea, Chaetognatha, Priapulida, Onychophora, Nematoda, Nematomorpha, Xenacoelomorpha, Gastrotricha, Placozoa, Rotifera, Tardigrada. Biomineralising phyla: Mollusca, Brachiopoda, Echinodermata, Bryozoa, Porifera, Cnidaria. For each phylum, count fossil occurrences in the Paleobiology Database (occs/list, rowcount) and accepted living species in the GBIF backbone taxonomy. Clause 1 is REFUTED if the soft-bodied phyla together have >= 10 fossil occurrences spread over >= 3 phyla, and SUPPORTED if they have 0. Clause 2 is SUPPORTED if the median of (fossil occurrences / living accepted species) over biomineralising phyla is >= 100 times the median over soft-bodied phyla, and REFUTED if it is < 10 times. Overall verdict: 'supports' if clause 1 supported and clause 2 supported; 'mixed' if clause 1 refuted and clause 2 supported; 'refutes' if clause 2 refuted (whatever clause 1 shows).", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered. See pass_criterion: clause 1 fails on >= 10 occurrences in >= 3 soft-bodied phyla; clause 2 fails if the biomineralising/soft-bodied ratio of occurrences per living species is < 10. The third sentence of the claim (shells and bones decay where sediment is not accumulating) is not tested here; no public dataset pairs preservation with sedimentation rate at the needed scale, and the two assessors' operationalisations also concentrate on the first two clauses.", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: pbdb-occs-rowcount, gbif-backbone-species-counts", "inference_method": "For each of 13 pre-registered wholly soft-bodied phyla and 6 biomineralising phyla, the phylum-level taxon was resolved in PBDB (taxa/list match_name, keeping accepted phylum-rank records so that homonyms such as the sloth clade 'Tardigrada' and the crane-fly genus 'Ctenophora' are excluded) and body-fossil occurrences counted with occs/list?base_id=...&pres=regular&rowcount. Accepted species per phylum were counted in the GBIF Backbone (species/search, status ACCEPTED), and living species estimated as total minus species flagged extinct. Occurrences per living species were compared between the two groups by medians; five example occurrences per soft-bodied phylum were saved to derived/soft_bodied_examples.csv.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.815, "truth": 0.275, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.43 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.12 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.83, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAiRYTmh8ziq1aJRVH8UhUDmypjPHX1plUsD0mq7I9oaw", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch09-05", "key": "9f7ffb16f20c7f8e", "label": "Successive formations are separated by wide intervals of unrecorded time", "statement": "The chief cause of the imperfection of the geological record is that successive geological formations are separated from each other by wide intervals of time during which no record was left.", "quote": "But the imperfection in the geological record mainly results from another and more important cause than any of the foregoing; namely, from the several formations being separated from each other by wide intervals of time.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. IX: On the Imperfection of the Geological Record", "kind": "historical-inference", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.753, "truth": 0.8, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.9 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.7 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.77, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RApQLOaRt44IUoT2seODUj5OoZy5dCji8mSteceEYonRU", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch09-06", "key": "8900ae6b4074d9c0", "label": "Thick fossil-rich formations accumulate during subsidence", "statement": "Fossiliferous formations thick and extensive enough to survive later erosion are formed in shallow seas during periods of slow subsidence in which the supply of sediment roughly keeps pace with sinking.", "quote": "I am convinced that all our ancient formations, which are rich in fossils, have thus been formed during subsidence.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. IX: On the Imperfection of the Geological Record", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.735, "truth": 0.81, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.79 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.83 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.75, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAE59gXxG4h-q7y669ERaybn53OpKJKeE8lJNvFS_iveE", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch09-07", "key": "814760918541f46c", "label": "Speciation peaks during elevation, but fossil deposits form mainly during subsidence", "statement": "Periods of land elevation favour the formation of new varieties and species but leave little geological record, whereas periods of subsidence bring much extinction and fewer new species yet produce most fossil-rich deposits, so transitional forms are seldom recorded.", "quote": "consequently during subsidence, though there will be much extinction, fewer new varieties or species will be formed; and it is during these very periods of subsidence, that our great deposits rich in fossils have been accumulated.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. IX: On the Imperfection of the Geological Record", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.653, "truth": 0.25, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.17 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.33 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.685, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAcEctx5HZbeTS6hFekAJtx_PXWsSR1N7Hn_z0jFaDBDE", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch09-08", "key": "9ca9061f10330cdf", "label": "A single formation is likely shorter than the time needed to transform a species", "statement": "Although each geological formation represents a long lapse of years, each is probably short compared with the time required to change one species into another, so a single formation should rarely contain a full graded series between species.", "quote": "Although each formation may mark a very long lapse of years, each perhaps is short compared with the period requisite to change one species into another.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. IX: On the Imperfection of the Geological Record", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.686, "truth": 0.365, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.31 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.42 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.705, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAVak5EXLixRxXstXnP-36qkWagCP-IyVC1A0fnr6pOiI", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch09-09", "key": "66ab9ac02545e2cf", "label": "First appearance of a species in a formation usually marks immigration", "statement": "When a marine species first appears partway through a formation, the most probable explanation is that it immigrated into that area at that time rather than originated there.", "quote": "when we see a species first appearing in any formation, the probability is that it only then first immigrated into that area.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. IX: On the Imperfection of the Geological Record", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.726, "truth": 0.805, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.82 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.79 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.75, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAtpNYt9RICOwfUJGwEY3xYF1zLlztbB7385NpbZh0kW4", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch09-10", "key": "2828e4bff6b488d6", "label": "Only a few transitional links should be found, and these will be ranked as species", "statement": "Given the imperfect record, one should expect to find in geological formations only a few transitional links of varying closeness between species, and even close links found in different stages of one formation will be ranked as distinct species by palaeontologists.", "quote": "We ought only to look for a few links, some more closely, some more distantly related to each other; and these links, let them be ever so close, if found in different stages of the same formation, would, by most palæontologists, be ranked as distinct species.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. IX: On the Imperfection of the Geological Record", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.559, "truth": 0.74, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.74 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.74 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.685, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAFhjlv0f0RAQ6SIbmgnJJy1LID4QgadsopGM-12gYHI0", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch09-11", "key": "78e338387722e740", "label": "Apparent sudden origin of groups reflects missing earlier records", "statement": "The apparently sudden appearance of whole groups of allied species in a formation is generally an artefact: such groups existed and multiplied earlier, elsewhere or during unrecorded intervals, so older fossils of them should continue to be found.", "quote": "But we continually over-rate the perfection of the geological record, and falsely infer, because certain genera or families have not been found beneath a certain stage, that they did not exist before that stage.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. IX: On the Imperfection of the Geological Record", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.74, "truth": 0.69, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.56 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.82 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.785, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAvfOvP5ZGshh5s9bEpxt52eSiMzmCVqYHk3RmJqA3Mms", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch09-12", "key": "6dfcb55941b388e6", "label": "After a key new way of life is acquired, many divergent forms arise quickly", "statement": "Adapting an organism to a new and peculiar way of life such as flight may take a long time, but once a few species have gained that advantage, many divergent forms can be produced in a comparatively short time and spread widely.", "quote": "but that when this had been effected, and a few species had thus acquired a great advantage over other organisms, a comparatively short time would be necessary to produce many divergent forms, which would be able to spread rapidly and widely throughout the world.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. IX: On the Imperfection of the Geological Record", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.578, "truth": 0.83, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.78 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.88 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.66, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAeGjUoQyPjyxFCxa8mzA9k3gJWWpHmCrgcI3cG4Kb0II", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch09-13", "key": "a7a47ac8f6e34cc4", "label": "Long ages of abundant life preceded the lowest Silurian strata", "statement": "If descent with modification is true, periods at least as long as the whole time from the Silurian to the present must have passed before the lowest Silurian strata were laid down, and during them the world swarmed with living creatures.", "quote": "Consequently, if my theory be true, it is indisputable that before the lowest Silurian stratum was deposited, long periods elapsed, as long as, or probably far longer than, the whole interval from the Silurian age to the present day; and that during these vast, yet quite unknown, periods of time, the world swarmed with living creatures.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. IX: On the Imperfection of the Geological Record", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.77, "truth": 0.835, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.95 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.72 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.785, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RATyX8iPF4jwvxMdHfvB2Y83LT462zR3aM5UJ-cUkmMBI", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch09-14", "key": "cfbeaabe50adddb0", "label": "Oceans and continents have kept roughly their present positions since the Silurian", "statement": "Since no oceanic island bears Palaeozoic or Secondary formations, oceans have probably occupied their present areas, and continents theirs, since the earliest Silurian period, though the arrangement may have differed long before.", "quote": "we may infer that where our oceans now extend, oceans have extended from the remotest period of which we have any record; and on the other hand, that where continents now exist, large tracts of land have existed, subjected no doubt to great oscillations of level, since the earliest silurian period.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. IX: On the Imperfection of the Geological Record", "kind": "historical-inference", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "refutes", "evidence_kind": "physical", "data_test": { "verdict": "refutes", "confidence": 0.95, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "physical", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/darwin-origin/darwin1859-ch09-14/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered. Using the GPlates Web Service with the Merdith et al. (2021) plate model, the model's coastline polygons are reconstructed to 440, 400, 350, 300, 250, 200, 150, 100 and 50 Ma. On a 2x2 degree global grid (area-weighted by cos latitude), classify each present-day grid cell as land or ocean from the time-0 coastlines. L_all = area fraction of present land cells that fall inside reconstructed coastline polygons at every one of the nine times; O_all = area fraction of present ocean cells that fall outside them at every time. The claim is SUPPORTED if L_all >= 0.75 and O_all >= 0.75.", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered. The claim is REFUTED if L_all < 0.50 or O_all < 0.50. Intermediate outcomes are 'mixed'. For comparison the per-time fractions (L_t, O_t) and the expected overlap for randomly placed continents (equal to the present land fraction) are reported. The PALEOMAP model is run as a robustness check and is not part of the verdict.", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: gplates-web-service-merdith2021, gplates-web-service-paleomap", "inference_method": "Coastline polygons of the MERDITH2021 plate model were downloaded from the GPlates Web Service at 0 Ma and at 440, 400, 350, 300, 250, 200, 150, 100 and 50 Ma, and rasterised by even-odd point-in-polygon onto a 2x2 degree grid (16,200 cells, cos-latitude weighted). Present land (28.8% of the globe, matching the real land fraction) was defined from the 0 Ma coastlines. For each past time the fraction of present land cells lying inside reconstructed coastlines (L_t) and of present ocean cells lying outside them (O_t) was computed, and L_all / O_all as the fractions persisting at all nine times. The same was run with the PALEOMAP model.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": { "verdict": "faithful-with-narrower-scope", "assessors": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "verdict": "faithful-with-narrower-scope", "confidence": 0.88, "file": "test-data/claim-tests/darwin-origin/darwin1859-ch09-14/faithfulness.json" } ], "status": "agreed" } }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.822, "truth": 0.045, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.04 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.05 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.83, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA3_phe6Ftw8r7e9nidjzyb4A65kDTEBFv5YlNFrQcidQ", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch10-01", "key": "de5847a147b72eed", "label": "New species have appeared slowly and successively on land and in the sea", "statement": "New species have appeared very slowly and one after another, both on land and in the waters, rather than in simultaneous batches.", "quote": "New species have appeared very slowly, one after another, both on the land and in the waters.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. X: On the Geological Succession of Organic Beings", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.738, "truth": 0.51, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.62 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.4 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.77, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA3XO_eUnOYaWqyz_i98aG4ZwlvNsfDBo8d25wigolLms", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch10-02", "key": "b29721146dab40e1", "label": "Species of different genera and classes change at different rates", "statement": "Species of different genera and classes have not changed at the same rate or to the same degree through geological time.", "quote": "Species of different genera and classes have not changed at the same rate, or in the same degree.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. X: On the Geological Succession of Organic Beings", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "supports", "evidence_kind": "biological", "data_test": { "verdict": "supports", "confidence": 0.7, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "biological", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/darwin-origin/darwin1859-ch10-02/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Using PBDB genus-rank taxa with first- and last-appearance ages for 14 higher taxa (Trilobita, Brachiopoda, Bivalvia, Gastropoda, Cephalopoda, Anthozoa, Echinoidea, Crinoidea, Ostracoda, Bryozoa, Mammalia, Reptilia, Actinopterygii, Chondrichthyes), restricted to extinct genera with >= 5 occurrences, genus duration = midpoint of first-appearance range minus midpoint of last-appearance range. Clause A (between classes): a Kruskal-Wallis test of genus duration across the higher taxa has p < 0.001 AND epsilon-squared effect size >= 0.02 AND the ratio of the largest to the smallest group median duration is >= 2. Clause B (between genera grouped by order, within classes): within each higher taxon having >= 3 orders with >= 20 qualifying genera each, a Kruskal-Wallis test of genus duration across orders has p < 0.001 and epsilon-squared >= 0.02; clause B passes if this holds in a majority of eligible higher taxa. Verdict 'supports' if A and B pass; 'mixed' if exactly one passes; 'refutes' if neither.", "disconfirming_observation": "Clause A fails if genus durations are statistically indistinguishable across classes (p >= 0.001), or the effect is trivial (epsilon-squared < 0.02), or every class median lies within a factor of 2 of every other. Clause B fails if orders within a class differ significantly and non-trivially in half or fewer of the eligible classes. Both failing refutes the claim. A sensitivity re-run with >= 20 occurrences per genus is reported; if the sign of either clause flips under that filter the result is downgraded to 'mixed' regardless.", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: pbdb-taxa-genus-appearances-14-higher-taxa", "inference_method": "For each of 14 higher taxa the PBDB genus list with appearance ages was downloaded; accepted extinct genera with >= 5 occurrences were kept and duration computed as the difference between first- and last-appearance midpoints. Clause A: Kruskal-Wallis across higher taxa with epsilon-squared effect size and the ratio of extreme group medians. Clause B: within each higher taxon with >= 3 orders of >= 20 genera, Kruskal-Wallis across orders. The whole procedure was repeated with >= 20 occurrences as a sensitivity check.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.765, "truth": 0.97, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.99 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.95 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.815, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAbTWaldCzVke307avPokKDDFEDQE2hpJPpMVfngdC8bc", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch10-03", "key": "77bd5ad8d931fdee", "label": "Land organisms change faster than marine organisms", "statement": "Terrestrial organisms appear to change at a faster rate through geological time than marine organisms.", "quote": "The productions of the land seem to change at a quicker rate than those of the sea, of which a striking instance has lately been observed in Switzerland.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. X: On the Geological Succession of Organic Beings", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.65, "truth": 0.49, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.3 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.68 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.715, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA0axwAOX8HGVnk6JJP8rkipGyJBakQTbVOMOFeCkgPIg", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch10-04", "key": "13e47f71fca94a6f", "label": "A species that has gone extinct never reappears", "statement": "Once a species has disappeared from the earth, the identical form never reappears, because any replacement would inherit different characters from its different progenitors.", "quote": "When a species has once disappeared from the face of the earth, we have reason to believe that the same identical form never reappears.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. X: On the Geological Succession of Organic Beings", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.703, "truth": 0.93, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.98 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.88 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.74, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAdRPZ6npNxX1GFP3WDlOTReRcMcxb_hv04ClCuG4Sia4", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch10-05", "key": "90657a6e79fe2516", "label": "A group's existence is continuous and it never reappears after disappearing", "statement": "Genera and families, like species, exist continuously from their first to last appearance and do not reappear after they have once disappeared, since their members must form an unbroken succession of generations.", "quote": "A group does not reappear after it has once disappeared; or its existence, as long as it lasts, is continuous.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. X: On the Geological Succession of Organic Beings", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.752, "truth": 0.74, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.88 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.6 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.765, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA5Aj1wR29njz3TK78AklR0lu-RI2SrRgvFAgZ6wzFeYc", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch10-06", "key": "5da8194de653f171", "label": "Groups rise gradually in species number to a maximum, then gradually decline", "statement": "The number of species in a genus, or genera in a family, generally increases gradually through time to a maximum and then, sooner or later, gradually decreases to extinction.", "quote": "the general rule being a gradual increase in number, till the group reaches its maximum, and then, sooner or later, it gradually decreases.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. X: On the Geological Succession of Organic Beings", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "mixed", "evidence_kind": "biological", "data_test": { "verdict": "mixed", "confidence": 0.7, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "biological", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/darwin-origin/darwin1859-ch10-06/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered: a family's trajectory is scored 'Darwinian' when, with R_i = range-through genus richness in stage bin i (from the family's first to last bin) and M = max R_i: (a) R_first <= 0.5 M, (b) R_last <= 0.5 M, and (c) the set of bins with R_i > 0.5 M is contiguous (a single peak). The claim is SUPPORTED if at least two thirds (>= 0.667) of qualifying families are Darwinian, where qualifying = extinct family within the sampled higher taxa with >= 10 genera having occurrences and a duration spanning >= 6 stage bins.", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered: REFUTED if fewer than half (< 0.5) of qualifying families are Darwinian. A fraction in [0.5, 0.667) is MIXED. If fewer than 50 families qualify the result is inconclusive (underpowered).", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: paleobiodb-data1.2-api", "inference_method": "For each of 9 higher taxa the accepted extinct families with occurrences were listed from PBDB taxa/list. For every family whose recorded span was >= 5 Myr, occs/diversity (count=genera, time_reso=stage) gave per-stage counts; range-through richness R = X_bt + X_Ft + X_bL + X_FL was taken from the first to the last stage with R > 0, and the number of genera = sum(X_Ft + X_FL). Families with >= 10 genera and >= 6 stage bins qualified (n = 313). Each trajectory was scored for low start (R_first <= 0.5 max), low end (R_last <= 0.5 max) and a single peak (bins with R > 0.5 max contiguous); the fraction scoring all three was compared with the pre-registered thresholds (>= 0.667 supports, < 0.5 refutes), with a Clopper-Pearson 95% CI.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.803, "truth": 0.6, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.64 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.56 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.82, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAYcm8K4DtzVxMvO8_-MB3pBkUfFEXij2wWLgE5Ji96F4", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch10-07", "key": "ebf4f7dae7597636", "label": "Species and groups disappear gradually, place by place, not by global catastrophes", "statement": "Species and groups of species generally become extinct gradually, one after another, disappearing first from one place, then another, and finally from the world, rather than being swept away together by catastrophes.", "quote": "species and groups of species gradually disappear, one after another, first from one spot, then from another, and finally from the world.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. X: On the Geological Succession of Organic Beings", "kind": "historical-inference", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "mixed", "evidence_kind": "biological", "data_test": { "verdict": "mixed", "confidence": 0.6, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "biological", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/darwin-origin/darwin1859-ch10-07/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Two groups are analysed separately with Paleobiology Database genus-level occurrences from the Campanian through the Pliocene: Mollusca and Mammalia. Clause A (no catastrophic concentration): among PBDB-extinct genera whose global last occurrence (midpoint of its age range) falls in the Tertiary (Danian to Piacenzian, 17 ICS stages), the single stage holding the most last occurrences holds < 1/3 of them, and at least 4 stages are needed to accumulate 50% of them when stages are ranked by count. Clause B (place by place): among those Tertiary-extinct genera that have >= 2 occurrences on each of >= 2 continents (PBDB continent codes), the fraction whose regional last occurrences are staggered (the earliest-vanishing continent's last-occurrence minimum age is older than the last-vanishing continent's last-occurrence maximum age, i.e. non-overlapping age ranges) is > 0.5 AND exceeds the same fraction computed for the K-Pg control set (PBDB-extinct genera whose global last occurrence midpoint falls in the Maastrichtian, using Campanian-Maastrichtian occurrences). A clause passes only if it passes in both groups. Verdict 'supports' if both clauses pass, 'mixed' if exactly one passes, 'refutes' if neither passes.", "disconfirming_observation": "Clause A fails if, in either group, one Tertiary stage holds >= 1/3 of the genus last occurrences or <= 3 stages hold 50% of them. Clause B fails if, in either group, the staggered fraction is <= 0.5 or does not exceed the K-Pg control's staggered fraction (which would mean the apparent staggering is no greater than what incomplete sampling produces in a known simultaneous extinction). Both clauses failing refutes the claim; the K-Pg control itself is outside the claim's Tertiary scope and is used only as a sampling-artefact baseline.", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: pbdb-occurrences-mollusca-mammalia-campanian-pliocene, pbdb-taxa-appearances-extant-flags, pbdb-intervals-ics-stages", "inference_method": "Genus-resolved PBDB occurrences of Mollusca and Mammalia from the Campanian to the Pliocene were downloaded for each of nine PBDB continents. For each genus flagged extinct in PBDB taxonomy, the last occurrence (smallest minimum age) was located and its age midpoint assigned to an ICS stage; genera whose database-wide last appearance is younger than the Tertiary were excluded. Clause A measured the concentration of Tertiary last occurrences across the 17 Tertiary stages (largest single-stage share; number of ranked stages needed to reach 50%). Clause B took Tertiary-extinct genera with >= 2 occurrences on each of >= 2 continents and called their disappearance staggered when the first-vanishing continent's last-occurrence age range lies entirely before the last-vanishing continent's; the same statistic was computed for genera with a Maastrichtian last occurrence as a K-Pg catastrophe control.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.775, "truth": 0.495, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.55 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.44 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.79, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAOQvy3iFdYC_pCshiCxT1O6-XpgBsxWDFFBBXELmDEao", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch10-08", "key": "1e1420daae5363d4", "label": "The extinction of a group is generally slower than its origination", "statement": "The complete extinction of the species of a group generally takes longer than their production, so a group's diversity tapers more gradually at its end than at its beginning, though some groups such as ammonites ended suddenly.", "quote": "There is reason to believe that the complete extinction of the species of a group is generally a slower process than their production", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. X: On the Geological Succession of Organic Beings", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "supports", "evidence_kind": "biological", "data_test": { "verdict": "supports", "confidence": 0.6, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "biological", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/darwin-origin/darwin1859-ch10-08/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Most extinct families have a diversity centre of gravity below 0.5 of their duration (early peak, longer decline).", "disconfirming_observation": "Extinct families are symmetric or top-heavy (median centre of gravity at or above 0.5).", "admissible_datasets": "A community fossil occurrence database giving first and last appearance ages for genera with family classification, compiled independently of Darwin; open access; at least 100 extinct families with five or more genera.", "inference_method": "Range-through genus diversity per family on a 0.1 Myr grid; centre of gravity relative to family duration; one-sided Wilcoxon signed-rank test against 0.5 with p < 0.01, median < 0.5 and share below 0.5 >= 55% for support; median >= 0.5 refutes.", "explicit": true }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.764, "truth": 0.475, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.47 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.48 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.795, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAPa6EwVIrpFQviSp8Qv760arSIs2HZ4HfNmLcKhkvP4A", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch10-09", "key": "4dd8e37882fd6fe1", "label": "Rarity precedes extinction", "statement": "Species generally become rare before they become extinct, as seen in recent Tertiary formations and in animals exterminated by humans.", "quote": "We see in many cases in the more recent tertiary formations, that rarity precedes extinction; and we know that this has been the progress of events with those animals which have been exterminated, either locally or wholly, through man’s agency.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. X: On the Geological Succession of Organic Beings", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "proved", "proof": "lean", "verification": "lean", "math": true, "theorem": true, "notation": "\\forall t,\\ N_t \\le N_{t+1} + 1;\\ N_a \\ge 1;\\ N_{a+d} = 0 \\Rightarrow \\exists t \\in [a, a+d],\\ N_t = 1", "lean_theorems": [ "DarwinLaws.Succession.exists_eq_of_unitStepsDown", "DarwinLaws.Succession.rarity_precedes_extinction" ], "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.738, "truth": 0.88, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.9 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.86 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.825, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA3IPU6_g30xYkAo7RJihoB2A5gQbpGJDKOxkwFXgNhZk", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch10-10", "key": "1fc02d6949a4d42b", "label": "In later geological periods new species have roughly balanced extinctions", "statement": "The number of species has not increased indefinitely, at least in the later geological periods, so the production of new forms has caused the extinction of about the same number of old forms.", "quote": "so that looking to later times we may believe that the production of new forms has caused the extinction of about the same number of old forms.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. X: On the Geological Succession of Organic Beings", "kind": "historical-inference", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.688, "truth": 0.425, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.39 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.46 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.715, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAjyfUj8X5xPxXrxkEeXXicDGnQMb--LSufvP1Qx5-tCE", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch10-11", "key": "6aab9a8ef6e33ee6", "label": "New descendants mainly exterminate their parent species and closest relatives", "statement": "Because competition is most severe between the most similar forms, the improved descendants of a species generally cause the extinction of the parent species and of its nearest allies in the same genus.", "quote": "Hence the improved and modified descendants of a species will generally cause the extermination of the parent-species; and if many new forms have been developed from any one species, the nearest allies of that species, _i.e._ the species of the same genus, will be the most liable to extermination.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. X: On the Geological Succession of Organic Beings", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.517, "truth": 0.31, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.3 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.32 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.64, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAYD85RBTN9Kb-XJnlAZR2oBu5zKnJW9pk4LpxLUuGaMI", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch10-12", "key": "fe12e64cccb075de", "label": "Marine forms of life change almost simultaneously throughout the world", "statement": "The forms of marine life change almost simultaneously, in a broad geological sense, throughout the world, so that formations in distant regions under different climates can be correlated by their fossils.", "quote": "Scarcely any palæontological discovery is more striking than the fact, that the forms of life change almost simultaneously throughout the world.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. X: On the Geological Succession of Organic Beings", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "mixed", "evidence_kind": "biological", "data_test": { "verdict": "mixed", "confidence": 0.6, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "biological", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/darwin-origin/darwin1859-ch10-12/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered. Using Paleobiology Database marine Metazoa genus lists per ICS stage (stages >= 1 Myr) for each of six PBDB continents (North America, South America, Europe, Africa, Asia, Australia), (A) for every continent-stage with >= 100 genera, find the stage whose pooled genus list from the other five continents has the highest Jaccard similarity with it; and (B) for every continent, compute the series of proportional genus loss between consecutive stages (fraction of genera in stage i absent from stage i+1, both stages >= 100 genera) and the Spearman correlation of this series between every pair of continents. The claim is SUPPORTED if in (A) the best-matching stage is the same or an adjacent stage for >= 85% of continent-stages, AND in (B) the mean pairwise Spearman correlation is > 0 with permutation p < 0.01 (independent permutation of stage order within each continent, 2000 permutations).", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered. The claim is REFUTED if the same-or-adjacent matching rate in (A) is < 60%, or the mean pairwise correlation in (B) is <= 0. Other outcomes are 'mixed'. Exact-stage matching rate, matching rate within two stages, and per-continent-pair correlations are reported as supplementary numbers.", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: pbdb-occs-taxa-by-stage-and-continent", "inference_method": "PBDB data service 1.2: ICS stage list (intervals/list.json?scale=1, type 'age'; 95 stages with duration >= 1 Myr) and, for each stage and each of six PBDB continents (cc=NOA, SOA, EUR, AFR, ASI, AUS), the marine Metazoa genus list from occs/taxa.json (rank=genus, envtype=marine, timerule=major): 570 API calls, cached and hashed individually (derived/files.json). (A) For every continent-stage with >= 100 genera (357 of them), the Jaccard similarity of its genus list with the pooled genus list of the other five continents was computed for all 95 stages and the best-matching stage recorded (derived/stage_matching.csv). (B) For every continent, proportional genus loss between consecutive stages (1 - |G_i & G_i+1| / |G_i|, both stages >= 100 genera) was computed; Spearman correlation of these series between every continent pair with >= 10 shared boundaries (13 pairs), and a permutation test of the mean pairwise rho (stage order permuted independently within each continent, 2000 permutations, seed fixed in analysis.py). Verdict follows the pre-registered rule: supported requires (A) >= 85% same-or-adjacent and (B) mean rho > 0 with p < 0.01; refuted if (A) < 60% or (B) mean rho <= 0; otherwise mixed.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.817, "truth": 0.71, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.58 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.84 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.815, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAmasaeBuNo01CKi_GtUOQ0UdhnH9Rgm7RT5ewdPvYZ1c", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch10-13", "key": "bcfd5653970d69ef", "label": "The more ancient a form, the more it differs from living forms", "statement": "As a general rule, the older a fossil form is, the more it differs from living forms.", "quote": "The more ancient any form is, the more, as a general rule, it differs from living forms.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. X: On the Geological Succession of Organic Beings", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "proved", "proof": "lean", "verification": "lean", "math": true, "theorem": true, "notation": "i \\le j \\le \\text{now} \\Rightarrow |F_i \\cap F_{\\text{now}}| \\le |F_j \\cap F_{\\text{now}}|,\\quad F_t = \\{L : \\text{first}_L \\le t \\le \\text{last}_L\\}", "lean_theorems": [ "DarwinLaws.Succession.shared_antitone_left", "DarwinLaws.Succession.olderFauna_shares_fewer_with_living" ], "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.704, "truth": 0.84, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.86 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.82 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.725, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAJKt7Ho7TfmAUpmzFBI2B49jzxV3WAodUs8v_Six0bRc", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch10-14", "key": "7d68ce3f4e966162", "label": "Extinct forms fill gaps between existing genera, families and orders", "statement": "All fossils can be classed in existing groups or between them, and extinct forms fill up the wide intervals between existing genera, families and orders, forming with living forms one natural system.", "quote": "That the extinct forms of life help to fill up the wide intervals between existing genera, families, and orders, cannot be disputed.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. X: On the Geological Succession of Organic Beings", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.57, "truth": 0.76, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.84 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.68 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.68, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAKw91t1qsWTqbQpuhTLGHBve-Ta9m37o9T7Y694yOiFQ", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch10-15", "key": "c496a984bcdd06f6", "label": "Older members of distinct groups differ less from each other than living members", "statement": "Groups that have changed much over known geological periods should, in older formations, approach each other slightly, so that their older members differ from each other in fewer characters than their living members do.", "quote": "All that we have a right to expect, is that those groups, which have within known geological periods undergone much modification, should in the older formations make some slight approach to each other; so that the older members should differ less from each other in some of their characters than do the existing members of the same groups", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. X: On the Geological Succession of Organic Beings", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.605, "truth": 0.785, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.77 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.8 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.68, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAtjfvPphWX_iWPu2pFVlg5SuTJ5tmh0Dnon6TQdrICGQ", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch10-16", "key": "2a69274178ab5724", "label": "Fossils from consecutive formations are more alike than those from remote ones", "statement": "Fossils from two consecutive formations are far more closely related to each other than fossils from two formations widely separated in time, and the fauna of each period is broadly intermediate between those before and after it.", "quote": "fossils from two consecutive formations are far more closely related to each other, than are the fossils from two remote formations.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. X: On the Geological Succession of Organic Beings", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "proved", "proof": "lean", "verification": "lean", "math": true, "theorem": true, "notation": "i \\le j \\le k \\Rightarrow F_i \\cap F_k \\subseteq F_j,\\ |F_i \\cap F_k| \\le |F_i \\cap F_j|,\\ |F_i \\cap F_k| \\le |F_j \\cap F_k|;\\quad \\text{Markov: } p^n < p^m\\ (0 < p < 1,\\ m < n)", "lean_theorems": [ "DarwinLaws.Succession.shared_subset_fauna_between", "DarwinLaws.Succession.shared_antitone_right", "DarwinLaws.Succession.shared_antitone_left", "DarwinLaws.Succession.persistence_strictAnti" ], "formalization": null, "evidence": "supports", "evidence_kind": "biological", "data_test": { "verdict": "supports", "confidence": 0.9, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "biological", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/darwin-origin/darwin1859-ch10-16/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered. Using Paleobiology Database marine Metazoa genus lists per international stage (ICS 2020 scale as served by PBDB; stages shorter than 1 Myr excluded; stages with fewer than 200 genera excluded), compute Jaccard similarity between all stage pairs. The claim is SUPPORTED if (i) the Spearman correlation between pairwise Jaccard similarity and the separation of stage midpoints (Myr) is <= -0.5 with Mantel permutation p < 0.001, (ii) the mean Jaccard similarity of consecutive stage pairs is at least 2 times the mean similarity of pairs separated by 5 or more intervening stages, and (iii) for at least 80% of stages i with both neighbours, J(i-1, i+1) <= min(J(i-1, i), J(i, i+1)) (intermediacy).", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered. The claim is REFUTED if the Spearman correlation is > -0.2, or the consecutive/remote similarity ratio is < 1.2, or intermediacy holds for fewer than 50% of stages. Other outcomes are 'mixed'.", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: pbdb-occs-taxa-by-stage", "inference_method": "The 101 ICS stages of PBDB time scale 1 were retrieved; the 6 stages shorter than 1 Myr (Holocene and Pleistocene) were excluded and the Fortunian (139 genera) fell below the 200-genus floor, leaving 94 stages. For each stage the list of marine Metazoa genera with at least one occurrence (occs/taxa, envtype=marine, timerule=major) was downloaded (38,533 distinct genera; median 1,070 per stage). Jaccard similarity was computed for all 4,371 stage pairs and correlated (Spearman) with midpoint age separation, with significance from 2000 permutations of stage labels; mean similarity of consecutive pairs was compared with pairs separated by five or more stages; and for each interior stage the bracketing stages' similarity was compared with their similarity to the middle stage.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.829, "truth": 0.905, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.91 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.9 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.85, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAJ3k4Slc-bNYsb8WqOf9dQi-xUMN9Z74VatUYd94_OxQ", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch10-17", "key": "cb840ece87a88eca", "label": "Later faunas would outcompete earlier faunas under similar conditions", "statement": "Because each new species arose by having some advantage over preceding forms, a more recent fauna or flora would beat and exterminate an older one if they were placed in competition under a similar climate, and in this sense recent forms are higher.", "quote": "If under a nearly similar climate, the eocene inhabitants of one quarter of the world were put into competition with the existing inhabitants of the same or some other quarter, the eocene fauna or flora would certainly be beaten and exterminated", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. X: On the Geological Succession of Organic Beings", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.274, "truth": 0.19, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.12 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.26 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.705, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAHVpZJeovNCCamRwIHOZhFoQHgMfhCBFsk0m69B45sD8", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch10-18", "key": "de737e642e46393f", "label": "Each region's fossils are succeeded by allied living forms in the same region", "statement": "Within the same continent or area, the extinct forms of the later Tertiary are closely allied to the living inhabitants (e.g. fossil and living marsupials in Australia, edentates in South America), because each area's inhabitants leave modified descendants there.", "quote": "the great law of the long enduring, but not immutable, succession of the same types within the same areas, is at once explained; for the inhabitants of each quarter of the world will obviously tend to leave in that quarter, during the next succeeding period of time, closely allied though in some degree modified descendants.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. X: On the Geological Succession of Organic Beings", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "supports", "evidence_kind": "biological", "data_test": { "verdict": "supports", "confidence": 0.8, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "biological", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/darwin-origin/darwin1859-ch10-18/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Fossil side: PBDB Miocene-Pliocene (23.03-2.58 Ma) occurrences of Mammalia on each of five continents (Africa, Eurasia = PBDB EUR+ASI, North America, South America, Australia), excluding marine orders/families (Cetacea, Sirenia, Desmostylia, Phocidae, Otariidae, Odobenidae), giving for each continent the set of fossil families with >= 2 occurrences there. Living side: GBIF non-fossil, non-captive occurrence facets by family for Mammalia on each GBIF continent (Europe+Asia merged), a family counting as living on a continent if it has >= 20 such records there (same marine exclusions). For each continent X, S(X) = fraction of X's fossil families that are living on X, and O(X) = mean over the other four continents Y of the fraction of X's fossil families living on Y. Pass if S(X) > O(X) for all five continents AND the pooled ratio mean S / mean O >= 1.2 AND, in a permutation test that randomly reassigns the five living-family sets to continents (all 120 permutations, i.e. exact), the observed sum of S(X) is the maximum or tied maximum (p <= 1/120 + ties). The same statistics at genus level (fossil genera that are extant and living on the same continent) are reported as an extra and do not enter the verdict.", "disconfirming_observation": "Fails if fossil families are no more likely to survive on their own continent than elsewhere: S(X) <= O(X) for two or more continents, or the pooled ratio is < 1.2, or the observed sum of S(X) is not the maximum over the 120 continent-label permutations. One continent failing with the other conditions met gives 'mixed'.", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: pbdb-occurrences-mammalia-miocene-pliocene-by-continent, gbif-occurrence-facets-mammalia-family-by-continent, gbif-species-api-family-names", "inference_method": "Miocene-Pliocene mammal occurrences were downloaded from PBDB for each continent and reduced to families (and genera) with >= 2 occurrences, excluding marine orders and families. Living families (and genera) per continent were taken from GBIF family/genus occurrence facets (>= 20 non-fossil, non-captive records). For each continent the fraction of its fossil families living there today (S) was compared with the mean fraction living on each other continent (O), and the sum of S was compared with all 120 reassignments of living-family sets to continents.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.764, "truth": 0.9, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.94 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.86 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.8, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA7hc1H91iOoOL0KM5n-7W4qQk119SVfau88_0iO5rRQs", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch11-01", "key": "b3f80ef338c9ce8a", "label": "Physical conditions do not explain the similarity or dissimilarity of regional biotas", "statement": "Neither the similarity nor the dissimilarity of the inhabitants of different regions can be explained by their climate and other physical conditions; regions with closely parallel conditions (e.g. Australia, South Africa and western South America at 25°–35° S) have utterly different faunas and floras.", "quote": "the first great fact which strikes us is, that neither the similarity nor the dissimilarity of the inhabitants of various regions can be accounted for by their climatal and other physical conditions.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. XI: Geographical Distribution", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "supports", "evidence_kind": "biological", "data_test": { "verdict": "supports", "confidence": 0.75, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "biological", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/darwin-origin/darwin1859-ch11-01/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered. For the 23 regions in derived/regions.csv (5x5 degree boxes, pre-assigned to a continent and to one of six climate classes), genus lists of mammals, birds and vascular plants are taken from GBIF occurrences (genera with >= 3 georeferenced records in the box), and climate from the NASA POWER climatology (annual mean 2 m temperature, annual precipitation, seasonal temperature range at five points per box). For each taxon group, pairwise Jaccard dissimilarity between regions is regressed on standardised climate distance and a same-continent indicator (permutation test over region labels, 2000 permutations). The claim is SUPPORTED if, in at least 2 of the 3 taxon groups, (a) the same-continent effect is significant (p < 0.05) and its partial R-squared exceeds that of climate distance, and (b) the mean Jaccard similarity of climate-matched pairs on different continents is lower than the mean similarity of climate-mismatched pairs on the same continent.", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered. The claim is REFUTED if, in at least 2 of the 3 taxon groups, climate distance has the larger partial R-squared and the same-continent effect is not significant, or climate-matched cross-continental pairs are more similar than climate-mismatched same-continent pairs. Other outcomes are 'mixed'. If GBIF returns fewer than 20 genera for a region/group, that region is dropped for that group; if fewer than 15 regions remain for a group, the group is not evaluated.", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: gbif-occurrence-api, nasa-power-climatology", "inference_method": "Genus lists for Mammalia, Aves and Tracheophyta were obtained for the 23 pre-registered 5x5 degree regions from GBIF genus facets (genera with >= 3 georeferenced, non-flagged, present records); climate was summarised from NASA POWER climatology at five points per box (annual mean T2M, annual precipitation, seasonal temperature range), standardised (log precipitation) and converted to Euclidean climate distance. Pairwise Jaccard dissimilarity (253 pairs) was regressed on climate distance and a same-continent indicator with a Mantel-type permutation test (2000 permutations of region labels), and partial R-squared values compared; separately, the mean similarity of climate-matched cross-continental pairs was compared with climate-mismatched same-continent pairs. Central Arabia was dropped for mammals (17 genera < 20).", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.832, "truth": 0.82, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.86 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.78 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.855, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAgbufvOugTkm8JZwPP2YjgmVp4QHpBlrNOJOvvQtRrZs", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch11-02", "key": "11590acdd2db50f3", "label": "Barriers to migration correspond closely to differences between regional biotas", "statement": "Barriers of any kind that obstruct free migration (oceans, isthmuses, mountain ranges, deserts, large rivers) are closely related to the differences between the inhabitants of different regions, and the more impassable and long-standing the barrier, the greater the difference.", "quote": "A second great fact which strikes us in our general review is, that barriers of any kind, or obstacles to free migration, are related in a close and important manner to the differences between the productions of various regions.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. XI: Geographical Distribution", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "supports", "evidence_kind": "biological", "data_test": { "verdict": "supports", "confidence": 0.8, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "biological", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/darwin-origin/darwin1859-ch11-02/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered: 26 fixed region pairs are assigned a barrier rank (0 none, 1 large river, 2 shallow strait dry at glacial low stands, 3 mountain range or desert, 4 deep strait never bridged, 5 ocean basin). For each pair and each of three groups (Rodentia, Squamata, Amphibia) the Sørensen dissimilarity (1 - 2|A∩B|/(|A|+|B|)) of species sets (GBIF occurrences, >= 3 records per species in the box) is computed and averaged over the three groups. SUPPORTS if Spearman's rho between mean dissimilarity and barrier rank is >= 0.5 with p < 0.01 (n = 26), AND the partial Spearman correlation controlling for log centroid distance is > 0 with p < 0.05, AND mean dissimilarity of the rank-0 (no barrier) pairs is lower than that of every barrier class with rank >= 2.", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered: REFUTES if Spearman's rho <= 0, or if the no-barrier pairs are on average at least as dissimilar as the deep-strait and ocean pairs (ranks 4-5). Any other outcome is MIXED. A pair in which any group has fewer than 10 species in either box is dropped for that group; if fewer than 20 pairs retain all three groups, groups are averaged over those available and this is reported; if fewer than 15 pairs remain the result is inconclusive (underpowered).", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: gbif-occurrence-search-api", "inference_method": "For each of 52 pre-registered boxes and three groups (Rodentia minus Rattus and Mus, Squamata, Amphibia) the GBIF occurrence API returned speciesKey facet counts (coordinates present, no geospatial issue, PRESENT, 1900-2026, fossil/living specimens excluded); species with >= 3 records formed the box's set. For each of the 26 pairs the Sørensen dissimilarity was computed per group (pairs with < 10 species in a box were dropped for that group) and averaged over the available groups; the Siberian control pair had too few species in every group and was dropped (n = 25). Spearman's rho between mean dissimilarity and the pre-registered barrier rank, and the partial Spearman correlation controlling for log centroid distance, were computed and compared with the pre-registered thresholds, together with the mean dissimilarity per barrier class.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.788, "truth": 0.905, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.93 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.88 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.815, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RArdpbhjT5yVPxUrssrI36j5qlnV1aqT2vYU1WQd_Ieis", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch11-03", "key": "b6101b32e9d34195", "label": "Species of the same continent or sea are related despite differing stations", "statement": "The inhabitants of the same continent or sea show a pervasive affinity to one another, so that distinct but related species replace one another from place to place and across different habitats, rather than being replaced by forms from other continents living under similar conditions.", "quote": "A third great fact, partly included in the foregoing statements, is the affinity of the productions of the same continent or sea, though the species themselves are distinct at different points and stations.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. XI: Geographical Distribution", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "supports", "evidence_kind": "biological", "data_test": { "verdict": "supports", "confidence": 0.85, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "biological", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/darwin-origin/darwin1859-ch11-03/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered: for each of five taxonomic groups (Mammalia, Aves, Squamata, Amphibia, Magnoliopsida), compute the Sørensen similarity of genus sets (2|A∩B|/(|A|+|B|), GBIF occurrence-derived genus lists, genera with >= 5 records per region) for (i) the 5 within-continent / different-habitat region pairs and (ii) the 20 between-continent / same-habitat region pairs. The claim is SUPPORTED if the mean of (i) exceeds the mean of (ii) in at least 4 of the 5 groups AND a one-sided Mann-Whitney U test pooling all groups' pairs (i) vs (ii) gives p < 0.01.", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered: REFUTED if the mean of (i) exceeds the mean of (ii) in 2 or fewer of the 5 groups, or if the pooled one-sided Mann-Whitney test in the opposite direction ((ii) > (i)) gives p < 0.05. Any other outcome is MIXED. If fewer than 4 groups have >= 20 genera in every region, the result is inconclusive (underpowered).", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: gbif-occurrence-search-api", "inference_method": "For each of 5 groups (Mammalia, Aves, Squamata, Amphibia, Magnoliopsida) and 10 pre-registered regions (a hot-desert and a humid-forest box on each of 5 continents) the GBIF occurrence API was queried for facet counts of genusKey and familyKey (hasCoordinate, no geospatial issue, PRESENT, 1900-2026, fossil and living specimens excluded). Genera with >= 5 records formed the regional genus set; 11 domestic/commensal genera were removed. Sørensen similarity was computed for all 45 region pairs per group and pairs were classed as within-continent/different-habitat (5 per group), between-continent/same-habitat (20) or between-continent/different-habitat (20). Means were compared per group and a pooled one-sided Mann-Whitney U test (within-continent/different-habitat > between-continent/same-habitat) was run on the 25 vs 100 genus-level pair similarities.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.804, "truth": 0.925, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.95 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.9 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.835, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RATuqLcCgeSS9uoQ54HXw2uHQIpk9m4ghLNoaQwCoZdKQ", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch11-04", "key": "fa226324834bb481", "label": "The bond linking inhabitants of the same area through space and time is inheritance", "statement": "The deep affinity uniting the living and extinct inhabitants of the same area, independent of physical conditions, is due to inheritance from common ancestors, while the differences among regions arise mainly from modification through natural selection and only subordinately from the direct influence of physical conditions.", "quote": "This bond, on my theory, is simply inheritance, that cause which alone, as far as we positively know, produces organisms quite like, or, as we see in the case of varieties nearly like each other.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. XI: Geographical Distribution", "kind": "historical-inference", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.619, "truth": 0.855, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.85 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.86 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.7, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAYbKymG6oMKhhXhnv_kMLZI622aWU-9bBJpng8CaWeC4", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch11-05", "key": "b1fa1f5fa022ff71", "label": "Migration or isolation alone does not cause modification", "statement": "Migration and isolation do not by themselves cause modification; a group of competing species that migrates together into a new, isolated country will be little modified, because modification is driven by organisms being brought into new relations with one another.", "quote": "If, for instance, a number of species, which stand in direct competition with each other, migrate in a body into a new and afterwards isolated country, they will be little liable to modification; for neither migration nor isolation in themselves can do anything.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. XI: Geographical Distribution", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.455, "truth": 0.32, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.34 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.3 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.615, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAoFqXJSImbY1ypy2nLV85D7r8SqhtsXcgSCnEu6bzma0", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch11-06", "key": "0b5a27ee26bab494", "label": "Many genera are confined to one region and the most natural genera are local", "statement": "Some families, many sub-families, very many genera and still more sections of genera are confined to a single region, and the most natural genera (those whose species are most closely related) are generally confined to one area.", "quote": "Some few families, many sub-families, very many genera, and a still greater number of sections of genera are confined to a single region; and it has been observed by several naturalists, that the most natural genera, or those genera in which the species are most closely related to each other, are generally local, or confined to one area.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. XI: Geographical Distribution", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "mixed", "evidence_kind": "biological", "data_test": { "verdict": "mixed", "confidence": 0.7, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "biological", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/darwin-origin/darwin1859-ch11-06/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Clause 1 (regional confinement by rank): in each of the analysed classes (Mammalia, Aves, Amphibia, Reptilia, Magnoliopsida, Liliopsida, Pinopsida; GBIF backbone), the fraction of assessable genera that are confined to one region (>= 95% of their continent-assigned, non-fossil, non-captive occurrence records in one of six regions: Africa, Eurasia, North America, South America, Oceania, Antarctica) is > 0.50 in at least five of the seven classes, and in at least five of seven classes the confined fraction for genera exceeds the confined fraction for families. Clause 2 (natural genera are local, mammals): the Spearman partial correlation between genus crown age (MRCA age of the sampled congeneric species in the Upham et al. 2019 DNA-only MCC tree) and the number of regions holding >= 5% of the genus's records, controlling for log(number of sampled species in the genus), is positive with p < 0.05, AND the single-region fraction among genera in the youngest crown-age tercile exceeds that in the oldest tercile. The claim is 'supports' if both clauses pass; 'mixed' if exactly one passes; 'refutes' if both fail.", "disconfirming_observation": "Clause 1 fails if the confined fraction of genera is <= 0.50 in three or more of the seven classes, or genera are not more confined than families in three or more classes. Clause 2 fails if the partial Spearman correlation between crown age and number of regions is <= 0 or not significant at p < 0.05, or the youngest-tercile single-region fraction does not exceed the oldest-tercile fraction. Both clauses failing refutes the claim.", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: gbif-occurrence-search-facets, upham2019-mamphy-dnaonly-mcc-tree", "inference_method": "For seven GBIF backbone classes and each of seven GBIF continents, one faceted occurrence search (coordinates present, no geospatial issue, fossil and living specimens excluded) returned record counts per genus, family (and species for the smaller classes). Europe and Asia were merged into Eurasia. Taxa with >= 20 records were scored as confined if >= 95% of records fell in one region, and the fraction of confined taxa was compared between genera and families within each class. For mammals, genus crown ages were computed as the MRCA age of sampled congeners in the Upham et al. 2019 DNA-only MCC tree, genus names were matched to GBIF genus keys, and crown age was correlated (Spearman, and partial Spearman controlling log sampled richness) with the number of regions holding >= 5% of the genus's records; single-region fractions were compared between youngest and oldest crown-age terciles.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.775, "truth": 0.77, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.72 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.82 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.8, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAIUDc5GaDxnI0qkRXOITHYuubJClUsw7VS1RECzIw4cE", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch11-07", "key": "898a6b8c570d8b59", "label": "Each species arose in a single area and spread from there", "statement": "Each species was first produced in one area only and subsequently migrated from that area as far as its powers of migration and subsistence allowed under past and present conditions, rather than arising independently at several points.", "quote": "Hence it seems to me, as it has to many other naturalists, that the view of each species having been produced in one area alone, and having subsequently migrated from that area as far as its powers of migration and subsistence under past and present conditions permitted, is the most probable.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. XI: Geographical Distribution", "kind": "historical-inference", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.621, "truth": 0.895, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.94 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.85 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.715, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAM9e7-UYVWLpN1pOSXdI6DucROJ65BwiAw0Dw3V0Y-Y0", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch11-08", "key": "ebb0457c3b455621", "label": "Continents and oceanic islands were not united by land in the recent period", "statement": "Although continents have undergone great oscillations of level, separate continents have not been continuously joined to each other and to the existing oceanic islands within the period of existing species, contrary to the land-bridge hypotheses of Forbes and others.", "quote": "But I do not believe that it will ever be proved that within the recent period continents which are now quite separate, have been continuously, or almost continuously, united with each other, and with the many existing oceanic islands.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. XI: Geographical Distribution", "kind": "historical-inference", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "supports", "evidence_kind": "physical", "data_test": { "verdict": "supports", "confidence": 0.9, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "physical", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/darwin-origin/darwin1859-ch11-08/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered. Using the NOAA ETOPO 2022 global relief model exported from the NCEI image service onto a 0.1-degree grid, cells with elevation >= -130 m are treated as potentially emergent and labelled into connected components (with longitude wrap). The 45 pre-registered oceanic islands in derived/sites.csv are checked for membership of a continental component (continent seeds in the same file). Five continental gaps are tested for connection at -130 m: (T1) Eurasia-North America via the Atlantic, with the Bering region (lat > 55 N, lon 160 E to 160 W) masked as deep; (T2) Africa/Eurasia-South America; (T3) Australia/New Guinea-Asia; (T4) Antarctica-South America; (T5) Antarctica-Australia. The claim is SUPPORTED if none of T1-T5 is connected at -130 m and at least 90% of the oceanic islands are unconnected. A set of 20 continental (shelf or fragment) islands is run as a positive control and is not part of the verdict.", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered. The claim is REFUTED if two or more of T1-T5 are connected at -130 m, or if 25% or more of the oceanic islands connect to a continent at -130 m. Other outcomes are 'mixed'. The Bering connection between Eurasia and North America is reported separately with its sill depth (the shallowest threshold at which the two connect) because Darwin's wording concerns continents that are 'now quite separate' and he explicitly accepted a near-continuous circumpolar land connection during the glacial period (Chapter XI); it does not enter the verdict.", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: noaa-etopo-2022-ncei-imageserver", "inference_method": "ETOPO 2022 (60 arc-second, surface) was fetched from the NCEI THREDDS NetCDF Subset Service in six 60-degree longitude bands with horizStride=6, giving a 1800 x 3600 global grid at 0.1 degree (nearest-sample subsampling; the six NetCDF files, 26 MB in total, are cached in data/ and hashed in result.json). Cells with elevation >= -130 m were labelled into 4-connected components with longitude wrap-around (scipy.ndimage.label plus union-find across the +-180 meridian). Six continent seed cells and 45 oceanic and 20 continental islands are listed in derived/sites.csv; each island is located by the nearest present-day land cell (z >= 0) within +-5 cells, or failing that the nearest cell emergent at -130 m (its bank). An island is 'connected' if its -130 m component contains a continent seed. Five continental gaps were tested for connectivity at -130 m, each restricted to the relevant ocean: T1 Eurasia-North America on cells north of 20 N with the Bering region (lat > 55 N, lon 160 E to 160 W) masked; T2 Africa-South America on cells south of 30 N; T3 Eurasia-Australia, T4 Antarctica-South America and T5 Antarctica-Australia on the full grid. For every gap, the Bering connection and every island, the sill depth (shallowest sea level at which the pair joins) was found by bisection on the threshold (14 steps, lower bound -6000 m for gaps and -1000 m for islands). Outputs: derived/island_connectivity.csv and derived/measured.json. Verdict by the pre-registered rule.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.806, "truth": 0.78, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.86 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.7 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.795, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA4NyR7O1jBQPtF2LsY9QiRGKvhHwbI4-1KLXkgUkjvIY", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch11-09", "key": "553cfb9bae0276d7", "label": "About a tenth of a flora's seeds could survive sea-drift across 900 miles", "statement": "Based on flotation and germination experiments, the seeds of roughly 10 per cent of the plants of a flora, after drying, could be floated by sea currents across about 900 miles of sea and still germinate.", "quote": "Therefore it would perhaps be safer to assume that the seeds of about 10/100 plants of a flora, after having been dried, could be floated across a space of sea 900 miles in width, and would then germinate.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. XI: Geographical Distribution", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.613, "truth": 0.365, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.23 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.5 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.72, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAL8gDqcCiopTTCLh2zrXJjvqatoofPodYcjsFbQioEfY", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch11-10", "key": "d8859afd818dccc6", "label": "Occasional transport bridges hundreds of miles but not distant continents", "statement": "Occasional means of transport (sea currents, birds, drift timber, icebergs) suffice to carry organisms across a few hundred miles of sea, between islands or from a continent to a nearby island, but not between distant continents, so the floras of distant continents remain distinct.", "quote": "These means, however, would suffice for occasional transport across tracts of sea some hundred miles in breadth, or from island to island, or from a continent to a neighbouring island, but not from one distant continent to another.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. XI: Geographical Distribution", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.635, "truth": 0.49, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.58 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.4 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.69, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAbBGCgdWhCCtmXwo9YqYdOW6C7kIy2OnWinlBS_3NwaQ", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch11-11", "key": "7d39668f4f28030a", "label": "Identical alpine species on distant mountains are relicts of the Glacial period", "statement": "The same arctic and alpine species on widely separated mountain summits and in arctic regions are relicts of populations that spread across the intervening lowlands during the Glacial period and were stranded on mountains and in the far north as the climate warmed.", "quote": "Hence, when the warmth had fully returned, the same arctic species, which had lately lived in a body together on the lowlands of the Old and New Worlds, would be left isolated on distant mountain-summits (having been exterminated on all lesser heights) and in the arctic regions of both hemispheres.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. XI: Geographical Distribution", "kind": "historical-inference", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.728, "truth": 0.88, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.92 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.84 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.765, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAu1mMsH4v8mxosdlKp8Oo7b1JJ-fKsKs3ra2swhGaxG8", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch11-12", "key": "69843ccfec888b5b", "label": "North American and European temperate biotas share ancestry from Pliocene circumpolar land", "statement": "The relationship, with very little identity, between the temperate inhabitants of North America and Europe arises because a common biota inhabited the nearly continuous circumpolar land in warmer Pliocene times and then migrated southward, becoming separated and modified on each continent.", "quote": "On this view we can understand the relationship, with very little identity, between the productions of North America and Europe,—a relationship which is most remarkable, considering the distance of the two areas, and their separation by the Atlantic Ocean.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. XI: Geographical Distribution", "kind": "historical-inference", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.678, "truth": 0.68, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.78 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.58 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.705, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA24ABRTzHV_N-rD1BsD1loNHlDaIIxLSp9yFiFWfBumE", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch11-13", "key": "f8f0e471029548fd", "label": "The Glacial period was simultaneous across the whole world", "statement": "The Glacial period, which lasted a very long time at each place, was at least in part simultaneous across the whole world, or at least along broad longitudinal belts from pole to pole, so that global temperature was lower at the same time.", "quote": "If this be admitted, it is difficult to avoid believing that the temperature of the whole world was at this period simultaneously cooler.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. XI: Geographical Distribution", "kind": "historical-inference", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "mixed", "evidence_kind": "physical", "data_test": { "verdict": "mixed", "confidence": 0.75, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "physical", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/darwin-origin/darwin1859-ch11-13/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "In the MARGO gridded compilation of LGM (19-23 ka) sea-surface temperature anomalies (modern minus LGM, annual mean, 5x5 degree cells), (i) >= 90 % of cells with data show cooling (anomaly > 0), (ii) in every 30-degree latitude band of each hemisphere with >= 5 cells, and in each of the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific basins, >= 80 % of cells show cooling and the area-weighted mean anomaly is > 0 with a one-sample t-test p < 0.01, and (iii) the area-weighted global mean anomaly is >= 1 degree C.", "disconfirming_observation": "Refutes if any hemisphere, or any 30-degree band of a hemisphere with >= 5 cells, or any basin, has a majority of cells warmer than modern, or if the global fraction of cooling cells is < 60 %. Any other outcome is mixed.", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: margo-2009-lgm-sst-anomaly-grid", "inference_method": "analysis.py downloads the MARGO supplementary zip, parses Table S9 (307 ocean grid cells with LGM reconstructions), computes cooling = modern WOA98 SST minus LGM SST per cell (the table's own 'anomaly' column is LGM minus modern despite the caption, so the two temperature columns are used directly), and evaluates the fraction of cooler cells, the cosine-latitude weighted mean cooling and a one-sided t-test globally, per hemisphere, per 30-degree latitude band and per ocean basin (basins assigned from longitude). The verdict follows the pre-registered thresholds.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.859, "truth": 0.74, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.74 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.74 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.87, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAqezAxkoBuL7MUhuQ-vREC6CcINLzURtl0cByMwevqfk", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch11-14", "key": "8ccbdebe8578b743", "label": "Plants of high mountains and temperate lowlands worldwide are identical or closely related", "statement": "Throughout the world, plants growing on high mountains (including tropical ones) and on the temperate lowlands of the northern and southern hemispheres are sometimes identical species but much more often distinct yet closely related species.", "quote": "Hence we see that throughout the world, the plants growing on the more lofty mountains, and on the temperate lowlands of the northern and southern hemispheres, are sometimes identically the same; but they are much oftener specifically distinct, though related to each other in a most remarkable manner.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. XI: Geographical Distribution", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "supports", "evidence_kind": "biological", "data_test": { "verdict": "supports", "confidence": 0.8, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "biological", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/darwin-origin/darwin1859-ch11-14/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered. Regions: 4 tropical high-mountain regions M (GBIF records with elevation >= 3500 m in the N Andes and Trans-Mexican volcanic belt, >= 3000 m in the East African mountains and New Guinea highlands), their 4 tropical-lowland controls C (same bounding box, elevation <= 800 m), 3 northern (N) and 3 southern (S) temperate lowland regions L (elevation <= 600 m). Species/genus present if >= 3 records. For a pair (X, L): f_sp = |species(X) ∩ species(L)| / |species(X)|, f_gen = |genera(X) ∩ genera(L)| / |genera(X)|. SUPPORTS requires all of: (A) in >= 20 of the 24 (M, L) pairs, 0 < f_sp < 0.5 f_gen (identical species exist but are the minority of allied relationships); (B) in >= 20 of 24 (M, L) pairs f_gen(M, L) > f_gen(C_M, L) (one-sided binomial sign test vs 0.5, p < 0.01); (C) in >= 7 of the 9 (N, S) pairs f_gen(N, S) exceeds the mean over k of f_gen(C_k, S).", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered: REFUTES if (B) holds in <= 12 of 24 pairs or (C) holds in <= 4 of 9 pairs. Any other combination is MIXED. If any mountain region yields fewer than 50 species, that region is dropped; with fewer than 3 mountain regions remaining the result is inconclusive (underpowered).", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: gbif-occurrence-search-api", "inference_method": "For 14 pre-registered regions the GBIF occurrence API was queried for Tracheophyta facet counts of speciesKey and genusKey restricted to the region's bounding box and elevation band (coordinates present, no geospatial issue, PRESENT, 1900-2026, fossil/living specimens excluded); taxa with >= 3 records formed each region's species and genus set. For every (tropical mountain M, temperate lowland L) pair the fraction of M's species also in L (f_sp) and of M's genera also in L (f_gen) was computed, and f_gen was compared with the same quantity for the tropical lowland control C at the foot of the same mountains. For the 9 (north, south) temperate pairs f_gen was compared with the mean f_gen from the four tropical lowland controls to the same southern region. Criteria (A), (B), (C) were counted and (B) tested with a one-sided binomial sign test.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.8, "truth": 0.665, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.87 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.46 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.82, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAoz5PsxFltJDevOZx0PyARgYVgGfG87L4WoUReiiDhss", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch11-15", "key": "945373c6dbd0283d", "label": "Glacial interchange ran mainly north to south because northern forms were more dominant", "statement": "Many more identical and allied plant forms migrated from north to south during the Glacial period than in the reverse direction, because the greater land area of the north and the larger populations there had made northern forms more advanced and dominant through natural selection and competition.", "quote": "I suspect that this preponderant migration from north to south is due to the greater extent of land in the north, and to the northern forms having existed in their own homes in greater numbers, and having consequently been advanced through natural selection and competition to a higher stage of perfection or dominating power, than the southern forms.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. XI: Geographical Distribution", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.515, "truth": 0.4, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.38 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.42 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.64, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAvy4hHUxDjlnYGxeC7-9ekl8KyiScAiwywgshVDiFCS4", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch11-16", "key": "c1199f8bf115e851", "label": "Northern species naturalise far more often in the south than the reverse", "statement": "At the present day many European species have become naturalised and partly displaced the natives in La Plata and to a lesser degree in Australia, whereas extremely few southern-hemisphere species have become naturalised anywhere in Europe.", "quote": "Just in the same manner as we see at the present day, that very many European productions cover the ground in La Plata, and in a lesser degree in Australia, and have to a certain extent beaten the natives; whereas extremely few southern forms have become naturalised in any part of Europe,", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. XI: Geographical Distribution", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "refutes", "evidence_kind": "biological", "data_test": { "verdict": "refutes", "confidence": 0.7, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "biological", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/darwin-origin/darwin1859-ch11-16/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Using World Checklist of Vascular Plants native and introduced distribution records by TDWG level-3 unit: A_LP = number of species native in Europe (TDWG level-1 region 1) and not native in La Plata that are recorded as introduced in La Plata (units AGE Argentina Northeast and URU Uruguay); B_LP = number of species native in La Plata and not native in Europe that are recorded as introduced in any European unit; likewise A_AU and B_AU for Australia (TDWG level-2 region 50: WAU, NTA, SOA, QLD, NSW, VIC, TAS). Supports if A_LP >= 5 * B_LP and A_AU >= 5 * B_AU.", "disconfirming_observation": "Refutes if A_LP < 2 * B_LP or A_AU < 2 * B_AU (no strong asymmetry, or reversed). Otherwise mixed. The secondary clause 'in a lesser degree in Australia' is evaluated as A_LP > A_AU and reported, but is not part of the verdict rule because absolute counts now depend on two centuries of differing colonisation history.", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: wcvp-world-checklist-vascular-plants", "inference_method": "analysis.py reads the WCVP distribution table for accepted species, defines Europe as TDWG level-1 region 1, La Plata as level-3 units AGE (Argentina Northeast) + URU (Uruguay), and Australia as level-2 region 50. A_LP is the number of species native in Europe, not native in La Plata, and flagged introduced in La Plata; B_LP is the number native in La Plata, not native in Europe, and flagged introduced in any European unit; A_AU and B_AU likewise for Australia. The pre-registered rule compares A/B ratios with thresholds 5 (supports) and 2 (refutes). Two sensitivity analyses are reported but do not enter the verdict: a wider La Plata (AGE, AGW, AGS, URU, PAR) and a restriction of each source pool to species whose entire native range lies in one TDWG continent (Europe, South America, Australasia).", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": { "verdict": "not-representative", "assessors": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "verdict": "not-representative", "confidence": 0.99, "file": "test-data/claim-tests/darwin-origin/darwin1859-ch11-16/faithfulness.json" }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "verdict": "faithful-with-narrower-scope", "confidence": 0.76, "file": "test-data/claim-tests/darwin-origin/darwin1859-ch11-16/faithfulness.grok.json" } ], "status": "contested" } }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.855, "truth": 0.85, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.9 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.8 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.865, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAnMv_ydBfS7IO20q2DYopOiGTRB8TFoxVyLDaTGDLbYg", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch11-17", "key": "fa6a24a2aa87a987", "label": "Distinct southern genera spread from a once-vegetated Antarctica before the Glacial period", "statement": "Distinct species of genera confined to the southern hemisphere spread in radiating lines from the antarctic lands, which supported a peculiar flora during a warmer period before the Glacial period, reaching southern America, Australia and New Zealand by occasional transport and former islands.", "quote": "I am inclined to look in the southern, as in the northern hemisphere, to a former and warmer period, before the commencement of the Glacial period, when the antarctic lands, now covered with ice, supported a highly peculiar and isolated flora.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. XI: Geographical Distribution", "kind": "historical-inference", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.646, "truth": 0.705, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.83 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.58 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.695, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RACIrY_SZurmMrU7aflSw85M_1NQAsKPSHmgBIuN4XwAc", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch12-01", "key": "bbf9eb9d68cd56d4", "label": "Fresh-water species range widely and allied species occur worldwide", "statement": "Despite being separated by land and sea barriers, many fresh-water species of quite different classes have enormous ranges, and allied fresh-water species prevail throughout the world.", "quote": "Not only have many fresh-water species, belonging to quite different classes, an enormous range, but allied species prevail in a remarkable manner throughout the world.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. XII: Geographical Distribution, continued", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "supports", "evidence_kind": "biological", "data_test": { "verdict": "supports", "confidence": 0.75, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "biological", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/darwin-origin/darwin1859-ch12-01/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered: for every family in the fixed fresh-water and terrestrial lists, GBIF occurrence facets give the set of species and genera recorded (>= 3 records) on each of the six inhabited continents. Per class, compute P_sp = proportion of species recorded on >= 3 continents and P_gen = proportion of genera recorded on >= 3 continents, separately for the fresh-water and the terrestrial family set. SUPPORTS if in all three classes P_sp(fresh-water) > P_sp(terrestrial) AND P_gen(fresh-water) > P_gen(terrestrial), and the pooled species-level continent counts differ in the fresh-water direction (one-sided Mann-Whitney, p < 0.001).", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered: REFUTES if, in at least two of the three classes, P_sp(fresh-water) <= P_sp(terrestrial) or P_gen(fresh-water) <= P_gen(terrestrial). Any other outcome is MIXED. A class with fewer than 200 species in either habitat set is dropped; with fewer than two classes remaining the result is inconclusive (underpowered).", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: gbif-occurrence-search-api", "inference_method": "Each pre-registered family was resolved to a GBIF backbone key and, for each of six continents, the occurrence API returned facet counts of speciesKey and genusKey (coordinates present, no geospatial issue, PRESENT, 1900-2026, fossil/living specimens excluded); a species or genus was scored present on a continent with >= 3 records. Per class and habitat set the proportion of species (P_sp) and of genera (P_gen) recorded on >= 3 continents was computed and the fresh-water and terrestrial sets compared; continents-per-species distributions were compared with one-sided Mann-Whitney tests per class and pooled.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.798, "truth": 0.86, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.88 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.84 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.805, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAavzsGXiO4_Lx8VmDukdA28CNhP2jMIg6fp0hnAYHm-Q", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch12-02", "key": "5755d574c543a5f8", "label": "Fresh-water fish species are not shared between distant continents", "statement": "The same species of fresh-water fish never occur in the fresh waters of distant continents, although within a continent fish species often range widely and irregularly, different river systems sharing some species but not others.", "quote": "In regard to fish, I believe that the same species never occur in the fresh waters of distant continents. But on the same continent the species often range widely and almost capriciously; for two river-systems will have some fish in common and some different.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. XII: Geographical Distribution, continued", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "refutes", "evidence_kind": "biological", "data_test": { "verdict": "refutes", "confidence": 0.8, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "biological", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/darwin-origin/darwin1859-ch12-02/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Among FishBase species flagged as fresh-water only (Fresh = 1, Brack = 0, Saltwater = 0) and not anadromous, catadromous, amphidromous or oceanodromous, zero species have 'native' or 'endemic' country status (FishBase country table) in at least one country on each side of any ocean-separated continent pair. Ocean-separated pairs are all pairs among {Eurasia (Europe + Asia), Africa, North America (incl. Central America and the Caribbean), South America, Oceania (Australia + New Guinea + Pacific)} except Eurasia-Africa and North America-South America, which are joined by land.", "disconfirming_observation": "Five or more such species have native status in >= 2 countries on each side of an ocean-separated pair (robust counterexamples, not single-country errors): refutes. Between 1 and 4 robust species, or only single-country cases: mixed. The share of strictly fresh-water species that are shared across an ocean is reported to distinguish 'never' from 'rarely'.", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: fishbase-2024-07-species, fishbase-2024-07-country, fishbase-2024-07-countref", "inference_method": "analysis.py downloads the FishBase 24.07 species, country and countref CSVs, keeps species flagged fresh-water only (Fresh, not Brack, not Saltwater) whose AnaCat is not anadromous/catadromous/amphidromous/oceanodromous (16,213 species, 16,174 with native country records), joins their native/endemic country records to FishBase's Continent field, collapses Europe+Asia into Eurasia, and counts species with native records on both sides of each ocean-separated landmass pair. A species is 'robust' if it has >= 2 native countries on each side. Two post-hoc checks, labelled as such in measured.extra.post_hoc, were added after inspecting the output: removing Indonesia/Timor-Leste from the Asian side of the Eurasia|Oceania pair (Indonesian Papua is on New Guinea), and re-running the Eurasia|North America pair with brackish-tolerant non-diadromous species admitted.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": { "verdict": "faithful-with-narrower-scope", "assessors": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "verdict": "faithful-with-narrower-scope", "confidence": 0.88, "file": "test-data/claim-tests/darwin-origin/darwin1859-ch12-02/faithfulness.json" } ], "status": "agreed" } }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.88, "truth": 0.84, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.94 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.74 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.89, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RABCJG-sKp89inXiAo8gsKma_lsNPBUFhb9xAgQp9XjLg", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch12-03", "key": "3303a24bcfce437d", "label": "Water birds disperse seeds and eggs, explaining wide ranges of fresh-water life", "statement": "The wide distribution of fresh-water plants and lower fresh-water animals depends mainly on the transport of their seeds and eggs by animals, especially wide-flying fresh-water birds that move between often distant bodies of water.", "quote": "But the wide distribution of fresh-water plants and of the lower animals, whether retaining the same identical form or in some degree modified, I believe mainly depends on the wide dispersal of their seeds and eggs by animals, more especially by fresh-water birds, which have large powers of flight, and naturally travel from one to another and often distant piece of water.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. XII: Geographical Distribution, continued", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.563, "truth": 0.855, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.83 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.88 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.665, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAtN9iTwinsujXLq4lpN7GfWsRTP3II62CqodDmDGakPc", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch12-04", "key": "b5486f59a67bdbb3", "label": "Oceanic islands have fewer species than equal continental areas", "statement": "Oceanic islands are inhabited by far fewer species of all kinds than continental areas of equal size, a difference not explained by physical conditions.", "quote": "The species of all kinds which inhabit oceanic islands are few in number compared with those on equal continental areas", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. XII: Geographical Distribution, continued", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "proved", "proof": "lean", "verification": "lean", "math": true, "theorem": true, "notation": "I(P - S) = E S \\iff S^* = \\frac{P I}{I + E};\\quad E > 0 \\Rightarrow S^* < P;\\ \\partial S^*/\\partial I > 0,\\ \\partial S^*/\\partial E < 0;\\quad d_1 < d_2 \\Rightarrow S^*(I(d_2)) < S^*(I(d_1))", "lean_theorems": [ "DarwinLaws.Islands.mwEquilibrium_iff", "DarwinLaws.Islands.mwEquilibrium_lt_pool", "DarwinLaws.Islands.mwEquilibrium_strictMono_I", "DarwinLaws.Islands.mwEquilibrium_strictAnti_E", "DarwinLaws.Islands.remoter_island_poorer" ], "formalization": null, "evidence": "supports", "evidence_kind": "biological", "data_test": { "verdict": "supports", "confidence": 0.9, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "biological", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/darwin-origin/darwin1859-ch12-04/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Fit log10(native vascular plant species) = a + b*log10(area km2) + c*|centroid latitude| by ordinary least squares on continental (mainland-connected) TDWG level-3 botanical countries from the World Checklist of Vascular Plants, then predict richness for each pre-registered oceanic island unit at its own area and latitude. Supports if (i) the median ratio of observed to predicted richness across oceanic units is <= 0.5, (ii) >= 80 % of oceanic units lie below the continental prediction, and (iii) a one-sided Wilcoxon signed-rank test of the oceanic log-residuals against zero gives p < 0.01.", "disconfirming_observation": "Refutes if the median observed/predicted ratio is >= 1.0 or fewer than 60 % of oceanic units lie below the prediction. Any other outcome is mixed. Oceanic units whose area lies outside the range of continental areas used in the fit are excluded from the test and listed.", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: wcvp-world-checklist-vascular-plants, tdwg-wgsrpd-level3", "inference_method": "analysis.py computes the spherical area and area-weighted centroid latitude of each of the 369 TDWG level-3 units and marks a unit 'continental' if any boundary point lies within 2 km of another unit's boundary (241 units after excluding Antarctica), 'oceanic' if in the pre-registered list, and 'other island' otherwise. Native richness per unit is the number of accepted WCVP species with a distribution record flagged neither introduced, extinct nor doubtful. An OLS fit log10 S = a + b log10 A + c |lat| on continental units (b = 0.199, c = -0.0088, R2 = 0.33) predicts richness for each oceanic unit; 28 of 60 oceanic units fall inside the continental area range (196 to 3.84 million km2) and enter the test. The measured value is the median observed/predicted ratio; the rule also requires the fraction below prediction and a one-sided Wilcoxon test.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.859, "truth": 0.935, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.95 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.92 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.88, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAAtqz7UwNApUstD8C5IX1XwKnc1kE7Dc07zzofhiAY30", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch12-05", "key": "3e336120982984c4", "label": "Oceanic islands have a very high proportion of endemic species", "statement": "Although oceanic islands have few species, the proportion of their species that are endemic (found nowhere else) is often extremely large relative to their area, as expected if occasional colonists arriving in a new isolated district are especially liable to modification.", "quote": "Although in oceanic islands the number of kinds of inhabitants is scanty, the proportion of endemic species (_i.e._ those found nowhere else in the world) is often extremely large.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. XII: Geographical Distribution, continued", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "proved", "proof": "lean", "verification": "lean", "math": true, "theorem": true, "notation": "\\sigma(1 - \\pi) = m \\pi \\iff \\pi^* = \\frac{\\sigma}{\\sigma + m};\\quad m_1 < m_2 \\Rightarrow \\pi^*(m_2) < \\pi^*(m_1);\\quad d_1 < d_2 \\Rightarrow \\pi^*(m(d_1)) < \\pi^*(m(d_2))", "lean_theorems": [ "DarwinLaws.Islands.endemicFraction_iff", "DarwinLaws.Islands.endemicFraction_strictAnti_m", "DarwinLaws.Islands.remoter_island_more_endemic" ], "formalization": null, "evidence": "supports", "evidence_kind": "biological", "data_test": { "verdict": "supports", "confidence": 0.85, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "biological", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/darwin-origin/darwin1859-ch12-05/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered. Using the World Checklist of Vascular Plants, for every TDWG level-3 area compute the native accepted species count S and the proportion E/S of those species that are native to no other level-3 area. Oceanic islands are the 63 level-3 areas pre-registered as 'oceanic' in derived/island_classes.csv; the mainland comparison set is every level-3 area not listed in that file as any kind of island. Areas (km2) are computed from the TDWG WGSRPD level-3 polygons. The claim is SUPPORTED if (i) the median S of oceanic islands is below the median S of mainland areas ('scanty'), (ii) the median E/S of oceanic islands with at least 20 native species is at least twice the median E/S of mainland areas, and (iii) at least 70% of oceanic islands with at least 20 native species lie above the mainland regression line of logit(E/S) on log10(area) ('extremely large relative to their area'). Islands with fewer than 20 native species are excluded from (ii) and (iii) because a proportion is unstable for them.", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered. The claim is REFUTED if the median E/S of oceanic islands is not greater than the mainland median, or if fewer than 50% of oceanic islands lie above the mainland area regression line. Other outcomes are 'mixed'. Supplementary: the fraction of oceanic islands with E/S >= 0.25, and the same statistics for the 'other-island' class (continental and arc islands), are reported.", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: kew-wcvp, tdwg-wgsrpd-level3", "inference_method": "Native (non-introduced, non-doubtful) occurrences of 358,113 accepted non-hybrid WCVP v16 species were tabulated by TDWG level-3 area; a species native to exactly one area was counted as endemic to it. Areas (km2) were computed from the WGSRPD level-3 GeoJSON by spherical polygon area. Islands were classified in advance (derived/island_classes.csv): 63 oceanic, 61 other islands, the rest mainland (Antarctica excluded). Medians of native richness and endemic proportion were compared between the 60 oceanic islands with >= 20 native species and 247 mainland areas; logit(endemic proportion) was regressed on log10(area) for mainland areas and the fraction of oceanic islands above that line computed; a one-sided Mann-Whitney test compared the distributions.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.809, "truth": 0.935, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.97 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.9 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.835, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAWbzuYhMplPLRZU08DVRCRBIAVZS1Ms580k9HTsPC1QA", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch12-06", "key": "62f68896f6a619bc", "label": "Island endemism is low in groups that arrive easily and in numbers", "statement": "Within one island, some groups are almost wholly endemic while others are not, because groups that immigrate readily and in a body (e.g. marine birds, sea-shells, regularly visiting land-birds) keep their mutual relations undisturbed and so are little modified.", "quote": "But it by no means follows, that, because in an island nearly all the species of one class are peculiar, those of another class, or of another section of the same class, are peculiar; and this difference seems to depend on the species which do not become modified having immigrated with facility and in a body, so that their mutual relations have not been much disturbed.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. XII: Geographical Distribution, continued", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.663, "truth": 0.715, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.63 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.8 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.7, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAbgO9GKMmvh815cHLXNsrY3yvWMyy897bG-2sLAxhUL8", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch12-07", "key": "b13b4b9c7586ff9d", "label": "Natural selection turns island herbaceous plants into shrubs and trees", "statement": "Because trees rarely reach distant oceanic islands, herbaceous plants that colonise them gain an advantage by growing taller, so natural selection often converts insular herbaceous plants first into bushes and then into trees, explaining why islands have trees in orders that are elsewhere herbaceous.", "quote": "If so, natural selection would often tend to add to the stature of herbaceous plants when growing on an island, to whatever order they belonged, and thus convert them first into bushes and ultimately into trees.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. XII: Geographical Distribution, continued", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.629, "truth": 0.815, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.79 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.84 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.69, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAnvc-3LaMftSIsaMoNFIRhKGur5CgYZNJm5xhpA5DsUE", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch12-08", "key": "57c92b38f018b4c4", "label": "Frogs, toads and newts are absent from oceanic islands", "statement": "Batrachians (frogs, toads and newts) are naturally absent from oceanic islands, not because conditions there are unsuitable (introduced frogs thrive) but because they and their spawn are killed by sea-water and so cannot cross the sea.", "quote": "Bory St. Vincent long ago remarked that Batrachians (frogs, toads, newts) have never been found on any of the many islands with which the great oceans are studded. I have taken pains to verify this assertion, and I have found it strictly true.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. XII: Geographical Distribution, continued", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "refutes", "evidence_kind": "biological", "data_test": { "verdict": "refutes", "confidence": 0.93, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "biological", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/darwin-origin/darwin1859-ch12-08/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Across a pre-registered list of 40 oceanic island units (see planned unit list in interpretation), zero units have an amphibian species that is endemic to the unit by GBIF occurrence data, where 'endemic' means the species has >= 10 non-fossil, non-captive occurrence records worldwide and >= 95 % of them fall inside the unit. An endemic species cannot be a human introduction, so endemism is used as a conservative proof of native status.", "disconfirming_observation": "Two or more independent oceanic island units each have at least one endemic amphibian species by the rule above: the universal statement is refuted. Exactly one such unit: 'mixed' (a single counterexample Darwin himself might have disputed, like his New Zealand frog). The proportion of units with native amphibians is reported in either case to characterise the 'general absence' Darwin also asserted.", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: gbif-occurrence-api-amphibia, gbif-backbone-taxonomy", "inference_method": "analysis.py queries the GBIF occurrence API for class Amphibia (classKey 131) within each of 41 pre-registered oceanic island units (ISO territory code or WGS84 bounding box), excluding fossil and living/captive specimens, and facets by speciesKey. For each species recorded in a unit it fetches the species' global record count (for bounding-box units both counts are restricted to georeferenced records without geospatial issues, so that un-georeferenced museum specimens do not deflate the fraction) and flags the species endemic to the unit if it has >= 10 records worldwide and >= 95 % of them inside the unit. The measured value is the number of units with at least one endemic amphibian; the verdict follows the pre-registered rule (0 supports, 1 mixed, >= 2 refutes).", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": { "verdict": "faithful-with-narrower-scope", "assessors": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "verdict": "faithful-with-narrower-scope", "confidence": 0.96, "file": "test-data/claim-tests/darwin-origin/darwin1859-ch12-08/faithfulness.json" } ], "status": "agreed" } }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.883, "truth": 0.63, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.62 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.64 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.885, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAFTL-ktNqSiWmxItb19Z7_YtznsfT74rbXNP9FY_WRSw", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch12-09", "key": "e5ed76ca98e020c0", "label": "No native terrestrial mammals on islands more than 300 miles from a continent", "statement": "No native terrestrial mammal inhabits any island more than about 300 miles from a continent or large continental island, even though small mammals thrive when introduced there, because terrestrial mammals cannot cross wide stretches of sea.", "quote": "as yet I have not found a single instance, free from doubt, of a terrestrial mammal (excluding domesticated animals kept by the natives) inhabiting an island situated above 300 miles from a continent or great continental island;", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. XII: Geographical Distribution, continued", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "refutes", "evidence_kind": "biological", "data_test": { "verdict": "refutes", "confidence": 0.9, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "biological", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/darwin-origin/darwin1859-ch12-09/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Among pre-registered island units whose representative point lies > 482.8 km from the nearest landmass of area >= 100,000 km2 (continents and great islands, computed from Natural Earth 1:50m land polygons), zero units have a non-volant, non-marine mammal species endemic to the unit by GBIF occurrence data (>= 10 non-fossil, non-captive records worldwide, >= 95 % inside the unit). Endemism is used as conservative proof of native status; bats (Chiroptera), cetaceans, sirenians, pinnipeds and Homo sapiens are excluded.", "disconfirming_observation": "At least one far unit has >= 2 endemic non-volant terrestrial mammal species, or >= 2 far units each have >= 1: refutes (more than 'a single instance' and not attributable to one doubtful record). Exactly one far unit with exactly one endemic species: mixed. The share of far units with native terrestrial mammals is reported either way.", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: natural-earth-50m-land, gbif-occurrence-api-mammalia, gbif-species-api", "inference_method": "analysis.py downloads Natural Earth 1:50m land polygons, computes spherical areas, keeps the 23 landmasses >= 100,000 km2, and measures the great-circle distance from each pre-registered unit's representative point(s) to the nearest densified vertex of those landmasses (excluding a polygon containing the point). 43 of the 52 units lie beyond 482.8 km. For each far unit it facets GBIF Mammalia occurrences by species (country code or bounding box; fossil and living specimens excluded), drops Chiroptera, Cetacea, Sirenia, pinniped and cetacean families and Hominidae via the species API, and flags a species endemic if it has >= 10 records worldwide and >= 95 % inside the unit (for box units both counts are restricted to georeferenced records without geospatial issues, a correction made after the first run showed un-georeferenced museum specimens deflating the fraction). Verdict follows the pre-registered rule.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": { "verdict": "faithful-with-narrower-scope", "assessors": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "verdict": "faithful-with-narrower-scope", "confidence": 0.96, "file": "test-data/claim-tests/darwin-origin/darwin1859-ch12-09/faithfulness.json" } ], "status": "agreed" } }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.871, "truth": 0.28, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.28 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.28 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.875, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAh3bMz-SpgM4-pBrKeH023PKDCN_rY-VTKqJznoRZtPw", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch12-10", "key": "739d22519257c961", "label": "Bats occur on almost every island, often as endemic species", "statement": "Although terrestrial mammals are absent from oceanic islands, bats occur on almost every island, and remote islands often have their own endemic bat species, because bats can fly across wide spaces of sea and are then modified in their new homes.", "quote": "Though terrestrial mammals do not occur on oceanic islands, ærial mammals do occur on almost every island.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. XII: Geographical Distribution, continued", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "mixed", "evidence_kind": "biological", "data_test": { "verdict": "mixed", "confidence": 0.7, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "biological", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/darwin-origin/darwin1859-ch12-10/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Using the 43 pre-registered island units lying > 300 statute miles from any landmass >= 100,000 km2 (the far units of darwin1859-ch12-09, same GBIF filters and representative points), a unit counts as 'surveyed' if GBIF holds >= 500 non-fossil, non-captive bird (class Aves) records for it. A surveyed unit 'has bats' if at least one Chiroptera species has >= 5 non-fossil, non-captive GBIF records inside the unit (single records are treated as possible vagrants). A bat species is 'endemic' to a unit if it has >= 10 records worldwide and >= 95 % of them inside the unit (same rule as ch12-09). Supports if >= 80 % of surveyed far units have bats AND >= 33 % of the surveyed far units with bats have >= 1 endemic bat species.", "disconfirming_observation": "Refutes if < 50 % of surveyed far units have bats, or if < 10 % of the bat-occupied surveyed units have an endemic bat species. Otherwise mixed. The contrast with non-volant mammals is reported descriptively: the number of far units with an endemic bat species is compared with the number having an endemic non-volant terrestrial mammal from the same GBIF endemism rule (1 of 43 in darwin1859-ch12-09).", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: gbif-occurrence-api-chiroptera, gbif-occurrence-api-aves, gbif-species-api", "inference_method": "analysis.py reads the 43 far island units (> 482.8 km from any landmass >= 100,000 km2) and their GBIF filters from ../darwin1859-ch12-09/derived/units.json. For each unit it counts GBIF bird records (survey proxy, threshold 500), then facets Chiroptera records by speciesKey; for each bat species it fetches the global record count (georeferenced-only for bounding-box units, all records for country-code units) and flags endemism at >= 10 records and >= 95 % inside the unit. A surveyed unit has bats if any species has >= 5 records in it. The pre-registered rule compares the occupancy fraction (thresholds 0.80 / 0.50) and the fraction of bat-occupied units with an endemic bat (0.33 / 0.10). Sensitivities: any single record counts as presence; endemism at >= 80 %.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.85, "truth": 0.775, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.77 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.78 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.85, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAqXjJpFV55MMWYhRYGlPpnuD63xFy2D8IchSU6mWDq2o", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch12-11", "key": "30b732cd596b1c58", "label": "Sea depth between island and mainland predicts their mammalian affinity", "statement": "Somewhat independently of distance, the depth of sea separating an island from the neighbouring mainland is related to whether they share the same or allied mammal species: islands separated by shallow channels have the same or very similar mammals, those across deep water have distinct species and genera.", "quote": "there is also a relation, to a certain extent independent of distance, between the depth of the sea separating an island from the neighbouring mainland, and the presence in both of the same mammiferous species or of allied species in a more or less modified condition.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. XII: Geographical Distribution, continued", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "mixed", "evidence_kind": "biological", "data_test": { "verdict": "mixed", "confidence": 0.6, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "biological", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/darwin-origin/darwin1859-ch12-11/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered: for each of 28 fixed islands, (i) the terrestrial mammal species set (GBIF Mammalia occurrences with >= 3 records inside the island box, minus bats, cetaceans, sirenians, pinnipeds and 12 domestic or commensal genera), (ii) the same for a fixed neighbouring-mainland box, (iii) channel depth = greatest water depth (GEBCO 2020 via the OpenTopoData API, 100 points) along a fixed straight transect between the nearest island and mainland shores, and (iv) channel width = transect length. f = |island ∩ mainland| / |island|. SUPPORTS if all of: Spearman rho(f, log depth) < 0 with one-sided p < 0.05; partial Spearman of f on log depth controlling log width < 0 with one-sided p < 0.05; mean f of islands with depth <= 120 m exceeds mean f of islands with depth > 120 m.", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered: REFUTES if Spearman rho(f, log depth) >= 0 or if mean f of shallow (<= 120 m) islands is <= mean f of deep (> 120 m) islands. Any other outcome is MIXED. Islands with fewer than 5 qualifying species are dropped; with fewer than 12 islands remaining the result is inconclusive (underpowered). If the bathymetry API is unreachable the result is inconclusive (data-unavailable).", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: gbif-occurrence-search-api, gebco-2020-via-opentopodata", "inference_method": "For each of 28 islands the GBIF occurrence API returned speciesKey and genusKey facet counts for Mammalia in the island box and in the mainland box, and the same for Chiroptera, Cetacea, Sirenia, Phocidae, Otariidae, Odobenidae and 12 domestic or commensal genera, which were subtracted; species with >= 3 records formed the sets. f = fraction of island species also present in the mainland set. Channel depth = greatest depth among 100 GEBCO 2020 points along the pre-registered straight transect (OpenTopoData API); width = transect length. Three islands with < 5 qualifying species (Pemba, Lombok, Cyprus) were dropped (n = 25). Spearman's rho between f and log depth, the partial Spearman correlation controlling log width, and the shallow (<= 120 m) vs deep (> 120 m) means were compared with the pre-registered thresholds.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.776, "truth": 0.9, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.9 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.9 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.8, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA1Lk1jVR3zV8ePn_kNcrCO3p3RsX0jowco5R8WHRGETU", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch12-12", "key": "904c5dbd28cb709d", "label": "Island endemics are related to species of the nearest continent", "statement": "It is an almost universal rule that the endemic species of islands are related to those of the nearest continent or other nearby islands, even when the islands' physical conditions resemble those of a different, more distant region (e.g. Galapagos to America, Cape Verde to Africa).", "quote": "indeed it is an almost universal rule that the endemic productions of islands are related to those of the nearest continent, or of other near islands.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. XII: Geographical Distribution, continued", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "refutes", "evidence_kind": "biological", "data_test": { "verdict": "refutes", "confidence": 0.3, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "biological", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/darwin-origin/darwin1859-ch12-12/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "In a large majority of island endemics, the nearest relatives outside the island group are native to the nearest continent or the island group's own region.", "disconfirming_observation": "Nearest outside relatives of island endemics are mostly native to more distant regions.", "admissible_datasets": "An expert checklist coding native ranges on a fixed regional scheme and a phylogeny estimated independently of Darwin's argument; open access; island groups with at least 10 scorable endemics.", "inference_method": "Per endemic, majority rule on native regions of the outside relatives in the smallest clade on the Open Tree genus subtree; share near-related per island group compared with fixed thresholds (pooled >= 0.75 and >= 0.6 in 75% of groups for support; pooled < 0.5 or majority of groups < 0.5 for refutation).", "explicit": true }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": { "verdict": "not-representative", "assessors": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "verdict": "not-representative", "confidence": 0.98, "file": "test-data/claim-tests/darwin-origin/darwin1859-ch12-12/faithfulness.json" }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "verdict": "not-representative", "confidence": 0.88, "file": "test-data/claim-tests/darwin-origin/darwin1859-ch12-12/faithfulness.grok.json" } ], "status": "agreed" } }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.756, "truth": 0.905, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.91 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.9 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.785, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAbptaV-ia1bQFJRl4bIt9MFqn7XaDQJ_O_Ichn82WDOY", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch12-13", "key": "2eb70d980dfd563c", "label": "Species on islands of one archipelago are closest relatives of each other", "statement": "The distinct species inhabiting the separate islands of an archipelago are far more closely related to one another than to the inhabitants of any other part of the world, because the islands received immigrants from the same source or from each other.", "quote": "so that the inhabitants of each separate island, though mostly distinct, are related in an incomparably closer degree to each other than to the inhabitants of any other part of the world.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. XII: Geographical Distribution, continued", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "mixed", "evidence_kind": "biological", "data_test": { "verdict": "mixed", "confidence": 0.6, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "biological", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/darwin-origin/darwin1859-ch12-13/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Most archipelago endemics have as nearest phylogenetic relative another native of the same archipelago, well above a random-relabelling null.", "disconfirming_observation": "Nearest relatives of archipelago endemics lie outside the archipelago at least as often as inside, or no more often inside than random labelling predicts.", "admissible_datasets": "An expert checklist coding native ranges on a fixed regional scheme, and a phylogeny estimated independently of Darwin's argument covering the relevant genera; open access.", "inference_method": "Nearest-clade composition for each endemic on the genus subtree of the Open Tree synthetic tree; f_in = inside/(inside+outside) compared with a hypergeometric clade-relabelling null simulated per archipelago; thresholds f_in >= 0.67 pooled and p < 0.05 in >= 75% of archipelagos.", "explicit": true }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.761, "truth": 0.87, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.92 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.82 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.77, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAgh10AItVrtKPA7_iAqH49LzUXJp-zlbjBWucoXXbXHI", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch12-14", "key": "3e003d21b7376c2d", "label": "Naturalised species are usually not closely allied to the natives they join", "statement": "Species that become naturalised in new countries are generally not closely allied to the native inhabitants but are very distinct, often belonging to genera absent from the region, whereas closely allied species equally well fitted to their places tend to keep separate.", "quote": "the forms which become naturalised in new countries are not generally closely allied to the aboriginal inhabitants, but are very distinct species, belonging in a large proportion of cases, as shown by Alph. de Candolle, to distinct genera.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. XII: Geographical Distribution, continued", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "refutes", "evidence_kind": "biological", "data_test": { "verdict": "refutes", "confidence": 0.75, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "biological", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/darwin-origin/darwin1859-ch12-14/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Species naturalised in a region are more often in genera absent from its native flora than proven colonists that did not naturalise there.", "disconfirming_observation": "Naturalised species are as likely or significantly more likely than the colonist pool to belong to genera already native to the region.", "admissible_datasets": "A global, expert-curated vascular plant checklist that codes native versus introduced status per region on a fixed geographic scheme, compiled independently of Darwin and de Candolle; open licence; regions with at least 50 naturalised species.", "inference_method": "Per region, Fisher exact test of genus novelty (genus without native species in the region) for naturalised species versus the pool of species naturalised elsewhere but absent from the region; verdict from the share of regions significant (p < 0.05) in each direction, two-thirds threshold.", "explicit": true }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": { "verdict": "not-representative", "assessors": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "verdict": "not-representative", "confidence": 0.97, "file": "test-data/claim-tests/darwin-origin/darwin1859-ch12-14/faithfulness.json" }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "verdict": "not-representative", "confidence": 0.87, "file": "test-data/claim-tests/darwin-origin/darwin1859-ch12-14/faithfulness.grok.json" } ], "status": "agreed" } }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.76, "truth": 0.54, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.66 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.42 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.79, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAaXrayma1W_lRjfQirYQY2KEouVcRms4cW9r8kTCigjA", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch12-15", "key": "cbe6801f791c43be", "label": "Inhabitants of any area are modified colonists from the most accessible source", "statement": "The inhabitants of any area (oceanic islands, mountains, lakes, marshes, caves), where not identical, are plainly related to those of the region from which colonists could most readily have come, the colonists having since been modified and better fitted to their new homes.", "quote": "The principle which determines the general character of the fauna and flora of oceanic islands, namely, that the inhabitants, when not identically the same, yet are plainly related to the inhabitants of that region whence colonists could most readily have been derived,—the colonists having been subsequently modified and better fitted to their new homes,—is of the widest application throughout nature.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. XII: Geographical Distribution, continued", "kind": "historical-inference", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.59, "truth": 0.835, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.85 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.82 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.705, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAVrp5VzE3d5A0rEZSWSc7BVxDGFk8H82fR8WgcOaZoFU", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch12-16", "key": "0d1eac756018003b", "label": "Regions sharing many allied species will also share some identical species", "statement": "Wherever two regions, however distant, contain many closely allied or representative species, they will also contain some identical species and many doubtful forms ranked variously as species or varieties, showing past migration between them.", "quote": "And it will, I believe, be universally found to be true, that wherever in two regions, let them be ever so distant, many closely allied or representative species occur, there will likewise be found some identical species", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. XII: Geographical Distribution, continued", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.727, "truth": 0.49, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.32 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.66 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.73, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA18kIujyerjwUcsQr4cJIE-f431_JtUjar_d48hFHIWI", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch12-17", "key": "fd94780cf79a0c11", "label": "The lower a group of organisms, the more widely it tends to range", "statement": "Organisms lower in the scale of nature tend to range more widely than higher ones, because they change more slowly and their seeds and eggs are minute and suited to distant transport.", "quote": "namely, that the lower any group of organisms is, the more widely it is apt to range.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. XII: Geographical Distribution, continued", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.531, "truth": 0.385, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.25 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.52 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.705, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA9yNyf4PVgH4f8ekSEtyZ9hjSbcUxRzT69u0_J7iM6No", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch12-18", "key": "6a23482fef813f68", "label": "Closer relatives tend to be closer together in time and space", "statement": "Because forms within each class are connected by ordinary generation, the more closely two forms are related by descent, the nearer they will generally be to each other in time and in geographic space.", "quote": "and the more nearly any two forms are related in blood, the nearer they will generally stand to each other in time and space;", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. XII: Geographical Distribution, continued", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "supports", "evidence_kind": "biological", "data_test": { "verdict": "supports", "confidence": 0.75, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "biological", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/darwin-origin/darwin1859-ch12-18/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Space (all extant birds with a range centroid in AVONET and a tip in the BirdTree Hackett MCC tree supplied with AVONET): (S1) the Spearman correlation between patristic distance and great-circle centroid distance across a fixed random sample of 2,000,000 species pairs is positive, and exceeds all of 99 permutations in which centroids are shuffled among species (p <= 0.01); (S2) median centroid distance is strictly ordered congeneric pairs < confamilial non-congeneric pairs < same-order different-family pairs. Time (Paleobiology Database genera of Mammalia and of Mollusca with first-appearance ages and family/order assignments): (T1) in each of the two groups, the median absolute difference in first-appearance midpoint age between pairs of genera in the same family is smaller than between pairs of genera in different families of the same order, and this difference exceeds all of 99 permutations of family labels within orders (p <= 0.01). The space clause passes if S1 and S2 hold; the time clause passes if T1 holds in both groups. Verdict 'supports' if both clauses pass, 'mixed' if one passes, 'refutes' if neither.", "disconfirming_observation": "The space clause fails if the Spearman correlation is <= 0 or does not exceed the permutation distribution at p <= 0.01, or if the median distances are not strictly ordered by relatedness. The time clause fails if in either group same-family genus pairs are not closer in first-appearance time than different-family same-order pairs, or the difference is not significant at p <= 0.01 against the within-order permutation null. Both failing refutes the claim.", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: avonet-tobias2022-figshare, pbdb-taxa-first-appearances-mammalia-mollusca", "inference_method": "Space: 5883 bird species with a one-to-one BirdLife-BirdTree name match, a tree tip and an AVONET range centroid. Patristic distances were computed on the MCC tree; 1999655 random species pairs were drawn and the Spearman correlation between patristic and great-circle centroid distance was compared with 99 permutations of centroids among species; medians of centroid distance were tabulated for congeneric, confamilial and same-order pairs. Time: PBDB accepted genera with family, order and first-appearance ages; within each order, genus pairs (all pairs, or 500000 random pairs for very large orders) were split into same-family and different-family, and the difference of medians of |dFAD| was compared with 99 permutations of family labels within orders.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.771, "truth": 0.795, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.79 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.8 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.79, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAVV_MYQ9J1vJlBFwStDqn9E4Uvea1heyx6Ax4oOc-i6M", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch13-01", "key": "5e359b07d6968b4e", "label": "Descent with divergence and extinction produces groups subordinate to groups", "statement": "The nested arrangement of organisms into groups within groups (species within genera, genera within families, and so on) results from the modified descendants of a single progenitor diverging in character while less divergent forms are exterminated.", "quote": "he will see that the inevitable result is that the modified descendants proceeding from one progenitor become broken up into groups subordinate to groups.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. XIII: Mutual Affinities of Organic Beings: Morphology: Embryology: Rudimentary Organs", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "proved", "proof": "lean", "verification": "lean", "math": true, "theorem": true, "notation": "\\text{TreeLike}:\\ u \\le w \\wedge v \\le w \\Rightarrow u \\le v \\vee v \\le u;\\quad C(v) = \\{w : v \\le w\\};\\quad \\text{TreeLike} \\iff \\forall u v,\\ C(u) \\cap C(v) = \\varnothing \\vee C(u) \\subseteq C(v) \\vee C(v) \\subseteq C(u)", "lean_theorems": [ "DarwinLaws.Tree.clade_laminar", "DarwinLaws.Tree.clades_containing_chain", "DarwinLaws.Tree.treeLike_of_laminar" ], "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.673, "truth": 0.955, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.97 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.94 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.715, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAWm5A1scEYEhQeZ2daWlqrsA_WZ1BvpyS5GmBuFw8wFA", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch13-02", "key": "efa6d53d888308f0", "label": "The Natural System expresses propinquity of descent", "statement": "The 'something more' than mere resemblance that naturalists seek in the Natural System is closeness of descent, which is the only known cause of similarity among organisms and is partially revealed by classifications.", "quote": "propinquity of descent,—the only known cause of the similarity of organic beings,—is the bond, hidden as it is by various degrees of modification, which is partially revealed to us by our classifications.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. XIII: Mutual Affinities of Organic Beings: Morphology: Embryology: Rudimentary Organs", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.626, "truth": 0.82, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.98 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.66 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.675, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAK9B27ZmBUnbTI07m9l-oXbQbkHklmGQ90rpih574MFk", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch13-03", "key": "f268535fd85fbe6d", "label": "Characters least modified by adaptation are most constant and useful in classification", "statement": "The value of a character for classification depends on its constancy across large groups of species, and characters are constant when they have been little changed in adapting species to their conditions of life; hence parts least concerned with special habits are generally the most useful for classification.", "quote": "But their importance for classification, I believe, depends on their greater constancy throughout large groups of species; and this constancy depends on such organs having generally been subjected to less change in the adaptation of the species to their conditions of life.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. XIII: Mutual Affinities of Organic Beings: Morphology: Embryology: Rudimentary Organs", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.571, "truth": 0.775, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.77 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.78 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.675, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RACf6JVC9j5fHXETtgd2ie7aVe6vEuXL1ZG6n3xqQQkhA", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch13-04", "key": "6e6622b939580a72", "label": "Higher taxonomic ranks are almost arbitrary", "statement": "The relative value of groups such as orders, sub-orders, families, sub-families and genera is, at least at present, almost arbitrary, as shown by groups being raised in rank merely because more allied species were discovered.", "quote": "Finally, with respect to the comparative value of the various groups of species, such as orders, sub-orders, families, sub-families, and genera, they seem to be, at least at present, almost arbitrary.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. XIII: Mutual Affinities of Organic Beings: Morphology: Embryology: Rudimentary Organs", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.688, "truth": 0.9, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.94 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.86 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.755, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RACtZI5hI0k51WofBw7fheW3XffPCfu0TWqXSmev53WCg", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch13-05", "key": "c804cd1e55068061", "label": "Branches equally related by descent can differ greatly in amount of modification", "statement": "A natural arrangement of groups must be strictly genealogical, but branches that are equally closely related to a common progenitor may differ greatly in how much they have been modified, and these differing amounts of difference are what is expressed by ranking them as different genera, families or orders.", "quote": "I believe that the _arrangement_ of the groups within each class, in due subordination and relation to the other groups, must be strictly genealogical in order to be natural; but that the _amount_ of difference in the several branches or groups, though allied in the same degree in blood to their common progenitor, may differ greatly, being due to the different degrees of modification which they have undergone", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. XIII: Mutual Affinities of Organic Beings: Morphology: Embryology: Rudimentary Organs", "kind": "historical-inference", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.713, "truth": 0.855, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.95 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.76 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.74, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA9DSrm3YJIQ5mJ9uUntKIqDAeb_ofqhQ8hrHQsZisv8w", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch13-06", "key": "25f3345da8269706", "label": "Varieties form nested groups for the same reason species do", "statement": "Domestic and natural varieties fall into groups subordinate to groups (sub-varieties under varieties under species) for the same reason species do, namely closeness of descent combined with various degrees of modification.", "quote": "The origin of the existence of groups subordinate to groups, is the same with varieties as with species, namely, closeness of descent with various degrees of modification.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. XIII: Mutual Affinities of Organic Beings: Morphology: Embryology: Rudimentary Organs", "kind": "historical-inference", "status": "proved", "proof": "lean", "verification": "lean", "math": true, "theorem": true, "notation": "\\text{TreeLike}(\\alpha) \\Rightarrow \\forall u v,\\ C(u) \\cap C(v) = \\varnothing \\vee C(u) \\subseteq C(v) \\vee C(v) \\subseteq C(u),\\ \\text{for any type } \\alpha \\text{ of forms}", "lean_theorems": [ "DarwinLaws.Tree.clade_laminar", "DarwinLaws.Tree.clades_containing_chain" ], "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.587, "truth": 0.91, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.94 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.88 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.68, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAs1d830gZ8iI9sIZCM-EX1V60euaqNl6i_XxWoJGrwUo", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch13-07", "key": "a5d7d9dbbd219116", "label": "Characters shared across species with very different habits indicate common inheritance", "statement": "However trifling a character, if it occurs throughout many species with very different habits of life it can be explained only by inheritance from a common parent, and so has high value for classification; for the same reason rudimentary structures can be as useful as other parts.", "quote": "if it prevail throughout many and different species, especially those having very different habits of life, it assumes high value; for we can account for its presence in so many forms with such different habits, only by its inheritance from a common parent.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. XIII: Mutual Affinities of Organic Beings: Morphology: Embryology: Rudimentary Organs", "kind": "historical-inference", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.595, "truth": 0.87, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.9 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.84 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.68, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAWZ5Kns5p8x-hRY1XoyI3Jb1jKYZAwOXyowaAKccIkKg", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch13-08", "key": "b49479f39e18755c", "label": "Distinct lineages adapted to similar conditions converge in external form", "statement": "Animals from very distinct lines of descent can become adapted to similar conditions and so acquire a close external resemblance; such analogical or adaptive resemblances conceal rather than reveal blood-relationship, so they are almost worthless for classification between groups, although the same characters can indicate true affinity within a group.", "quote": "For animals, belonging to two most distinct lines of descent, may readily become adapted to similar conditions, and thus assume a close external resemblance; but such resemblances will not reveal—will rather tend to conceal their blood-relationship to their proper lines of descent.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. XIII: Mutual Affinities of Organic Beings: Morphology: Embryology: Rudimentary Organs", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "mixed", "evidence_kind": "biological", "data_test": { "verdict": "mixed", "confidence": 0.75, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "biological", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/darwin-origin/darwin1859-ch13-08/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Using AVONET (Tobias et al. 2022) species-level external measurements (beak length culmen, beak length nares, beak width, beak depth, tarsus length, wing length, Kipp's distance, secondary1, hand-wing index, tail length, body mass; log-transformed and z-scored) and AVONET ecological categories (trophic niche, primary lifestyle, habitat), three clauses are tested. (a) Convergence: among all between-order species pairs, the mean standardized Euclidean morphological distance of pairs with identical niche (same trophic niche AND same primary lifestyle) is at least 10% smaller than that of pairs with different trophic niche AND different primary lifestyle, with a permutation p < 0.01 (niche labels shuffled among species, 200 permutations). (b) Concealment between groups: leave-one-out k-nearest-neighbour (k = 5) prediction from morphology yields a Cohen's kappa for ecological niche (trophic niche x primary lifestyle combination) that is higher than the kappa for taxonomic order. (c) Affinity within groups: among orders with >= 3 families and >= 30 species, leave-one-out k-NN prediction of family from morphology (congeners excluded from the neighbour pool) gives kappa > 0.3 in a majority of such orders. Verdict 'supports' if all three clauses pass; 'mixed' if one or two pass; 'refutes' if none passes.", "disconfirming_observation": "Clause (a) fails if same-niche between-order pairs are not at least 10% closer in morphology than different-niche pairs, or the permutation p >= 0.01. Clause (b) fails if morphology predicts order with kappa >= that for niche. Clause (c) fails if kappa for family within order is <= 0.3 in half or more of the eligible orders. No clause passing refutes the claim; (a) failing alone already refutes the central convergence statement and is reported as 'mixed' only if (b) or (c) pass.", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: avonet-tobias2022-figshare", "inference_method": "AVONET1 (BirdLife taxonomy) species with complete values for 11 external measurements were log-transformed and z-scored (n = 10999). (a) For every between-order species pair the Euclidean distance was computed; the mean distance for pairs with identical trophic niche and primary lifestyle was compared with pairs differing in both, and the ratio was tested against 200 permutations of niche labels across species. (b) Leave-one-out 5-nearest-neighbour prediction from morphology was scored with Cohen's kappa for niche (trophic niche x lifestyle) and for order. (c) Within each order with >= 3 families and >= 30 species, family was predicted by LOO 5-NN with congeners excluded from the neighbour pool, and kappa recorded.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.772, "truth": 0.94, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.96 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.92 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.835, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAph3B3lrebU4_XHZbNEufHP_WeGd7r68uby6CHiWcuyw", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch13-09", "key": "f64abf69479406ea", "label": "Expanding dominant groups explain why all life falls into a few great classes", "statement": "Larger and more dominant groups tend to keep increasing in size and to supplant smaller, feebler groups, which is why all organisms, recent and extinct, fall into a few great orders, still fewer classes, and a single natural system.", "quote": "The larger and more dominant groups thus tend to go on increasing in size; and they consequently supplant many smaller and feebler groups. Thus we can account for the fact that all organisms, recent and extinct, are included under a few great orders, under still fewer classes, and all in one great natural system.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. XIII: Mutual Affinities of Organic Beings: Morphology: Embryology: Rudimentary Organs", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.565, "truth": 0.42, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.24 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.6 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.675, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAhlh_A5gxtHOdQZ6-oZ5nPf20tb7h6y6miJxNtRIaoEw", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch13-10", "key": "36c6edb4d0b9d820", "label": "Aberrant groups are species-poor relicts of extinction", "statement": "Aberrant or osculant groups are the surviving remnants of failing groups that suffered heavy extinction; consequently they are generally represented by very few species, and those species are usually very distinct from each other.", "quote": "And we have some evidence of aberrant forms having suffered severely from extinction, for they are generally represented by extremely few species; and such species as do occur are generally very distinct from each other, which again implies extinction.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. XIII: Mutual Affinities of Organic Beings: Morphology: Embryology: Rudimentary Organs", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.658, "truth": 0.72, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.7 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.74 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.71, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAoE9ZvmV2XbQl9L0uvJHacIgT3oeplHAvUAIcb5eVsLs", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch13-11", "key": "ab659e89a94c1623", "label": "Affinities of one group to another are usually general, not to any single species", "statement": "When a member of one group shows a real affinity to a quite distinct group, the affinity is usually general rather than to any particular species, because it retains characters of an ancient common progenitor of both groups.", "quote": "when a member belonging to one group of animals exhibits an affinity to a quite distinct group, this affinity in most cases is general and not special", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. XIII: Mutual Affinities of Organic Beings: Morphology: Embryology: Rudimentary Organs", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.553, "truth": 0.795, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.73 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.86 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.635, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAXbhUpjzJUBidpv2NLJZcE4zmvdSYvKtRgCOLFhO6fP0", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch13-12", "key": "d15dc4915877eb9e", "label": "Gaps between groups, even whole classes, are due to extinction of connecting forms", "statement": "Extinction has defined and widened the intervals between groups; even the distinctness of whole classes, such as birds from other vertebrates, results from the loss of many ancient forms that once connected their early progenitors.", "quote": "We may thus account even for the distinctness of whole classes from each other—for instance, of birds from all other vertebrate animals—by the belief that many ancient forms of life have been utterly lost, through which the early progenitors of birds were formerly connected with the early progenitors of the other vertebrate classes.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. XIII: Mutual Affinities of Organic Beings: Morphology: Embryology: Rudimentary Organs", "kind": "historical-inference", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.716, "truth": 0.93, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.96 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.9 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.775, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RApifyNGQ9zTMOLybfJtCbuj-PwU21A4Av6WYAZl1HjNI", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch13-13", "key": "3dd8ee26ee969a7e", "label": "Homologous parts change shape and size but keep the same relative connexions", "statement": "Within a class, homologous parts may change to almost any extent in form and size but always remain connected in the same order; for example, the bones of the arm and forearm are never transposed.", "quote": "the parts may change to almost any extent in form and size, and yet they always remain connected together in the same order.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. XIII: Mutual Affinities of Organic Beings: Morphology: Embryology: Rudimentary Organs", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.635, "truth": 0.905, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.93 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.88 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.705, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAvAvhJ_LIm-UVBnTQh3KagyA80xiB9r156DHDYTq4OnU", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch13-14", "key": "a45018823d845896", "label": "Unity of type reflects a common progenitor's pattern modified by slight steps", "statement": "The shared pattern of homologous organs within a class is explained by descent from an ancient progenitor (an archetype) that already had that pattern, which natural selection then modified by slight successive steps for different uses without transposing parts.", "quote": "If we suppose that the ancient progenitor, the archetype as it may be called, of all mammals, had its limbs constructed on the existing general pattern, for whatever purpose they served, we can at once perceive the plain signification of the homologous construction of the limbs throughout the whole class.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. XIII: Mutual Affinities of Organic Beings: Morphology: Embryology: Rudimentary Organs", "kind": "historical-inference", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.652, "truth": 0.935, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.97 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.9 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.71, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAjKvJzbiBAS_InfsZbcRHJ_WD-LjqIpLHx6aJfthQ5Xg", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch13-15", "key": "f1960889971f1e92", "label": "Serially homologous parts derive from many repeated similar elements in progenitors", "statement": "Serial homologies within one individual (skull and vertebrae, jaws and legs of crustaceans, floral parts and leaves) arise because the progenitors of vertebrates, articulates and flowering plants had many repeated similar parts, which natural selection adapted to diverse purposes while inheritance retained a fundamental resemblance.", "quote": "An indefinite repetition of the same part or organ is the common characteristic (as Owen has observed) of all low or little-modified forms; therefore we may readily believe that the unknown progenitor of the vertebrata possessed many vertebræ; the unknown progenitor of the articulata, many segments; and the unknown progenitor of flowering plants, many spiral whorls of leaves.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. XIII: Mutual Affinities of Organic Beings: Morphology: Embryology: Rudimentary Organs", "kind": "historical-inference", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.534, "truth": 0.69, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.76 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.62 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.64, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAICpfMGyFJYHVfjMunF-YXV401q8asbWh2Pa9DMsKhNg", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch13-16", "key": "867cf945adc591ff", "label": "Embryos of different animals in the same class are strikingly similar", "statement": "Embryos of distinct animals within the same class are often strikingly similar, more so than the adults, and the points of resemblance often have no direct relation to their conditions of existence.", "quote": "The embryos, also, of distinct animals within the same class are often strikingly similar", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. XIII: Mutual Affinities of Organic Beings: Morphology: Embryology: Rudimentary Organs", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.595, "truth": 0.805, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.78 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.83 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.695, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAf5IJNI5z24ys71jlbSJ2rDWtfQwgJZxyg6lYtUXMjUs", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch13-17", "key": "4e04e87f9df6fdc6", "label": "Active larvae are adapted to their own conditions as fully as adults", "statement": "Whenever an embryo or larva becomes active and must provide for itself, it is as perfectly adapted to its conditions of life as the adult, and such adaptations can make the larvae of allied species differ as much as or more than their adults, though most larvae still follow the law of embryonic resemblance.", "quote": "The period of activity may come on earlier or later in life; but whenever it comes on, the adaptation of the larva to its conditions of life is just as perfect and as beautiful as in the adult animal.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. XIII: Mutual Affinities of Organic Beings: Morphology: Embryology: Rudimentary Organs", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.443, "truth": 0.85, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.84 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.86 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.61, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RANzQJiihsrql6fWV-OLKm9JSsdgVXK8Jg-OZxnlaapzg", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch13-18", "key": "b255ec8cc875d2ba", "label": "Young of domestic breeds differ much less than adults", "statement": "The characteristic differences between domestic breeds produced by man's selection (in dogs, horses and pigeons) generally do not appear early in life and are inherited at a corresponding later age, so that the young of different breeds differ far less in proportions than the adults, with occasional exceptions such as the short-faced tumbler pigeon.", "quote": "the characteristic differences which give value to each breed, and which have been accumulated by man’s selection, have not generally first appeared at an early period of life, and have been inherited by the offspring at a corresponding not early period.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. XIII: Mutual Affinities of Organic Beings: Morphology: Embryology: Rudimentary Organs", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.584, "truth": 0.76, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.68 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.84 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.68, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAsOFf_5MzgnEBRpcJuytz5YFQhyCTgL3bKkp_dIotXOM", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch13-19", "key": "a5600b86781b3c8c", "label": "Community of embryonic structure reveals community of descent", "statement": "Because the embryo is the animal in a less modified state that partly reveals the structure of its progenitor, two groups that pass through the same or similar embryonic stages are descended from the same or similar parents, however different their adults; this is why embryonic characters are the most valuable for classification.", "quote": "Thus, community in embryonic structure reveals community of descent.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. XIII: Mutual Affinities of Organic Beings: Morphology: Embryology: Rudimentary Organs", "kind": "historical-inference", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.601, "truth": 0.665, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.78 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.55 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.69, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAAbvwcPdoaAviqqQ2UkVGyaSwSRTwVY8ZWAZeK8cyA5Q", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch13-20", "key": "c85ac4e243c42910", "label": "Ancient extinct forms should resemble the embryos of their living descendants", "statement": "Since embryos partly show the structure of less modified ancient progenitors, ancient and extinct forms should resemble the embryos of their living descendants, though this may be obscured by early-appearing variations and may be undemonstrable because the geological record does not reach back far enough.", "quote": "we can clearly see why ancient and extinct forms of life should resemble the embryos of their descendants,—our existing species.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. XIII: Mutual Affinities of Organic Beings: Morphology: Embryology: Rudimentary Organs", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.526, "truth": 0.31, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.34 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.28 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.65, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RATk8uR5lD7ErAx3zKgiUSonv2sH6U-Fj2nFD5DP1ERNY", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch13-21", "key": "b978d286d04caac9", "label": "Embryological facts follow from late-appearing variations inherited at corresponding ages", "statement": "The leading facts of embryology are explained because, in the descendants of a common progenitor, successive slight modifications generally do not appear at a very early period of life (though they may be caused earlier) and are inherited at a corresponding later age, leaving embryos little modified.", "quote": "the leading facts in embryology, which are second in importance to none in natural history, are explained on the principle of slight modifications not appearing, in the many descendants from some one ancient progenitor, at a very early period in the life of each, though perhaps caused at the earliest, and being inherited at a corresponding not early period.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. XIII: Mutual Affinities of Organic Beings: Morphology: Embryology: Rudimentary Organs", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.519, "truth": 0.425, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.45 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.4 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.645, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAneSymsnWsmyhwIuIExtrPNvA5AqSWTNaKl-re719zpI", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch13-22", "key": "ac3b6ea4ed2e69b1", "label": "Rudimentary organs are extremely common throughout nature", "statement": "Rudimentary, atrophied or aborted organs that bear the stamp of uselessness are extremely common in animals and plants.", "quote": "Organs or parts in this strange condition, bearing the stamp of inutility, are extremely common throughout nature.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. XIII: Mutual Affinities of Organic Beings: Morphology: Embryology: Rudimentary Organs", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.436, "truth": 0.9, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.94 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.86 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.655, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA9qjXY3S1Iubys5kMpv4OKTEyXxcFi_F9e-iyGNpb6F4", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch13-23", "key": "d0b6ba09398e39fd", "label": "Rudimentary organs are highly variable", "statement": "Rudimentary organs vary greatly in development among individuals of the same species, and the degree of reduction of the same organ can differ much between closely allied species; because they are useless, their variations are not checked by natural selection.", "quote": "Rudimentary organs in the individuals of the same species are very liable to vary in degree of development and in other respects.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. XIII: Mutual Affinities of Organic Beings: Morphology: Embryology: Rudimentary Organs", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.497, "truth": 0.755, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.73 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.78 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.645, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAbpx5i3Phfj8GMsO-5yICwYeWazrqZag66WjX1Os8CTw", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch13-24", "key": "35c7b6b234567ad4", "label": "Rudimentary organs are relatively larger in the embryo than in the adult", "statement": "As a universal rule, a rudimentary part is relatively larger compared with adjoining parts in the embryo than in the adult, and some rudiments (such as the teeth of whales and ruminants) appear in the embryo and then wholly disappear.", "quote": "It is also, I believe, a universal rule, that a rudimentary part or organ is of greater size relatively to the adjoining parts in the embryo, than in the adult", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. XIII: Mutual Affinities of Organic Beings: Morphology: Embryology: Rudimentary Organs", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.565, "truth": 0.52, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.38 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.66 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.675, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAaNTFrTM_YDSEYXKMSKHwQpTyj4sjprWsD-z_uTqhywY", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch13-25", "key": "2cb9ff2d66fe9baa", "label": "Disuse is the main cause of rudimentary organs", "statement": "Disuse over successive generations has been the main agency reducing organs to rudiments (as with eyes of cave animals and wings of island birds), aided by natural selection where an organ becomes injurious; because reduction occurs at maturity and is inherited at a corresponding age, rudiments remain relatively larger in the embryo.", "quote": "I believe that disuse has been the main agency; that it has led in successive generations to the gradual reduction of various organs, until they have become rudimentary", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. XIII: Mutual Affinities of Organic Beings: Morphology: Embryology: Rudimentary Organs", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.508, "truth": 0.15, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.12 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.18 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.67, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAYrdFyGEr0a0U6XrbMzvoPBJ6dXL0S3o_udjMnueCuLY", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch14-01", "key": "4b1bd92a89eb172c", "label": "Descent with modification embraces all members of each class", "statement": "Because all members of whole classes are linked by chains of affinities, fossils fill wide gaps between orders, rudiments imply fully developed ancestral organs, and structures within a class share one pattern and similar embryos, descent with modification embraces all members of the same class.", "quote": "Therefore I cannot doubt that the theory of descent with modification embraces all the members of the same class.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. XIV: Recapitulation and Conclusion", "kind": "historical-inference", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "mixed", "evidence_kind": "biological", "data_test": { "verdict": "mixed", "confidence": 0.6, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "biological", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/darwin-origin/darwin1859-ch14-01/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered: for 22 classes as circumscribed in the Cuvier/Owen system current in 1859, each represented by 3-7 fixed modern taxa, an induced subtree of the Open Tree of Life synthetic tree is obtained. For each class, membership is coded on the tips and reconstructed by weighted parsimony (gain cost 2, loss cost 1; among equally cheap reconstructions the one with fewest gains); the number of origins = gains + 1 if the root is reconstructed as a member. A class is 'of single descent' if origins = 1. SUPPORTS if at least 80% of the classes (>= 18 of 22) are of single descent.", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered: REFUTES if 50% or fewer of the classes (<= 11 of 22) are of single descent. Between 12 and 17 is MIXED. If the Open Tree API is unreachable or fewer than 85% of the representative taxa can be placed as tips, the result is inconclusive (data-unavailable). The Dollo count (number of maximal all-member clades) is recorded as a secondary descriptive statistic.", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: opentree-synthetic-tree-api", "inference_method": "The 103 pre-registered representative taxa were resolved with the Open Tree TNRS (exact matches, context All life; Pteropoda did not match) and an induced subtree of the synthetic tree was requested. Eleven further taxa are non-monophyletic in the synthesis and mapped to internal nodes already containing other sampled tips, so 91 of 103 (0.88) were placed as tips. For each 1859 class the tips were coded as members or not and the cheapest reconstruction under weighted parsimony (gain 2, loss 1, ties broken toward fewer gains) was found by dynamic programming over the (polytomous) tree; origins = gains, plus one if the root is reconstructed as a member. The Dollo count of maximal all-member clades was recorded alongside.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.8, "truth": 0.965, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.96 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.97 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.85, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RABrgacDh52pDXlqWQdhMCUOkjqVjhMNwHl0Cp2-RY3_Y", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch14-02", "key": "7bb8a4980b85c431", "label": "Animals from at most four or five progenitors, plants from as many or fewer", "statement": "All animals have descended from at most four or five progenitors, and all plants from an equal or smaller number.", "quote": "I believe that animals have descended from at most only four or five progenitors, and plants from an equal or lesser number.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. XIV: Recapitulation and Conclusion", "kind": "historical-inference", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "inconclusive", "evidence_kind": "biological", "data_test": { "verdict": "inconclusive", "confidence": 0.5, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "biological", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/darwin-origin/darwin1859-ch14-02/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered: on the Open Tree of Life synthetic tree induced on a fixed set of major lineages (listed below with their 1859 kingdom assignment), count for each kingdom the Dollo number of progenitors = number of maximal clades whose tips all belong to that kingdom (tips of the other kingdom or of neither break a clade). Two readings are scored. Modern reading: animals = Metazoa, plants = Embryophyta + the other Archaeplastida. 1859 reading: animals = Metazoa plus the 'Protozoa' then placed among animals (Infusoria, Rhizopoda, Gregarinida), plants = land plants, green, red and brown algae, diatoms, fungi and blue-green algae. SUPPORTS if under BOTH readings animal progenitors <= 5 and plant progenitors <= animal progenitors.", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered: REFUTES if under the modern reading animal progenitors > 5 or plant progenitors > animal progenitors. MIXED if the modern reading satisfies both conditions but the 1859 reading violates either. If the Open Tree API is unreachable or fewer than 90% of the listed lineages map to the tree, the result is inconclusive (data-unavailable).", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: opentree-synthetic-tree-api", "inference_method": "The 25 pre-registered lineage names were resolved with the Open Tree TNRS (exact matches, context All life) and an induced subtree of the synthetic tree was requested. Radiolaria and Charophyta are pruned from the synthesis and Proteobacteria and Firmicutes are non-monophyletic and map to internal nodes, so 21 of 25 lineages (0.84) could be placed as tips, below the pre-registered 0.9 threshold. The Dollo progenitor count (maximal clades whose tips all belong to the kingdom; tips of the other kingdom or of neither break a clade) was nevertheless computed for both readings and is reported as exploratory.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.792, "truth": 0.95, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.97 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.93 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.805, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAHNGsGzPwN_wFdDfAFwtF5J-op542_4yA58fUphu9WQo", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch14-03", "key": "298e2b8ee0632abf", "label": "All living things share chemical composition, cell structure and laws of growth", "statement": "All living things have much in common in their chemical composition, germinal vesicles, cellular structure, and laws of growth and reproduction, as shown even by the same poison often affecting plants and animals similarly.", "quote": "Nevertheless all living things have much in common, in their chemical composition, their germinal vesicles, their cellular structure, and their laws of growth and reproduction.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. XIV: Recapitulation and Conclusion", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "supports", "evidence_kind": "biological", "data_test": { "verdict": "supports", "confidence": 0.7, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "biological", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/darwin-origin/darwin1859-ch14-03/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered. Twenty marker families are fixed in advance (KEGG Orthology ids): 15 aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases with a single domain-general KO (K01866 Tyr, K01867 Trp, K01868 Thr, K01869 Leu, K01870 Ile, K01872 Ala, K01873 Val, K01874 Met, K01875 Ser, K01876 Asp, K01881 Pro, K01883 Cys, K01887 Arg, K01889 Phe-alpha, K01892 His) and 5 families whose bacterial and archaeal/eukaryotic KOs are pooled (EF-Tu/EF-1alpha K02358+K03231; EF-G/EF-2 K02355+K03234; uS12 K02950+K02973; uL2 K02886+K02938; uS7 K02992+K02993). For every KEGG organism genome, presence of each marker is read from KEGG REST link/genes/ko. The claim is SUPPORTED if, in each of the three domains (Bacteria, Archaea, Eukaryotes as grouped in KEGG BRITE br08601), at least 95% of genomes carry at least 18 of the 20 markers, and every marker is present in at least 90% of the genomes of every domain.", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered. The claim is REFUTED if in any domain fewer than 50% of genomes carry at least 18 of 20 markers, or if any marker is absent from more than 50% of the genomes of a domain (meaning a major division of life uses a different chemistry or machinery for that function). Other outcomes are 'mixed'. The distribution of marker counts, the identity of genomes with the fewest markers, and per-marker prevalence by domain are reported.", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: kegg-rest-ko-genes, kegg-brite-br08601", "inference_method": "All 11,950 KEGG organism genomes (10,148 Bacteria, 469 Archaea, 1,333 Eukaryotes per BRITE br08601) were scored for presence of the 20 pre-registered marker families using KEGG REST link/genes/ko for each KO. 96.9% of genomes carry >= 18 of 20 markers (Bacteria 97.0%, Archaea 96.0%, Eukaryotes 96.3%); 83.8% carry all 20. The pre-registered rule nevertheless returns 'refutes' because the AspRS marker (K01876) is found in only 1.5% of Archaea: KEGG files the archaeal (and many bacterial) non-discriminating aspartyl-tRNA synthetase under a different orthology id, K09759. A post-hoc sensitivity analysis pooling K09759 into AspRS was added and is labelled as such in analysis.py and measured.extra; under it AspRS prevalence in Archaea is 87.4% and the only other marker below the 90% universality threshold is CysRS in Archaea (87.6%), giving 'mixed' under the pre-registered support rule.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.81, "truth": 0.79, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.84 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.74 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.83, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAww03o4_QNe19f6jEAMpExzbesXIRP6sdpU7plJ3XKTs", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch14-04", "key": "232400188adb0aa3", "label": "Probably all organisms descend from one primordial form", "statement": "By analogy, probably all organisms that have ever lived on earth have descended from a single primordial form.", "quote": "Therefore I should infer from analogy that probably all the organic beings which have ever lived on this earth have descended from some one primordial form, into which life was first breathed.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. XIV: Recapitulation and Conclusion", "kind": "historical-inference", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.731, "truth": 0.92, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.94 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.9 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.76, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAOCEEc_HjbB3p1XEwn5f_Vo6gS_AAGfxtojzj_FVTXeY", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch14-05", "key": "a909048c05f4d0f9", "label": "Species differ from varieties only in their intermediates having existed formerly", "statement": "The only distinction between species and well-marked varieties is that varieties are known or believed to be connected by intermediate gradations at present, whereas species were connected by them in the past; species should therefore be treated, like genera, as combinations made for convenience.", "quote": "Hereafter we shall be compelled to acknowledge that the only distinction between species and well-marked varieties is, that the latter are known, or believed, to be connected at the present day by intermediate gradations, whereas species were formerly thus connected.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. XIV: Recapitulation and Conclusion", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.535, "truth": 0.385, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.43 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.34 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.645, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAojelIzgVm7Uh4RjsMkC4xEw2ch2s7bXv6q1UJuStN1g", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch14-06", "key": "f71224a5bad0b519", "label": "Organism-to-organism relations are the most important cause of organic change", "statement": "The most important cause of organic change is the mutual relation of organism to organism, in which the improvement of one form causes the improvement or extermination of others; this is almost independent of changes, even sudden ones, in physical conditions.", "quote": "the most important of all causes of organic change is one which is almost independent of altered and perhaps suddenly altered physical conditions, namely, the mutual relation of organism to organism,—the improvement of one being entailing the improvement or the extermination of others", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. XIV: Recapitulation and Conclusion", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.505, "truth": 0.435, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.55 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.32 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.665, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA36KUI_yOGAOCgJYqwPBc4_hS7-d9kxM2HebwcfSQtIw", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch14-07", "key": "89c289bb5abb8101", "label": "Amount of fossil change between formations measures elapsed time", "statement": "Because species are produced and exterminated by slow, still-acting causes, the amount of organic change in the fossils of consecutive formations is probably a fair, though imperfect, measure of the time elapsed, and can be used to estimate the length of the blank intervals between formations.", "quote": "it follows, that the amount of organic change in the fossils of consecutive formations probably serves as a fair measure of the lapse of actual time.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. XIV: Recapitulation and Conclusion", "kind": "prediction", "status": "proved", "proof": "lean", "verification": "lean", "math": true, "theorem": true, "notation": "T(D) = 1 - e^{-\\mu D};\\ \\mu > 0,\\ D_1 < D_2 \\Rightarrow T(D_1) < T(D_2);\\quad D = -\\frac{\\log(1 - T)}{\\mu};\\quad \\mu_1 < \\mu_2 \\Rightarrow T_{\\mu_1}(D) < T_{\\mu_2}(D)", "lean_theorems": [ "DarwinLaws.Succession.expectedTurnover_strictMono", "DarwinLaws.Succession.elapsedTime_expectedTurnover", "DarwinLaws.Succession.expectedTurnover_strictMono_in_hazard" ], "formalization": null, "evidence": "supports", "evidence_kind": "biological", "data_test": { "verdict": "supports", "confidence": 0.7, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "biological", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/darwin-origin/darwin1859-ch14-07/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Using Paleobiology Database stage-level diversity tables for marine animal genera (occs/diversity, count=genera, time_reso=stage, Phanerozoic, marine environments), turnover T_i for each stage i = (X_bL + X_FL) / (X_bt + X_bL + X_Ft + X_FL), the fraction of genera sampled in or ranging through stage i that make their last appearance in it, and duration D_i = early age minus late age of the stage (PBDB/ICS ages). The last two stages (Pleistocene edge, where last appearances are distorted by the Recent) are excluded. Pass if (1) the Spearman correlation between T_i and D_i across stages is positive with p < 0.05, AND (2) the partial Spearman correlation controlling for log(number of occurrences in the stage) is also positive with p < 0.05, AND (3) the correlation remains positive (point estimate > 0) when the five stages with the highest turnover (mass-extinction stages) are removed, so that the relation is not carried by catastrophes alone. 'Fair though imperfect' is operationalised as rho between 0.2 and 0.9: a rho >= 0.2 that meets (1)-(3) supports; the verdict is 'mixed' if (1) holds but (2) or (3) fails, 'refutes' if (1) fails.", "disconfirming_observation": "Refuted if turnover between consecutive stages does not increase with stage duration (Spearman rho <= 0 or p >= 0.05), which would mean faunal change carries no information about elapsed time. Mixed if the raw correlation is positive but disappears when sampling intensity is controlled or is carried entirely by the five highest-turnover stages.", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: pbdb-occs-diversity-marine-genera-by-stage", "inference_method": "The PBDB diversity table for marine animal genera at stage resolution was downloaded for the whole Phanerozoic; for each of the 96 stages retained (two youngest dropped) turnover was computed as the share of genera present that make their last appearance in the stage, and stage duration as the difference of its PBDB/ICS boundary ages. Spearman correlation of turnover with duration, the partial Spearman correlation controlling log occurrences, and the correlation after removing the five highest-turnover stages (Stage 4, Changhsingian, Drumian, Guzhangian, Katian) were computed.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.758, "truth": 0.34, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.3 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.38 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.79, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAllTQa_rAJzk-ZsE7TcVnd2Qx_sBwmtPNqg5hxblNd6A", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch14-08", "key": "0ba555c809f65c3a", "label": "Rate of organic change was slower early in life's history", "statement": "In early periods of earth's history, when forms of life were fewer and simpler, the rate of organic change was probably slower, and at the first dawn of life it may have been extremely slow.", "quote": "During early periods of the earth’s history, when the forms of life were probably fewer and simpler, the rate of change was probably slower; and at the first dawn of life, when very few forms of the simplest structure existed, the rate of change may have been slow in an extreme degree.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. XIV: Recapitulation and Conclusion", "kind": "historical-inference", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.517, "truth": 0.215, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.18 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.25 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.645, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAaoYVVfxJwOOqvut-G9k3aOZprJRjaOCMfvu0spJOZU4", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch14-09", "key": "03d5b15e543f36e6", "label": "Known geological history is a fragment of the time since the first organism", "statement": "The whole history of the world as known from geology is only a small fragment of the time that has elapsed since the first organism, the progenitor of all later forms, came into existence.", "quote": "The whole history of the world, as at present known, although of a length quite incomprehensible by us, will hereafter be recognised as a mere fragment of time, compared with the ages which have elapsed since the first creature, the progenitor of innumerable extinct and living descendants, was created.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. XIV: Recapitulation and Conclusion", "kind": "historical-inference", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.598, "truth": 0.235, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.25 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.22 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.71, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAwEZe_bjUahg2eSOowgkyjv0h6uKHuODsb-DHjR8W_oo", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch14-10", "key": "3bd17a78168a2c87", "label": "Every mental power was acquired by gradation", "statement": "Each mental power and capacity must have been acquired gradually, so psychology will rest on this foundation, and light will be thrown on the origin of man and his history.", "quote": "Psychology will be based on a new foundation, that of the necessary acquirement of each mental power and capacity by gradation.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. XIV: Recapitulation and Conclusion", "kind": "historical-inference", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.383, "truth": 0.85, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.87 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.83 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.61, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAjdRnvhINymfuSK-mwtRecqCYnvTpsgzywbapJZkTzCI", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch14-11", "key": "994d0a035fab87ed", "label": "Few living species will leave descendants; common species of dominant groups will prevail", "statement": "Very few living species will leave descendants in the far future, and those that will prevail and give rise to new dominant species will be the common, widespread species of the larger, dominant groups.", "quote": "We can so far take a prophetic glance into futurity as to foretel that it will be the common and widely-spread species, belonging to the larger and dominant groups, which will ultimately prevail and procreate new and dominant species.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. XIV: Recapitulation and Conclusion", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.678, "truth": 0.61, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.72 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.5 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.73, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAkoA4B0FX8YYm-h49qV5F65ZiWdO7WgVcZGO5wKdalds", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch14-12", "key": "1c348e99e498fd06", "label": "Succession by generation has never been broken by a world-wide cataclysm", "statement": "Since all living forms are lineal descendants of forms that lived long before the Silurian epoch, the ordinary succession by generation has never once been broken and no cataclysm has ever desolated the whole world.", "quote": "As all the living forms of life are the lineal descendants of those which lived long before the Silurian epoch, we may feel certain that the ordinary succession by generation has never once been broken, and that no cataclysm has desolated the whole world.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. XIV: Recapitulation and Conclusion", "kind": "historical-inference", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "supports", "evidence_kind": "biological", "data_test": { "verdict": "supports", "confidence": 0.85, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "biological", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/darwin-origin/darwin1859-ch14-12/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Using PBDB occs/diversity stage-level tables for marine Animalia genera (Phanerozoic) and the same table for each of nine marine animal phyla/classes (Mollusca, Brachiopoda, Arthropoda, Echinodermata, Cnidaria, Bryozoa, Porifera, Annelida, Chordata), define for each stage i the boundary-crossing fraction C_i = (X_bt + X_Ft) / (X_bt + X_Ft + X_bL + X_FL), the share of genera present in stage i that are also recorded after it (range-through or first-appearing and continuing). Exclude the two youngest stages (Recent edge). Pass if (1) the minimum C_i over all retained Phanerozoic stage boundaries is >= 0.10 (at no point did fewer than one in ten marine genera survive), AND (2) at the stage with the minimum C_i, at least 7 of the 9 phyla/classes have C_i > 0 (survivors in at least seven major lineages), AND (3) the median C_i over all stages is >= 0.5. Verdict 'supports' if all three hold; 'mixed' if (1) and (2) hold but (3) fails, or if (1) fails only marginally (0.05 <= min C_i < 0.10) while (2) holds; 'refutes' if any boundary has min C_i < 0.05 or fewer than 7 of 9 lineages have survivors at the worst boundary.", "disconfirming_observation": "Refuted if the fossil record contains a stage boundary across which fewer than 5% of marine animal genera persist, or at which survivors are absent from three or more of the nine major lineages, which would indicate a near-total biotic reset incompatible with unbroken descent. The Precambrian part of the claim ('long before the Silurian') cannot be tested with this data and is excluded from the verdict.", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: pbdb-occs-diversity-marine-genera-by-stage, pbdb-occs-diversity-marine-genera-by-stage-per-phylum", "inference_method": "For each of 96 Phanerozoic stages (two youngest dropped) the fraction of marine animal genera present that are also recorded after the stage (X_bt + X_Ft over all present) was computed from the PBDB diversity table. The stage with the lowest crossing fraction (Stage 4) was identified and the same table was retrieved for nine major lineages to count survivors across that boundary.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.736, "truth": 0.97, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.97 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.97 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.79, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAPTWrFlOKD62OJoY8_9xtxQmxUIQYPBHTo5w8UsloHFs", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch14-13", "key": "eae58e1a858d8ebe", "label": "Natural selection makes endowments tend towards perfection", "statement": "Because natural selection works solely by and for the good of each being, all bodily and mental endowments will tend to progress towards perfection.", "quote": "And as natural selection works solely by and for the good of each being, all corporeal and mental endowments will tend to progress towards perfection.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. XIV: Recapitulation and Conclusion", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.267, "truth": 0.15, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.14 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.16 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.84, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAqXx3XDhwzfKgJnxxP7_SsRBsBBXMmngAFxHEeXg-0us", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "darwin1859-ch14-14", "key": "e246a8ec8240b025", "label": "The 'entangled bank' laws produce the diversity of living forms", "statement": "The varied and interdependent forms of life were produced by laws still acting: growth with reproduction; inheritance; variability caused by external conditions and by use and disuse; a rate of increase high enough to cause a struggle for life and so natural selection, which in turn causes divergence of character and extinction of less improved forms.", "quote": "These laws, taken in the largest sense, being Growth with Reproduction; Inheritance which is almost implied by reproduction; Variability from the indirect and direct action of the external conditions of life, and from use and disuse; a Ratio of Increase so high as to lead to a Struggle for Life, and as a consequence to Natural Selection, entailing Divergence of Character and the Extinction of less-improved forms.", "thinker": "Charles Darwin", "year": 1859, "work": "On the Origin of Species", "chapter": "Ch. XIV: Recapitulation and Conclusion", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.539, "truth": 0.59, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.8 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.38 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.67, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA3k6cIuu1fggvSGM4Kq3GK7N8gr3nCROf4TvIlljZy7E", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch01-01", "key": "b16913a5f336d815", "label": "Reliance on chance variation and natural selection stalls inquiry into physical causes", "statement": "As long as fortuitous variation and the survival of the fittest are accepted as sufficient explanations in biology, they will tend to hold back careful investigation of the real physical causes of organic form.", "quote": "So long and so far as “fortuitous variation” and the “survival of the fittest” remain engrained as fundamental and satisfactory hypotheses in the philosophy of biology, so long will these “satisfactory and specious causes” tend to stay “severe and diligent inquiry,”", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. I: Introductory", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.168, "truth": 0.595, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.61 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.58 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.78, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAEXwC5OMri0NfPFTYYZK84nMsq-tAnRkFce9SmIJpLZI", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch01-02", "key": "e7f9f32972e12ea6", "label": "Cells, tissues, shells, bones, leaves and flowers are shaped by the laws of physics", "statement": "The material parts of living things (cells, tissues, shells, bones, leaves, flowers) are portions of matter whose particles have been moved, moulded and shaped in obedience to the laws of physics.", "quote": "Cell and tissue, shell and bone, leaf and flower, are so many portions of matter, and it is in obedience to the laws of physics that their particles have been moved, moulded and conformed.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. I: Introductory", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.225, "truth": 0.98, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.99 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.97 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.79, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RABj4-EW6jNY3LvI5KjRGhVKTf1abLRkyqdiX-fFIyxr4", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch01-03", "key": "1d87708f8f8beb4b", "label": "Problems of organic form are mathematical and problems of growth are physical", "statement": "The problems of the form of living things are, in the first instance, mathematical problems and their problems of growth are essentially physical problems, so morphology is a branch of physical science.", "quote": "Their problems of form are in the first instance mathematical problems, and their problems of growth are essentially physical problems; and the morphologist is, _ipso facto_, a student of physical science.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. I: Introductory", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.083, "truth": 0.62, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.82 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.42 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.9, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAEeg0ThXpCRBkVc48YRZZQ3eYa2OMOo2gw1QNCRJ5ZkY", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch01-04", "key": "6a4abdedcb677c15", "label": "No known physical law is transgressed by the bodily mechanism", "statement": "However complex living processes are, no physical law (including those of chemistry, surface action and osmosis) is known to be broken by the working of the body.", "quote": "But all the while, so far as I am aware, no physical law, any more than that of gravity itself, not even among the puzzles of chemical “stereometry,” or of physiological “surface-action” or “osmosis,” is known to be _transgressed_ by the bodily mechanism.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. I: Introductory", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.336, "truth": 0.988, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.995 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.98 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.69, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAN1IeUlA_zHf_5ojGqYcFR9nvsLUl6voDvZjMY6H7svk", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch01-05", "key": "ae492102b043cdaf", "label": "The form of an object is a diagram of the forces acting or that have acted on it", "statement": "The form of any portion of matter, living or dead, can be read as a diagram of forces: from the shape of a solid one can deduce the forces that produced and maintain it, and from the shape of a fluid the forces currently acting on it, so an organism's conformation is explained by a balance of forces.", "quote": "In short, the form of an object is a “diagram of forces,” in this sense, at least, that from it we can judge of or deduce the forces that are acting or have acted upon it", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. I: Introductory", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.458, "truth": 0.49, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.62 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.36 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.685, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RALpIndZFeIHrXbcTWq3l6OaJPCgC9H8EhQupaiyVYT2Y", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch01-06", "key": "d0aae2399963be8a", "label": "Surface tension at a cell's boundary strongly affects its form", "statement": "Like other fluid bodies, the surface of a cell such as an Amoeba carries a surface tension that depends on the substance it touches, and this surface tension strongly affects the cell's form.", "quote": "Like other fluid bodies, its surface, whatsoever other substance, gas, liquid or solid, it be in contact with, and in varying degree according to the nature of that adjacent substance, is the seat of molecular force exhibiting itself as a surface-tension, from the action of which many important consequences follow, which greatly affect the form of the fluid surface.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. I: Introductory", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [ { "id": "brodland-differential-interfacial-tension-sorting", "relation": "models", "note": "DITH sets each cell interfacial tension by cortical tension minus adhesion to the specific neighbour, so the tension depends on what the surface touches and drives germ-layer cell shape and sorting, as the claim asserts.", "label": "Brodland (2002) / Krieg et al. (2008) / Maître et al. (2012) Differential Interfacial Tension Hypothesis (DITH) and zebrafish germ-layer cortical tension sorting, with time-dependent Nodal/TGF-beta coupling (Pass 3) faithfully reproduces Danio rerio (zebrafish shield-stage gastrula germ-layer progenitors: ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm) morphology", "organism": "Danio rerio (zebrafish shield-stage gastrula germ-layer progenitors: ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm)", "verdict": "faithful", "score": 89.2, "thompson_verdict": null, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RASN2-XEwvmMLZ45r9B2MvX7ae4GHVpyF1ZZaMYtsdMaA", "registry": "production", "report": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/morphoeval/kg/2026-10-19-differential-interfacial-tension-sorting-audit-v3/REPORT.md" }, { "id": "graner-cellular-potts-cell-sorting", "relation": "models", "note": "The model gives each cell boundary a surface tension that depends on what it touches (like cell, unlike cell or medium) and that tension determines cell and aggregate shape, as the Thompson claim asserts.", "label": "Graner & Glazier (1992) / Glazier & Graner (1993) extended large-Q Cellular Potts Model cell sorting + Ouchi et al. (2003) cortical tension faithfully reproduces Hydra attenuata (endoderm/ectoderm reaggregates) & Gallus gallus embryonic cell spheroids morphology", "organism": "Hydra attenuata (endoderm/ectoderm reaggregates) & Gallus gallus embryonic cell spheroids", "verdict": "faithful", "score": 84.5, "thompson_verdict": null, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA2pLjmXJMR03sV7V2z3f7vccG-GnIQki0SdvRFlYyhjM", "registry": "production", "report": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/morphoeval/kg/2026-10-19-cellular-potts-cell-sorting-audit-v3/REPORT.md" } ], "thumbnail": { "file": "docs/thumbs/brodland-differential-interfacial-tension-sorting.jpg", "morpholib": "brodland-differential-interfacial-tension-sorting", "source": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/docs/media/differential_interfacial_tension_sorting_growth.gif" }, "testability": 0.509, "truth": 0.53, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.54 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.52 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.645, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA8aqM2buZJsb6h193MJLUrryoNurK-87HqgwimejQ-Oc", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch01-07", "key": "033c910a5af8382c", "label": "Protoplasm behaves as a highly viscous fluid that changes shape under force", "statement": "The protoplasm of an Amoeba deforms and flows under the slightest pressure, so it is a fluid, but it is far more viscous than water, like treacle, and this viscosity slows its changes of shape.", "quote": "While the protoplasm of the Amoeba reacts to the slightest pressure, and tends to “flow,” and while we therefore speak of it as a fluid, it is evidently far less mobile than such a fluid, for instance, as water, but is rather like treacle in its slow creeping movements as it changes its shape in response to force.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. I: Introductory", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.573, "truth": 0.595, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.64 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.55 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.685, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAchVWqAsd4tPYE9EjHcEwN_sbojqqr4zZGnf10Z56mcU", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch01-08", "key": "7c50d275cfc1e451", "label": "Vital phenomena cannot be cleanly divided into physical and non-physical ones", "statement": "There is no clear rule for deciding what is 'vital', and the properties of organisms cannot be clearly split into those of physical origin and those peculiar to living things, so physical analysis must proceed piece by piece.", "quote": "it is plain that we have no clear rule or guide as to what is “vital” and what is not; the whole assemblage of so-called vital phenomena, or properties of the organism, cannot be clearly classified into those that are physical in origin and those that are _sui generis_ and peculiar to living things.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. I: Introductory", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.078, "truth": 0.88, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.9 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.86 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.89, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAyl1Wg0VoWLw9YZx8zWf7YDKzzvNirwxqDUvlVo_OmWo", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch01-09", "key": "2a91df947ef4e939", "label": "Nuclei, chromosomes and germ-plasm act only as seats of energy and centres of force", "statement": "In development, variation and inheritance, material elements such as the spermatozoon, nucleus, chromosomes or germ-plasm never act as matter alone, but only as seats of energy and centres of force.", "quote": "we must most carefully realise in the outset that the spermatozoon, the nucleus, the chromosomes or the germ-plasm can never _act_ as matter alone, but only as seats of energy and as centres of force.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. I: Introductory", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.144, "truth": 0.435, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.72 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.15 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.815, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAKP1TMMVg5Zefqwi0xD70UPqC1GBm_vOxs5jMJeyND1I", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch02-01", "key": "3f08d52019ce872c", "label": "Changes in the length-weight constant k reveal changes of form during growth", "statement": "Weight varies as the cube of length (W = kL³) in an animal of unchanging form and density, so tracking whether k stays constant or varies with length shows whether the animal's general form changes as it grows; such changes are likely as long as growth continues.", "quote": "then the value of _k_, according to whether it varies or remains constant, will tell us at once whether there has or has not been a tendency to gradual alteration in the general form.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. II: On Magnitude", "kind": "mathematical-law", "status": "proved", "proof": "lean", "verification": "lean", "math": true, "theorem": true, "notation": "W = kL^3; form unchanged during growth \\iff k constant", "lean_theorems": [ "ThompsonLaws.Magnitude.weightCoeff_eq", "ThompsonLaws.Magnitude.weightCoeff_const_iff_form_const" ], "formalization": null, "evidence": "supports", "evidence_kind": "biological", "data_test": { "verdict": "supports", "confidence": 0.55, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "biological", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/thompson-growth-form/thompson1917-ch02-01/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered (claim supported). In ICES NS-IBTS CA records (Q1 and Q3, 2015-2024, individual weights, CANoAtLngt = 1), for every species with at least 500 weighed fish whose 97.5th-percentile length is at least 3 times its 2.5th-percentile length, fit log10 W = a + b1 log10 L + b2 (log10 L)^2 after dropping fish with |residual| > 0.5 log10 units from a preliminary linear fit (pre-registered cleaning). A species has 'variable k' if (i) an F-test rejects the cube law (model with b1 = 3, b2 = 0) at P < 0.001 and (ii) the fitted k = W / L^3 varies by at least 10% (max/min >= 1.10) across the species' 2.5th-97.5th percentile length range. The claim is supported if at least 70% of eligible species have variable k. Secondary, descriptive: in plaice, the 1-cm-bin mean of k is maximal somewhere between 20 and 40 cm and is lower at both smaller and larger lengths.", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered (claim refuted). At most 30% of eligible species have variable k (k is effectively constant across the growing range in most fishes, contrary to Thompson's expectation). Between 30% and 70% is 'mixed'. If fewer than 10 species are eligible the verdict is 'inconclusive' (data-unavailable).", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: ices-datras-ns-ibts-ca-hh", "inference_method": "The download and derivation are shared with claim ch03-18 (../thompson1917-ch03-18/fetch.py; fetch.py here delegates to it): per species a preliminary OLS of log10 W on log10 L drops 258 fish with |residual| > 0.5 (pre-registered), then fish are binned per species x quarter x 1-cm length class with n, sum and sum of squares of log10 W (derived/ns_ibts_lw_bins.csv). analysis.py keeps taxa with >= 500 fish and a 97.5th/2.5th percentile length ratio >= 3 (20 taxa: 12 teleosts, 5 elasmobranchs, 3 scyphozoan jellyfish), fits log10 W = a + b1 x + b2 x^2 (x = log10 L) by weighted least squares on class means (exact individual-level OLS since all fish in a class share L), tests it against the cube law (b1 = 3, b2 = 0) by F-test, and computes the ratio of fitted k = W/L^3 between its maximum and minimum over the 2.5-97.5 percentile length range; 'variable k' = P < 0.001 and ratio >= 1.10. Within-quarter fits and a fish-only count are reported as sensitivity checks; the plaice k profile by 1-cm class is the pre-registered secondary.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [ { "id": "thompson1917-t1917-008", "relation": "tests", "note": "The audit's plaice weight-length analysis checks whether k = W/L^3 varies with length, signalling a change of form during growth.", "label": "Thompson (1917) differential relative growth / Huxley allometry faithfully reproduces Mammals, plaice, Pheidole megacephala (analogue) morphology", "organism": "Mammals, plaice, Pheidole megacephala (analogue)", "verdict": "mostly faithful", "score": 76.2, "thompson_verdict": "supported", "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAAP7_XO02s36C7KJlPRy6-3_VYJu6pygZ_cjRkKTx7Mo", "registry": "test", "report": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/morphoeval/kg/2026-10-28-t1917-008-the-rate-of-growth-audit-v2/REPORT.md" } ], "thumbnail": { "file": "docs/thumbs/thompson1917-t1917-008.jpg", "morpholib": "thompson1917-t1917-008", "source": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/docs/media/t1917_008_the_rate_of_growth_growth.gif" }, "testability": 0.804, "truth": 0.905, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.97 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.84 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.84, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAx9GLWqrwAh0Wdb5MtiCTuByPmFkVkFVS6IxqE5bDbA4", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch02-02", "key": "818db54b24e1dee7", "label": "Tree trunk diameter must grow as the 3/2 power of height", "statement": "For a tree to stand without buckling under its own weight, its diameter must increase as the 3/2 power of its height, which explains why young trees are slender and old large ones stunted, and sets a theoretical maximum tree height (about 300 ft for a Kew-flagstaff pine).", "quote": "In general, as Greenhill shews, the diameter of a homogeneous body must increase as the power 3/2 of the height, which accounts for the slender proportions of young trees, compared with the stunted appearance of old and large ones.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. II: On Magnitude", "kind": "mathematical-law", "status": "proved", "proof": "lean", "verification": "lean", "math": true, "theorem": true, "notation": "d \\propto h^{3/2} (no buckling under own weight); h_{max} \\approx 300\\,\\text{ft} for the Kew-flagstaff pine", "lean_theorems": [ "ThompsonLaws.Magnitude.greenhill_stands_iff", "ThompsonLaws.Magnitude.greenhillMinDiameter_scale" ], "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.757, "truth": 0.39, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.2 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.58 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.79, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RALgYka22S8ASWatvSH1_BW21S14z4rEoY0gMtS0T6dmo", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch02-03", "key": "56370512554e1968", "label": "Gravity sets an upper limit on the size of terrestrial animals", "statement": "Because the strength of muscles and the crushing resistance of bones vary as their cross-section (the square of linear size) while body weight varies as the cube, there is a definite upper limit to the size of an animal living under gravity; the elephant, with disproportionately thick limb bones and reduced agility, is already near it.", "quote": "But in a terrestrial animal the weight which tends to crush its limbs or which its muscles have to move, varies as the cube of its linear dimensions; and so, to the possible magnitude of an animal, living under the direct action of gravity, there is a definite limit set.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. II: On Magnitude", "kind": "mathematical-law", "status": "proved", "proof": "lean", "verification": "lean", "math": true, "theorem": true, "notation": "strength \\propto L^2, W \\propto L^3 \\Rightarrow strength/W \\propto L^{-1}, so L is bounded above under gravity", "lean_theorems": [ "ThompsonLaws.Magnitude.strengthToWeight_eq", "ThompsonLaws.Magnitude.strengthToWeight_size_bound" ], "formalization": null, "evidence": "supports", "evidence_kind": "biological", "data_test": { "verdict": "supports", "confidence": 0.6, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "biological", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/thompson-growth-form/thompson1917-ch02-03/limb-bone-pgls-01/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Humeral cross-sectional area of terrestrial mammals scales with body mass with an exponent clearly above 2/3, with a lower confidence bound above 2/3 and a point estimate of at least 0.70, under both phylogenetic and ordinary regression.", "disconfirming_observation": "An exponent interval whose upper bound is at or below 2/3 under phylogenetic regression: the limb skeleton would then scale like the geometric-similarity case and not compensate for the square-cube penalty.", "admissible_datasets": "Published, openly licensed measurements of limb-bone cross-sectional area and body mass of mammals, measured independently of Thompson's text, with a phylogeny that covers at least 90 % of the species. Terrestrial species only for the primary analysis (the claim's scope is terrestrial animals under gravity).", "inference_method": "log10(MeanArea) regressed on log10(BM) by phylogenetic GLS under a Brownian-motion covariance scaled by Pagel's lambda (maximum likelihood on [0, 1], profile likelihood), slope and 95 % CI from the t distribution with n - 2 degrees of freedom; the same by ordinary least squares as a check. Thresholds as stated in pass_criterion and fail_criterion.", "explicit": true }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.62, "truth": 0.6, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.72 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.48 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.72, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAJ07iAZXrk-EJTxlP8KcCyBYAcxbjD_hbBL5hw_HH2dU", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch02-04", "key": "938d24b79502b418", "label": "Buoyancy removes the physical barrier to size in fully aquatic animals", "statement": "An animal wholly immersed in water whose density about matches the water, like a whale, has its weight counterpoised, so there is no longer a physical barrier to its indefinite growth in size.", "quote": "Under these circumstances there is no longer a physical barrier to the indefinite growth in magnitude of the animal.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. II: On Magnitude", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.533, "truth": 0.24, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.16 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.32 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.68, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAL16LLz-IcvH20Huao0nKty0kmNsiD3gjfU2ZTs2XR-I", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch02-05", "key": "280dfd70d4813814", "label": "Larger fish can sprint faster but cover similar distances and tire more slowly", "statement": "Since muscular work available scales as the cube of linear size while the rate of energy supply, depending on respiratory surface, scales only as the square, a larger fish should achieve a much higher burst speed than a smaller one but travel a similar distance over a year, and smaller individuals should fatigue faster and have less staying power.", "quote": "the singular result ought to follow that, in swimming for instance, the larger fish ought to be able to put on a spurt of speed far in excess of the smaller one; but the distance travelled by the year’s end should be very much alike for both of them.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. II: On Magnitude", "kind": "prediction", "status": "proved", "proof": "lean", "verification": "lean", "math": true, "theorem": true, "notation": "W_{muscle} \\propto L^3; \\dot{E}_{supply} \\propto S \\propto L^2", "lean_theorems": [ "ThompsonLaws.Magnitude.burstToSupplyRatio_eq", "ThompsonLaws.Magnitude.burst_advantage_exceeds_supply_advantage" ], "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.517, "truth": 0.25, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.2 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.3 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.655, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAFgbuVy3ao7eROfm1MeK68VqKxaFIvQj74MlRVYOWkSA", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch02-06", "key": "3c151c0a7f4052fd", "label": "Power needed for flight grows as length^3.5 while muscle power grows as length^3", "statement": "A bird of fixed proportions must fly at a minimum speed proportional to the square root of its linear size, so the work needed for flight varies as the 3½ power of linear size while the work its muscles can supply varies only as the cube; flight thus becomes harder as birds get larger (about 1.4 times harder per doubling of length).", "quote": "The work requiring to be done, then, varies as the power 3½ of the bird’s linear dimensions, while the work of which the bird is capable depends on the mass of its muscles, and therefore varies as the cube of its linear dimensions.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. II: On Magnitude", "kind": "mathematical-law", "status": "proved", "proof": "lean", "verification": "lean", "math": true, "theorem": true, "notation": "V_{min} \\propto L^{1/2}; W_{flight} = mV^2 \\propto L^{7/2}; W_{muscle} \\propto L^3; per doubling of L: 2^{7/2} : 2^3 \\approx 1.4 : 1", "lean_theorems": [ "ThompsonLaws.Magnitude.flightSpeed_of_balance", "ThompsonLaws.Magnitude.flightWork_sq", "ThompsonLaws.Magnitude.flightWork_double", "ThompsonLaws.Magnitude.flightDifficulty_double" ], "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.594, "truth": 0.675, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.63 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.72 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.705, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAdVRDvTGK4uMEpuqrEb51EKRnIb--urYR2a6WPripnHw", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch02-07", "key": "6d81e91d9739df20", "label": "Ostrich and moa have passed the size at which muscular flight is possible", "statement": "The ostrich probably, and the moa certainly, reached a size at which flight by muscular action with ordinary bird anatomy became physiologically impossible, and a bird as large as a man could not fly.", "quote": "It is not improbable that the ostrich has already reached a magnitude, and we may take it for certain that the moa did so, at which flight by muscular action, according to the normal anatomy of a bird, has become physiologically impossible.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. II: On Magnitude", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.594, "truth": 0.765, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.79 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.74 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.68, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAMhPNd6XkyUTyqNHs_2YaLIP3sIY4DWWtsJYIgyRMDMA", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch02-08", "key": "112db14e04a250a5", "label": "Giant Carboniferous insects and pterodactyls imply a denser ancient atmosphere", "statement": "The giant wingspans of Carboniferous dragonflies and the small bodies and huge wings of pterodactyls, which seem beyond present mechanical limits, can be explained if the Carboniferous and Jurassic atmosphere was notably denser, for example through more carbonic acid.", "quote": "we have only to suppose that in carboniferous and jurassic days the terrestrial atmosphere was notably denser than it is at present, by reason, for instance, of its containing a much larger proportion of carbonic acid, and we have at once a means of reconciling the apparent mechanical discrepancy.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. II: On Magnitude", "kind": "historical-inference", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.575, "truth": 0.1, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.08 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.12 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.72, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAxqjm7-biKiaCKQ2P4Mdz8pNLUVG-RA9tfVDUKVwmyFg", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch02-09", "key": "96384196ce2b3087", "label": "Similarly built animals should jump to the same absolute height regardless of size", "statement": "Because the impulse of a leap is proportional to muscle volume and so to body mass, the take-off velocity is independent of size, and similarly built animals should jump to the same actual height rather than the same relative height; longer levers in larger animals give them some advantage.", "quote": "in other words, that all animals, provided always that they are similarly fashioned, with their various levers etc., in like proportion, ought to jump, not to the same relative, but to the same actual height.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. II: On Magnitude", "kind": "mathematical-law", "status": "proved", "proof": "lean", "verification": "lean", "math": true, "theorem": true, "notation": "impulse \\propto M \\Rightarrow v_0 independent of L; jump height h = v_0^2/2g independent of L", "lean_theorems": [ "ThompsonLaws.Magnitude.jumpHeight_borelli", "ThompsonLaws.Magnitude.jumpHeight_same_actual" ], "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.583, "truth": 0.745, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.73 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.76 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.7, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAuxHxDuuiTJSpIWhHn-oiGUZbBPtnCal4WKK9U21XNeo", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch02-10", "key": "ea58e3c3454b09a9", "label": "Speed varies as the square root of linear size in swimming, flight and walking", "statement": "Leaving aside differences in mechanical construction, swimming (Froude's law), flight (minimum stable speed) and walking (the leg swinging as a pendulum) all give the same result: an animal's velocity tends to vary as the square root of its linear dimensions.", "quote": "the general result, attained under very different conditions and arrived at by very different modes of reasoning, is in every case that the velocity tends to vary as the square root of the linear dimensions of the organism.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. II: On Magnitude", "kind": "mathematical-law", "status": "proved", "proof": "lean", "verification": "lean", "math": true, "theorem": true, "notation": "V \\propto L^{1/2} for swimming (Froude), flight (minimum speed) and walking (pendulum leg)", "lean_theorems": [ "ThompsonLaws.Magnitude.froudeSpeed_sqrt", "ThompsonLaws.Magnitude.flightSpeed_sqrt", "ThompsonLaws.Magnitude.pendulumWalkSpeed_sqrt", "ThompsonLaws.Magnitude.locomotion_speed_sqrt" ], "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.634, "truth": 0.675, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.67 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.68 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.71, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAHEYyHE7K3QBy2DxRcUjZSSkOU3RkfmhD5rioKh3D6GA", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch02-11", "key": "eb6c7d29d048ecf3", "label": "Doubling gravity would make terrestrial animals short-legged or serpent-like", "statement": "The form and actions of terrestrial animals are conditioned by the strength of gravity: if it were doubled, bipedal form would fail and most land animals would resemble short-legged saurians or serpents; if halved, animals would be lighter, more active and need less heart, lungs and blood.", "quote": "Were the force of gravity to be doubled, our bipedal form would be a failure, and the majority of terrestrial animals would resemble short-legged saurians, or else serpents.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. II: On Magnitude", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.363, "truth": 0.5, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.42 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.58 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.66, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAIFhy-g6F8niYHsCt__F6pyFOw1Y3s76gFwykvejAjL0", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch02-12", "key": "b36dcab0ce2562e8", "label": "Folded surfaces such as villi and brain convolutions keep surface in step with mass", "statement": "Throughout morphology, surface tends to keep pace with volume through changes of form, such as intestinal villi and folds, the shark's spiral valve, and brain convolutions whose complexity is correlated with animal size, so that a roughly constant ratio of surface to mass is maintained.", "quote": "Throughout the whole field of morphology we may find examples of a tendency (referable doubtless in each case to some definite physical cause) for surface to keep pace with volume, through some alteration of its form.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. II: On Magnitude", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "proved", "proof": "lean", "verification": "lean", "math": true, "theorem": true, "notation": "S/M \\approx \\text{const} maintained by change of form, against S/M \\propto L^{-1} for similar forms", "lean_theorems": [ "ThompsonLaws.Magnitude.surfaceToMass_similar", "ThompsonLaws.Magnitude.surfaceToMass_const_iff" ], "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.527, "truth": 0.75, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.7 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.8 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.665, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAiLRxW8TPWn2MgVYESGPIAcXOBLTo1SCW0Vg0oDNTShU", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch02-13", "key": "a6b74c857dc413d3", "label": "Form of small organisms is set by surface tension, not gravity, favouring spheres", "statement": "The form of all small organisms is largely independent of gravity and mainly due to surface tension, acting either now or at an earlier stage before the form was made rigid, so small organisms tend strongly toward spherical and other simple surface-tension forms that do not occur in the external form of large animals.", "quote": "In like manner we shall find that the form of all small organisms is largely independent of gravity, and largely if not mainly due to the force of surface-tension", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. II: On Magnitude", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.467, "truth": 0.41, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.32 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.5 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.635, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RArc70O-Nli3xVi8R4EpUDlGRAiN4Pmh5o94c80j6Ly4Y", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch02-14", "key": "3275823c251c32f2", "label": "Form follows growth rates in large organisms but not in minute ones", "statement": "Large and small organisms differ in kind in how form arises: in large organisms form is the direct result of unequal growth rates in different directions, but in minute organisms and individual cells intermolecular forces outweigh gravity and form is not simply correlated with growth.", "quote": "But it is by no means true that form and growth are in this direct and simple fashion correlative or complementary in the case of minute portions of living matter.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. II: On Magnitude", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.443, "truth": 0.63, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.56 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.7 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.615, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAPr6DfeO2sUj_-0FPQUNzmsMwqyOgAeNL8Xyp4CoQdMI", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch02-15", "key": "099ef605f08c6187", "label": "Cell division restores the ratio of surface to mass", "statement": "Cell division keeps the ratio between a cell's surface and its mass approximately constant and restores the balance of surface energy with the cell's other energies; cleavage of an egg increases surface without increasing volume or mass.", "quote": "In short, however it may be brought about, the phenomenon of division of the cell will be precisely what is required to keep approximately constant the ratio between surface and mass, and to restore the balance between the surface-energy and the other energies of the system.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. II: On Magnitude", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "proved", "proof": "lean", "verification": "lean", "math": true, "theorem": true, "notation": "cell division keeps S/M \\approx \\text{const}; cleavage increases S at constant V and M", "lean_theorems": [ "ThompsonLaws.Magnitude.division_total_surface", "ThompsonLaws.Magnitude.division_increases_surface", "ThompsonLaws.Magnitude.division_restores_surface_ratio" ], "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.578, "truth": 0.63, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.58 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.68 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.695, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA3vKXMp_11WwtAsuZsBIDaruLwCT8kK9U9oyAxbSM8rQ", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch02-16", "key": "d8c1bc4a867d2860", "label": "Cells of each kind vary little about a mean size, whatever the body size", "statement": "Cells of each kind vary little about a characteristic mean size and have absolute size limits, so dwarf and giant individuals of a species (e.g. Crepidula, sea-urchin larvae) differ in cell number rather than cell size.", "quote": "An immediate and remarkable result of the principles just described is a tendency on the part of all cells, according to their kind, to vary but little about a certain mean size, and to have, in fact, certain absolute limitations of magnitude.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. II: On Magnitude", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.674, "truth": 0.82, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.84 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.8 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.735, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAK5_9gjY_EKHI3LgnC2F2TM-CV6tU8L_Cd4OFEDS1BVM", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch02-17", "key": "1e8af8152ab94345", "label": "Ganglion-cell size varies little; larger species have ganglia with more cells", "statement": "Across animals large and small, ganglion (nerve) cells vary in size only within narrow limits, and smaller species have simpler ganglia containing fewer cells than larger species.", "quote": "we may (with Enriques) lay it down as a general law that among animals, whether large or small, the ganglion-cells vary in size within narrow limits; and that, amidst all the great variety of structural type of ganglion observed in different classes of animals, it is always found that the smaller species have simpler ganglia than the larger, that is to say ganglia containing a smaller number of cellular elements.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. II: On Magnitude", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.632, "truth": 0.625, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.53 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.72 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.71, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA_DcHrjUdqHXQV-_lCIDeE-eIFlBOBM5oyUbDU5_E4mU", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch02-18", "key": "c72f500abb6660de", "label": "The smallest organisms approach molecular size, so they cannot be much smaller", "statement": "Because a micrococcus 0.15 µm across contains only some tens of thousands of protein molecules, the smallest known organisms approach molecular dimensions, and organisms cannot be subdivided indefinitely or be much smaller than those already discovered.", "quote": "it will still be clear that the smallest known bodies which are described as organisms draw nigh towards molecular magnitudes, and we must recognise that the subdivision of the organism cannot proceed to an indefinite extent, and in all probability cannot go very much further than it appears to have done in these already discovered forms.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. II: On Magnitude", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.663, "truth": 0.82, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.8 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.84 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.75, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAHnvqqU7S1xWOFJJM8ZtKTi3DTzpuVVrn1ytnNgkmhj8", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch03-01", "key": "ed7a0eb5a93f597c", "label": "External form results from the ratio of growth rates in different directions", "statement": "Except for certain very minute organisms whose form is set directly by molecular forces, the external form of an organism is accounted for by the ratio between its rates of growth in different directions.", "quote": "It is the ratio between the rates of growth in various directions by which we must account for the external forms of all, save certain very minute, organisms.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. III: The Rate of Growth", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.464, "truth": 0.76, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.74 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.78 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.645, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAm7XoXKjV5nXcTFArs2e_blzJ54J-deT2wQsqovNjGxg", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch03-02", "key": "31ee909dcd68f8cd", "label": "Constant growth-rate ratios preserve form; changing ratios produce development", "statement": "When the ratio between growth rates in different directions stays constant, an organism grows in bulk with little or no change of form; such constancy seldom lasts more than a season, and when the ratio alters the organism undergoes development, a steady and persistent change of form.", "quote": "It may sometimes be a very _constant_ one, in which case the organism, while growing in bulk, suffers little or no perceptible change in form; but such equilibrium seldom endures for more than a season, and when the _ratio_ tends to alter, then we have the phenomenon of morphological “development,” or steady and persistent change of form.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. III: The Rate of Growth", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.626, "truth": 0.795, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.83 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.76 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.71, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAz1wuTKAeiUhlTOOCNpmelXvBxbnv6viIrrK8WAsLxV8", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch03-03", "key": "15d9eff3af67e468", "label": "Embryonic folds arise from local differences in growth rate of a uniform sheet", "statement": "The foldings of the blastoderm that produce the neural and amniotic folds result from unequal rates of growth, local accelerations and retardations, in what is at first an even and uniform layer of embryonic tissue, in the way that a sheet buckles when parts of it expand or contract.", "quote": "the various foldings of the blastoderm, by which the neural and amniotic folds were brought into being, were essentially and obviously the resultant of unequal rates of growth,—of local accelerations or retardations of growth,—in what to begin with was an even and uniform layer of embryonic tissue.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. III: The Rate of Growth", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [ { "id": "sharon-ripping-leaf-edge-waves", "relation": "models", "note": "Excess marginal growth of an initially flat sheet buckling into edge waves is a direct formalisation of Thompson's mechanism of folds arising from local differences in growth rate within a uniform sheet.", "label": "Sharon et al. (2002) Nature / Audoly & Boudaoud (2003) PRL Non-Euclidean Edge Buckling Cascades in Ruffled Leaf Margins faithfully reproduces Lactuca sativa cv. 'Lollo Bionda' (Ruffled garden lettuce) & Brassica oleracea (Curly kale) morphology", "organism": "Lactuca sativa cv. 'Lollo Bionda' (Ruffled garden lettuce) & Brassica oleracea (Curly kale)", "verdict": "faithful", "score": 92.1, "thompson_verdict": null, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAOBlgjo_d0pUZdUZfjMi_MetIJKPlp85SzMGL46y-s0w", "registry": "production", "report": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/morphoeval/kg/2026-10-19-ripping-leaf-edge-waves-audit-v3/REPORT.md" }, { "id": "tozluoglu-wing-disc-dome-folding", "relation": "models", "note": "Planar differential growth rates within the wing-disc epithelium position its folds (uniform growth gives unpinned buckling), implementing Thompson's mechanism of folds from local growth-rate differences in a uniform sheet.", "label": "Tozluoglu et al. (2019) Dev. Cell & Sui et al. (2018) Nat. Commun. Drosophila wing imaginal disc planar differential growth, basal ECM dome & H/N, H/H, H/P hinge folding (Pass 3: + reduced disc-proper / peripodial / lumen sac) faithfully reproduces Drosophila melanogaster (third-instar larval wing imaginal disc, 64h-96h AEL) morphology", "organism": "Drosophila melanogaster (third-instar larval wing imaginal disc, 64h-96h AEL)", "verdict": "faithful", "score": 85.8, "thompson_verdict": null, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAdXUf0PMx72FzB9_bMpIf3i-VojFpMKsLxIQg8uFvjgU", "registry": "production", "report": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/morphoeval/kg/2026-10-19-wing-disc-dome-folding-audit-v3/REPORT.md" } ], "thumbnail": { "file": "docs/thumbs/sharon-ripping-leaf-edge-waves.jpg", "morpholib": "sharon-ripping-leaf-edge-waves", "source": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/docs/media/ripping_leaf_edge_waves_growth.gif" }, "testability": 0.601, "truth": 0.57, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.82 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.32 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.71, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAgXqINnI92aAHATMS65YjnI0lF6thOW19s99g4NpkRl4", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch03-04", "key": "165c98e58e262652", "label": "Differences between related forms emerge gradually and are small in the young", "statement": "Because form differences are attained by growth at specific velocities over long periods, differences between any two related individuals or species must appear gradually and be little apparent in the young, and animals of very different adult size differ less and less in size and form when traced back through foetal stages.", "quote": "it is accordingly obvious that in any two related individuals (whether specifically identical or not) the differences between them must manifest themselves gradually, and be but little apparent in the young. It is for the same simple reason that animals which are of very different sizes when adult, differ less and less in size (as well as in form) as we trace them backwards through the foetal stages.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. III: The Rate of Growth", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.623, "truth": 0.69, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.64 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.74 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.705, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAcSbCsZuqOznoJ6LpbBAHcrJoSXShfIKjGKSy6Str5gU", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch03-05", "key": "e75c2122571bac21", "label": "Human stature grows fast in infancy, steadily in childhood, then quickens in the teens", "statement": "The human curve of growth in stature shows rapid increase in infancy, a long period of slower, nearly steady growth in early boyhood, a marked quickening in the early teens, and finally a gradual arrest as full height is reached.", "quote": "The curve of growth for length or stature in man indicates a rapid increase at the outset, that is to say during the quick growth of babyhood; a long period of slower, but still rapid and almost steady growth in early boyhood; as a rule a marked quickening soon after the boy is in his teens, when he comes to “the growing age”", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. III: The Rate of Growth", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "supports", "evidence_kind": "biological", "data_test": { "verdict": "supports", "confidence": 0.8, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "biological", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/thompson-growth-form/thompson1917-ch03-05/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered, evaluated on boys (the subject of Thompson's sentence) with girls reported alongside. Velocities come from pooled NHANES 2007-2018 measured stature (recumbent length < 24 months, standing height >= 24 months) using exam age in months. Model-free yearly velocity v(a) = median(height | age in [a+1,a+2) yr) - median(height | age in [a,a+1) yr), a = 0..18; smoothed velocity = derivative of a weighted smoothing spline through monthly medians. All four must hold for boys: (a) infancy: v(0) >= 2 x mean of v(4..9); (b) childhood steadiness: coefficient of variation of the smoothed velocity over ages 4-10 < 0.15 and max-min of v(4..9) <= 2.0 cm/yr; (c) adolescent quickening: max smoothed velocity in ages 10-17 >= 1.2 x the minimum smoothed velocity in ages 6-10, and the largest v(a) for a in 10..16 exceeds mean v(4..9) by >= 1.0 cm/yr with a 95% bootstrap CI (1000 resamples of individuals) excluding 0; (d) arrest: v(18) (18.5 -> 19.5 yr) < 1.5 cm/yr and < one third of mean v(4..9).", "disconfirming_observation": "Refutes if (c) fails in boys, i.e. the adolescent peak does not exceed childhood velocity (bootstrap CI of the excess includes 0 or the smoothed ratio < 1.0), or if (a) fails (infancy velocity not above childhood velocity). Any other combination of failed sub-criteria (e.g. an irregular childhood plateau or incomplete arrest by 19.5 yr) gives 'mixed'.", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: nhanes-demo-2007-2018, nhanes-bmx-2007-2018", "inference_method": "Downloaded NHANES DEMO and BMX files for the six 2007-2018 cycles, merged on SEQN, kept examined persons under 20 years with a stature measurement (recumbent length below 24 months, standing height from 24 months; n = 23551, boys 12038, girls 11513). For each sex, median stature by completed year of age gave the model-free yearly velocity v(a); a local-linear Gaussian-kernel smoother (SD 0.5 yr; 0.75 and 1.0 yr as sensitivity) on monthly medians gave the smoothed velocity curve on a monthly grid. Bootstrap over individuals (1000 resamples) gave 95% CIs for the infancy velocity, the adolescent excess over childhood velocity and the velocity at 18.5-19.5 yr. The four pre-registered sub-criteria were evaluated on boys and reported for girls.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.928, "truth": 0.95, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.96 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.94 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.925, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAX19qXAwtvzgEdq_X3Gl5O8zI-3kJiQ8atJIPt2Ic4Fc", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch03-06", "key": "0b944294414e6699", "label": "Adult human stature declines well before fifty and markedly by old age", "statement": "Full adult stature in man lasts only for a time: it begins to decrease well before fifty, is notably lessened by sixty, and is much reduced in extreme old age, so that growth takes a negative value.", "quote": "We should see that a man’s full stature endures but for a spell; long before fifty it has begun to abate, by sixty it is notably lessened, in extreme old age the old man’s frame is shrunken and it is but a memory that “he once was tall.”", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. III: The Rate of Growth", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.757, "truth": 0.55, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.22 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.88 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.785, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAfiawb-m5PJouniDZrDn7ImywmvPEyPxTPD41qL4UD4k", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch03-07", "key": "e10fe729e34998ca", "label": "Weight tends to vary as the cube of linear dimensions during growth", "statement": "Whatever the law of increase in a linear dimension, volume and therefore weight tend to vary as the cube of linear dimensions, which mainly (though not wholly) explains why the human weight curve differs in shape from the stature curve.", "quote": "whatever be the law of increment in a linear dimension, the law of increase in volume, and therefore in weight, will be that these latter magnitudes tend to vary as the cubes of the linear dimensions.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. III: The Rate of Growth", "kind": "mathematical-law", "status": "proved", "proof": "lean", "verification": "lean", "math": true, "theorem": true, "notation": "W \\propto L^3 whatever the law of growth L(t)", "lean_theorems": [ "ThompsonLaws.Magnitude.weightOfLength_ratio", "ThompsonLaws.Magnitude.weightOfLength_hasDerivAt" ], "formalization": null, "evidence": "mixed", "evidence_kind": "biological", "data_test": { "verdict": "mixed", "confidence": 0.75, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "biological", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/thompson-growth-form/thompson1917-ch03-07/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered, on pooled NHANES 2007-2018 individuals aged 0-19.99 yr with measured weight and stature (recumbent length < 24 months, standing height >= 24 months), sexes pooled with sex-specific values reported. (1) Cube tendency: the OLS slope b of log10(weight) on log10(stature) over all individuals satisfies 2.5 <= b <= 3.5 (95% CI reported; reduced-major-axis slope reported as sensitivity), and the same slope fitted to the age-median curve (monthly median weight vs monthly median stature, 0-19 yr) also lies in [2.5, 3.5]. (2) 'Mainly explains the curve difference': with monthly medians H(t), W(t) normalised to their 19-yr values, define D(p) = mean over months of |W(t)/W(19) - (H(t)/H(19))^p|. Supports if D(3)/D(1) <= 0.5, i.e. cubing the stature curve removes at least half of the discrepancy between the stature and weight curves. Both (1) and (2) must hold for 'supports'.", "disconfirming_observation": "Refutes if the individual-level slope b lies outside [2.0, 4.0], or if D(3)/D(1) > 1 (cubing makes the curves less alike). Mixed if b is in [2.0, 2.5) or (3.5, 4.0], or if the slope is in range but 0.5 < D(3)/D(1) <= 1 (the cube explains some but not most of the difference).", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: nhanes-demo-2007-2018, nhanes-bmx-2007-2018", "inference_method": "NHANES DEMO+BMX 2007-2018 merged on SEQN; examined persons under 20 yr with measured weight and stature (recumbent length < 24 months, standing height otherwise), n = 23540. OLS of log10 weight on log10 stature across individuals (95% CI from the regression standard error; RMA slope as sensitivity), and the same regression on the 240 monthly medians (age-median curve). Monthly median stature H(t) and weight W(t) were normalised by their mean over months 228-239 and the discrepancy D(p) = mean_t |W(t) - H(t)^p| computed for p = 1..4 and on a 0.01 grid to find the best exponent. Slopes by age window (0-2, 2-10, 10-20, 2-20 yr) are reported descriptively.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": { "verdict": "faithful-with-narrower-scope", "assessors": [ { "assessor": "gpt-5-2025-08-07", "verdict": "faithful-with-narrower-scope", "confidence": null, "file": "test-data/claim-tests/thompson-growth-form/thompson1917-ch03-07/faithfulness.json" } ], "status": "agreed" } }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.881, "truth": 0.795, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.73 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.86 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.89, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAJeiiliIRIKzj4kH--SBxEdiHDaWbJBNy2IZXm7JAmw0", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch03-08", "key": "e30cd54b42850a92", "label": "Boys and girls share a growth-velocity curve differing mainly in phase", "statement": "The curves of growth velocity in boys and girls are of very similar shape but differ in amplitude and especially in phase, the girl's adolescent acceleration beginning and ending earlier than the boy's.", "quote": "In short, throughout all this period, it is a very _similar_ curve in the two sexes; but it has its notable differences, in amplitude and especially in _phase_.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. III: The Rate of Growth", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "supports", "evidence_kind": "biological", "data_test": { "verdict": "supports", "confidence": 0.85, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "biological", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/thompson-growth-form/thompson1917-ch03-08/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered. From pooled NHANES 2007-2018 measured stature and weight (exam age in months), compute for each sex monthly medians, a weighted smoothing spline, and its derivative (velocity). Primary outcome = stature velocity; secondary = weight velocity. Define for each sex: takeoff age = age of the minimum smoothed velocity between 6 yr and the peak; peak age = age of the maximum smoothed velocity in 8-17 yr; end age = first age after the peak at which stature velocity falls below 1.0 cm/yr (weight: below 50% of the peak). Supports if, for stature, (i) girls' peak age is earlier than boys' by >= 1.0 yr with a 95% bootstrap CI (1000 resamples of individuals) excluding 0, (ii) girls' takeoff and end ages are both earlier than boys', and (iii) shape similarity: after shifting the girls' velocity curve by the peak-age difference and regressing the boys' curve on it over boys' ages 6-17 (monthly grid), Pearson r >= 0.8; and for weight, girls' peak age is earlier by >= 1.0 yr.", "disconfirming_observation": "Refutes if the girls' stature peak age is not earlier than the boys' (difference <= 0 or CI includes 0), or if the aligned curves have r < 0.5 (different shapes), or if the sexes show a different sequence of phases (e.g. no adolescent peak in one sex). Mixed if the stature lead is >= 1 yr but takeoff/end ordering or the weight lead fails, or if 0.5 <= r < 0.8.", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: nhanes-demo-2007-2018, nhanes-bmx-2007-2018", "inference_method": "NHANES DEMO+BMX 2007-2018 merged on SEQN; examined persons under 20 yr (stature: boys 12038, girls 11513; weight: boys 12155, girls 11594). For each sex and variable, monthly medians were smoothed with a local-linear Gaussian-kernel regression (SD 0.5 yr, weights = bin size) and the local slope taken as velocity on a monthly grid 0.5-19.5 yr. Takeoff = pre-spurt velocity minimum from 6 yr to the peak; peak = velocity maximum in 8-17 yr; end = first age after the peak with stature velocity < 1 cm/yr (weight: < 50% of peak). The girls' curve was shifted later by the peak-age difference and correlated with the boys' curve over boys' ages 6-17 (Pearson r; regression slope reported as the amplitude ratio). 1000 bootstrap resamples of individuals gave 95% CIs for the sex difference in peak age.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.913, "truth": 0.935, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.95 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.92 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.925, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAQJCV63I7wCihhWbZqHkUS2IfddUJNKjSCrYllH1ycJo", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch03-09", "key": "49bd9a5c692472b7", "label": "All animals pass through the same phases of growth: slow start, early peak, slowdown", "statement": "In long-lived and short-lived animals alike, growth begins slowly, reaches its maximum velocity early, and then slows down (with temporary accelerations) toward a point where it ceases.", "quote": "Whether the animal be long-lived, as man or the elephant, or short-lived, like horse or dog, it passes through the same phases of growth. In all cases growth begins slowly; it attains a maximum velocity early in its course, and afterwards slows down (subject to temporary accelerations) towards a point where growth ceases altogether.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. III: The Rate of Growth", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.615, "truth": 0.36, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.27 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.45 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.715, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA_e7gsz6xoP1x6dRWX3vdJ1ne4-SR-h3OSDFct8dHg2k", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch03-10", "key": "583a8c9663e7e714", "label": "Cold-blooded animals approach a maximal size only asymptotically", "statement": "In cold-blooded animals such as fishes the slowing of growth is greatly protracted, so that size seems never to reach a maximum but only to approach a limit asymptotically.", "quote": "But especially in the cold-blooded animals, such as fishes, the slowing-down period is very greatly protracted, and the size of the creature would seem never actually to reach, but only to approach asymptotically, to a maximal limit.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. III: The Rate of Growth", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "mixed", "evidence_kind": "biological", "data_test": { "verdict": "mixed", "confidence": 0.6, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "biological", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/thompson-growth-form/thompson1917-ch03-10/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered. Data: ICES DATRAS North Sea IBTS (NS-IBTS) age records (CA record type), quarters 1 and 3, survey years 2000-2024, all species; length class converted to cm; records with a plus-group flag or missing age excluded. A species qualifies if it has at least 7 consecutive age classes starting at age 1, each with at least 50 aged fish (sum of CANoAtLngt); the included age range ends at the oldest class with at least 50 fish. For each species, mean length at age is computed (weighted by CANoAtLngt) and two 3-parameter models are fitted by weighted least squares (weights = number of fish): (i) asymptotic von Bertalanffy L = Linf (1 - exp(-K (a - t0))) with K > 0, and (ii) determinate quadratic-plateau L = Lmax - c (tc - a)^2 for a < tc, L = Lmax for a >= tc, with tc constrained to at most (oldest included age - 1) so that the model asserts a maximum actually reached inside the data. dAIC = AIC_det - AIC_VB (positive favours the asymptotic model). Late-age increments are the three increments of mean length between the last four included age classes. SUPPORTS if the asymptotic model is favoured (dAIC > 2) in at least two thirds of qualifying species AND at least 75% of all late-age increments pooled across species are positive. Requires at least 5 qualifying species; otherwise inconclusive (underpowered).", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered. REFUTES if the determinate model is favoured (dAIC < -2) in at least half of the qualifying species, OR if at least half of the pooled late-age increments are zero or negative (growth has stopped at a reached maximum while fish are still well sampled). Anything between the supports and refutes conditions is 'mixed'. If the DATRAS download API is unreachable the verdict is inconclusive with reason data-unavailable.", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: ices-datras-ns-ibts-ca-2000-2024-q1q3", "inference_method": "fetch.py requests one zip per survey year and quarter from the DATRAS Download API (50 files, 13.6 MB) and records their checksums. analysis.py pools all records, converts length classes to cm, drops plus-group and unaged records, and computes the CANoAtLngt-weighted mean length at age per species. For the 11 species with at least 7 consecutive age classes from age 1 each holding >= 50 aged fish, it fits by weighted least squares a 3-parameter von Bertalanffy curve and a 3-parameter quadratic-plateau curve whose maximum is reached at least one age class before the oldest included age, and compares them by AIC; it also records the sign of the three increments between the last four included age classes.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.752, "truth": 0.715, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.67 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.76 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.785, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAQL_sZwFhQ_dv0OxdT0dY8-c5Z11u0rlo2mrs94zJfrE", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch03-11", "key": "0a2299847217f5d6", "label": "Adult size results from both the rate and the duration of growth", "statement": "The size an animal finally attains results from both its rate and its duration of growth: some species are larger because they grow faster (rabbit versus guinea-pig), others because they grow for longer (man versus rabbit).", "quote": "The size ultimately attained is a resultant of the rate, and of the duration, of growth. It is in the main true, as Minot has said, that the rabbit is bigger than the guinea-pig because he grows the faster; but that man is bigger than the rabbit because he goes on growing for a longer time.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. III: The Rate of Growth", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.692, "truth": 0.92, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.96 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.88 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.74, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RALuKxJEhParQw0qDRGxs5HcOdjs4G5FUPcA3W_A-5jJY", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch03-12", "key": "e284ec9588b93d4c", "label": "Human length growth peaks in velocity around the fifth month before birth", "statement": "The human curve of growth in length has a point of inflection about the fifth month of intra-uterine life: before it growth velocity continually increases, and after it, though growth remains rapid, velocity falls away.", "quote": "It will at once be seen that there is a “point of inflection” somewhere about the fifth month of intra-uterine life: up to that date growth proceeds with a continually increasing velocity; but after that date, though growth is still rapid, its velocity tends to fall away.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. III: The Rate of Growth", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "supports", "evidence_kind": "biological", "data_test": { "verdict": "supports", "confidence": 0.6, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "biological", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/thompson-growth-form/thompson1917-ch03-12/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered. Using the 50th-centile curves of international (INTERGROWTH-21st) standards for fetal crown-rump length (9+0 to 14+0 weeks) and for newborn crown-heel length by gestational age at birth (24 to 42 weeks), compute growth velocity in mm/week by finite differences of the median curve. The claim is supported if (a) median CRL velocity averaged over weeks 13-14 exceeds that averaged over weeks 9-10 (length growth still accelerating at 14 weeks), and (b) median crown-heel-length velocity averaged over weeks 24-28 exceeds that averaged over weeks 36-40 and the 24-40 velocity series has a negative linear trend (growth already decelerating from 24 weeks). (a) and (b) together bracket the velocity maximum within 14-24 weeks, which contains 'about the fifth month'. As a secondary check, the gestational age of peak velocity of INTERGROWTH-21st fetal femur length (14-40 weeks) is reported; a femur peak within 14-24 weeks or at the 14-week boundary is consistent with the claim.", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered. The claim is refuted if median CRL velocity is already lower at weeks 13-14 than at weeks 9-10 (velocity maximum before month 4, i.e. before 14 weeks), or if median crown-heel-length velocity at weeks 36-40 is not lower than at weeks 24-28 (velocity maximum after month 6), or if neither measure shows a change of sign in acceleration anywhere in 9-42 weeks (no inflection). A femur-length velocity peak later than 24 weeks also counts against the claim. Any other combination is 'mixed'.", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: intergrowth21st-fetal-crl-standard-via-gigs, intergrowth21st-newborn-size-length-standards-via-gigs, intergrowth21st-fetal-femur-length-equations-via-gigs", "inference_method": "Median CRL (daily rows, 9+0 to 14+0 weeks) was differentiated numerically (np.gradient) to give velocity in mm/week and averaged over weeks 9-10 and 13-14. Median birth length of girls and boys (daily rows, 24+0 to 42+6 weeks) was averaged across sexes, converted to mm, differentiated, averaged by completed week, and compared between weeks 24-28 and 36-40, with an OLS trend over weeks 24-40. The femur-length median equation was differentiated analytically over 14-40 weeks and the age of maximum velocity located. The pre-registered decision rules were then applied.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.759, "truth": 0.735, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.77 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.7 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.75, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAiXXbuGCfX4rCOSIM9Ns20_nIyT5_Zz5A5ghkIPpH2ow", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch03-13", "key": "f425fab2cd01d18f", "label": "Variability of stature and weight tracks the rate of growth", "statement": "The coefficient of variability of human stature and weight falls when the rate of growth diminishes and rises again during the adolescent acceleration, so that variability is a function of the rate of growth.", "quote": "We see, in short, that the amount of _variability_ in stature or in weight is a function of the _rate of growth_ in these magnitudes, though we are not yet in a position to equate the terms precisely, one with another.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. III: The Rate of Growth", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "mixed", "evidence_kind": "biological", "data_test": { "verdict": "mixed", "confidence": 0.8, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "biological", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/thompson-growth-form/thompson1917-ch03-13/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered (claim supported). Using the CDC 2000 growth-chart LMS reference tables for stature-for-age and weight-for-age (2-20 years, half-month grid, each sex), compute at each age the CV of the fitted Box-Cox distribution (mean and SD obtained by numerical integration over z in [-4, 4]; the LMS S parameter is reported as a check) and the growth velocity dM/dt (central differences of the median M, per year). For each of the four series (stature boys, stature girls, weight boys, weight girls), over ages 2.5-19.5 years: (T1) Spearman rho between CV and velocity is positive with P < 0.01; (T2) the age of maximum CV between 8 and 19 years lies within 1.5 years of the age of peak velocity (the adolescent spurt), and CV at that peak exceeds the pre-pubertal minimum CV (ages 4-11) by at least 5% of its value; (T3) within childhood, from 2.5 years to the age of minimum velocity before the spurt, Spearman rho between CV and velocity is positive (CV falls as growth decelerates). The claim is supported if T1, T2 and T3 all hold in at least 3 of the 4 series.", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered (claim refuted). T1 fails (rho <= 0, or P >= 0.01) in at least 3 of the 4 series, or T3 shows a significant negative rho (CV rising while growth decelerates, P < 0.01) in at least 3 of the 4 series. Any other combination is 'mixed' (e.g. the adolescent rise T2 holds everywhere but the childhood decline T3 does not). If the CDC tables cannot be retrieved the verdict is 'inconclusive' (data-unavailable).", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: cdc-growth-charts-2000-lms, who-growth-reference-2007-lms", "inference_method": "fetch.py downloads the six files and writes derived/lms.csv (series, sex, age, L, M, S). analysis.py uses the LMS S parameter as the age-specific coefficient of variation and the central-difference derivative of the median M as growth velocity (cm/yr, kg/yr); for each of the four primary series (CDC stature and weight, boys and girls, ages 2.5-19.5) it computes T1 (Spearman rho of CV vs velocity over all ages), T2 (age of the CV maximum in 8-19 y within 1.5 y of the age of peak velocity in 8-19 y, CV peak >= 5% above the pre-pubertal minimum in 4-11 y) and T3 (Spearman rho of CV vs velocity from 2.5 y to the age of minimum velocity before the spurt). Deviation from the pre-registration: the pre-registered 'exact CV by numerical integration of the Box-Cox distribution' is used only as a check for stature (L between -0.39 and 2.24, where it agrees with S to 4 decimals and gives identical test outcomes) because for weight L is -0.21 to -1.87 and the Box-Cox distribution has infinite variance for L <= -0.5, so that CV does not exist. WHO height (5.5-18.5 y) and CDC infant tables are secondary and do not enter the verdict.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.795, "truth": 0.51, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.36 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.66 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.815, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAipdag3kIGXYFB-nSNjSXsg64zMpTVtBmTTF9vGlotIY", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch03-14", "key": "9c9fde1c76663948", "label": "Growth rate is interrupted at physiological epochs such as birth, puberty, metamorphosis", "statement": "Curves of growth show well-marked interruptions or changes of rate at physiological epochs such as birth and puberty, in man and in other animals, and most strikingly in animals that undergo a regular metamorphosis.", "quote": "Just as the human curve of growth has its slight but well-marked interruptions, or variations in rate, coinciding with such epochs as birth and puberty, so is it with other animals, and this phenomenon is particularly striking in the case of animals which undergo a regular metamorphosis.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. III: The Rate of Growth", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.652, "truth": 0.885, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.91 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.86 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.705, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAGRYWDzFswHLxgg3LyCrPNaR8ikYZz0vUvpBn29Y4qYs", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch03-15", "key": "fb612bd02ad7851d", "label": "Metamorphosis is often, perhaps always, accompanied by loss of bulk and weight", "statement": "Negative growth, an actual loss of bulk and weight, often and perhaps always accompanies metamorphosis, as in the eel, the silkworm before pupation and the frog tadpole.", "quote": "The negative growth, or actual loss of bulk and weight which often, and perhaps always, accompanies metamorphosis, is well shewn in the case of the eel.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. III: The Rate of Growth", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.604, "truth": 0.585, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.37 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.8 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.705, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAzU8DCC2-HSagA7cS3FYeTAiQJsBW04bJDc0ygBF9LAc", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch03-16", "key": "f0d528e78bc90cb7", "label": "Organ size bears no constant ratio to body size through life, especially the brain", "statement": "There is no simple and constant relation, holding throughout life, between the size of the whole body and that of organs such as brain, heart and liver; the brain in particular falls from about one-eighth of body weight at birth to about one-fiftieth at twenty-five.", "quote": "It is plain, then, that there is no simple and direct relation, holding good _throughout life_, between the size of the body as a whole and that of the organs we have just discussed; and the changing ratio of magnitude is especially marked in the case of the brain", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. III: The Rate of Growth", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [ { "id": "thompson1917-t1917-008", "relation": "tests", "note": "Organ-to-body (brain, heart) proportions changing with size are the data the audit uses to check that organ size bears no constant ratio to body size.", "label": "Thompson (1917) differential relative growth / Huxley allometry faithfully reproduces Mammals, plaice, Pheidole megacephala (analogue) morphology", "organism": "Mammals, plaice, Pheidole megacephala (analogue)", "verdict": "mostly faithful", "score": 76.2, "thompson_verdict": "supported", "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAAP7_XO02s36C7KJlPRy6-3_VYJu6pygZ_cjRkKTx7Mo", "registry": "test", "report": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/morphoeval/kg/2026-10-28-t1917-008-the-rate-of-growth-audit-v2/REPORT.md" } ], "thumbnail": { "file": "docs/thumbs/thompson1917-t1917-008.jpg", "morpholib": "thompson1917-t1917-008", "source": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/docs/media/t1917_008_the_rate_of_growth_growth.gif" }, "testability": 0.752, "truth": 0.94, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.95 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.93 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.78, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAhjnOk2asTHRg2VL1aLiH9qwtGpNMumtXexUpkXl11Kw", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch03-17", "key": "99e0ee2aeaef394e", "label": "Plaice weight-length coefficient peaks near the size of sexual maturity", "statement": "In plaice the weight-length coefficient k = W/L^3 is not constant but rises to a maximum and then slowly declines with increasing size, the maximum falling near 30 cm, about the size at which sexual maturity begins.", "quote": "we see that _k_ is by no means constant, but steadily increases to a maximum, and afterwards slowly declines with the increasing size of the fish", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. III: The Rate of Growth", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": true, "theorem": false, "notation": "k = W/L^3 not constant in plaice; \\max_L k at L \\approx 30\\,\\text{cm}", "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "refutes", "evidence_kind": "biological", "data_test": { "verdict": "refutes", "confidence": 0.85, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "biological", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/thompson-growth-form/thompson1917-ch03-17/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered. Data: ICES DATRAS exchange-format CA (age/biology) records for the North Sea IBTS, quarter 1 (January-February, the closest survey season to Thompson's March 1907 sample), years 2015-2019, species Pleuronectes platessa (Aphia 127143), individual weight > 0, lengths converted to cm. Compute k = 1000 W/L^3 (W in g, L in cm) per fish, average by 1-cm length class over 15-50 cm keeping classes with >= 30 fish, smooth with a 3-class running mean, and let L* be the length of the maximum smoothed k. Maturity: from the same Q1 CA records with a maturity code, classify immature (scale code ending in 1) vs mature (codes ending 2-5), fit a logistic of maturity on length (sexes pooled; by sex reported) and take L50. Supports if all hold: (1) hump: L* is at least 3 cm above the smallest and 3 cm below the largest analysed class, and smoothed k(L*) exceeds smoothed k at both ends of the analysed range by >= 3%; (2) 25 <= L* <= 35 cm; (3) |L* - L50| <= 5 cm. Secondary (reported): the same by sex, and for quarter 3 (2017-2019).", "disconfirming_observation": "Refutes if smoothed k is flat (max - min over classes < 3% of the mean) or monotonic (maximum at an end of the analysed range), or if L* lies outside 22-38 cm. Mixed if a hump exists in the right place but is more than 5 cm from L50, or if the hump exists only in one sex or season.", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: ices-datras-ns-ibts-ca-q1-2015-2019, ices-datras-ns-ibts-ca-q3-2017-2019", "inference_method": "Downloaded eight NS-IBTS CA XML files from the DATRAS web service, kept Pleuronectes platessa records (Aphia 127143; Q1 2015-2019: 12504 records, Q3 2017-2019: 9514), converted mm length classes to cm, and computed k = 10,000 W/L^3 per fish (11474 Q1 fish of 15-50 cm with weight). Class means of k by 1-cm length class (>= 30 fish) were smoothed with a 3-class running mean and the maximum located; the same was done by sex, by year and for Q3. Maturity codes were mapped to immature (…1) / mature (…2-5) and a maximum-likelihood logistic ogive gave L50 pooled and by sex (10464 Q1 fish with maturity codes).", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": { "verdict": "faithful-with-narrower-scope", "assessors": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "verdict": "faithful-with-narrower-scope", "confidence": 0.95, "file": "test-data/claim-tests/thompson-growth-form/thompson1917-ch03-17/faithfulness.json" } ], "status": "agreed" } }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.857, "truth": 0.64, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.7 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.58 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.87, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAYpDRYJNdLuVr2K9vZnjFmh8WVTpByrWu3PXFMn1DeX8", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch03-18", "key": "d7315d325a34998c", "label": "Seasonal cycle in fish weight at fixed length is caused by spawning", "statement": "In plaice of fixed length, weight falls from about November to March or April and is restored between May or June and November, a periodic change caused wholly by spawning and the subsequent rebuilding of tissues and gonads, so that the spawning season can be determined from length and weight alone.", "quote": "With unchanging length, the weight and therefore the bulk of the fish falls off from about November to March or April, and again between May or June and November the bulk and weight are gradually restored. The explanation is simple, and depends wholly on the process of spawning, and on the subsequent building up again of the tissues and the reproductive organs.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. III: The Rate of Growth", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "refutes", "evidence_kind": "biological", "data_test": { "verdict": "refutes", "confidence": 0.85, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "biological", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/thompson-growth-form/thompson1917-ch03-18/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered (claim supported). Using NS-IBTS CA records (individual weights, CANoAtLngt = 1, maturity staged, length 15-55 cm) joined to HH records for haul dates, with log10 K regressed on day-of-year with fixed effects for 1-cm length class and sex: (P1) the Q1 slope for mature fish is negative with 95% CI excluding 0 and implies a decline of at least 2% of K per 30 days; (P2) the Q3 slope for mature fish is positive with 95% CI excluding 0; (P3) in Q1, spent fish have mean log10 K at least log10(1.05) below maturing fish at the same length and sex (95% CI excluding 0); and (M) the within-Q1 decline per 30 days in immature fish is less than 50% of that in mature fish (point estimate), or is not distinguishable from 0 at the 95% level.", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered (claim refuted). (P1) fails with the opposite sign (a significant within-Q1 increase in K for mature fish), OR (P1) holds in mature fish but immature fish show a within-Q1 decline per 30 days that is at least 80% of the mature decline with 95% CI excluding 0 (the seasonal cycle is not confined to spawners, so it is not caused wholly by spawning). Any other combination (e.g. the pattern holds but immature fish show 50-80% of the mature decline, or P2 or P3 fails while P1 and M hold) is 'mixed'. If fewer than 500 mature plaice with individual weight, maturity and haul date are available in Q1, the verdict is 'inconclusive' (data-unavailable).", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: ices-datras-ns-ibts-ca-hh", "inference_method": "fetch.py downloads the 40 XML files (875 MB, not committed) and derives: (i) plaice cells per quarter x ISO-style week x sex x maturity group x 1-cm length class with n, sum of day-of-year, sum and sum of squares of log10 K (K = 100 W/L^3), after mapping maturity codes as pre-registered and dropping 21 fish with |log10 K - cell mean| > 0.3; (ii) the same per year. analysis.py fits weighted least squares on cell means (weights n; exact individual-level OLS except that day-of-year is the weekly mean) of log10 K on day-of-year with length-class and sex fixed effects, separately for mature (maturing+spawning+spent+resting) and immature fish in Q1 and Q3, plus stage contrasts in Q1 and the adjusted Q3-Q1 difference; the pre-registered rules then give the verdict.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": { "verdict": "faithful-with-narrower-scope", "assessors": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "verdict": "faithful-with-narrower-scope", "confidence": 0.96, "file": "test-data/claim-tests/thompson-growth-form/thompson1917-ch03-18/faithfulness.json" } ], "status": "agreed" } }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.797, "truth": 0.55, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.62 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.48 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.815, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RApEit7QUl6xfmn4Sem6AynD80puPeMEAZZOjWNqQLN1w", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch03-19", "key": "0ee7d6b08f71cb53", "label": "Each part has its own specific growth rate, on which specific morphology depends", "statement": "A large part of an organism's specific morphology depends on there being, besides an aggregate rate of growth of the whole, a characteristic specific rate of growth for each part or organ, so that small changes in these local rates soon produce striking differences of form.", "quote": "a very large part of the specific morphology of the organism depends upon the fact that there is not only an average, or aggregate, rate of growth common to the whole, but also a variation of rate in different parts of the organism, tending towards a specific rate characteristic of each different part or organ.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. III: The Rate of Growth", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [ { "id": "thompson1917-t1917-008", "relation": "tests", "note": "The audit fits differential relative growth (allometry) of parts against whole-body size, the per-part specific growth rates this claim asserts underlie morphology.", "label": "Thompson (1917) differential relative growth / Huxley allometry faithfully reproduces Mammals, plaice, Pheidole megacephala (analogue) morphology", "organism": "Mammals, plaice, Pheidole megacephala (analogue)", "verdict": "mostly faithful", "score": 76.2, "thompson_verdict": "supported", "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAAP7_XO02s36C7KJlPRy6-3_VYJu6pygZ_cjRkKTx7Mo", "registry": "test", "report": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/morphoeval/kg/2026-10-28-t1917-008-the-rate-of-growth-audit-v2/REPORT.md" } ], "thumbnail": { "file": "docs/thumbs/thompson1917-t1917-008.jpg", "morpholib": "thompson1917-t1917-008", "source": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/docs/media/t1917_008_the_rate_of_growth_growth.gif" }, "testability": 0.503, "truth": 0.925, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.95 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.9 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.65, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAlU12BxI0-w4V_CeaAGtCTzMa6Z9Kf01M-LteirroiWI", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch03-20", "key": "845b7fe396412d07", "label": "Common temperate plants share a growth optimum near 26 °C", "statement": "The optimum temperature for growth is much the same, about 26 °C, for the common plants of temperate climates, and considerably higher for plants of warmer regions such as melon and maize.", "quote": "this optimum temperature is very much the same for all the common plants of our own climate which have as yet been studied; in them it is somewhere about 26° C. (or say 77° F.), or about the temperature of a warm summer’s day", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. III: The Rate of Growth", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.618, "truth": 0.42, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.39 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.45 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.69, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAuWAffojv8dxFztEWwI2om_mXjNau9zoHTCzn76cRBeg", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch03-21", "key": "39dba12da70a7ac9", "label": "Growth has a van’t Hoff temperature coefficient like a chemical reaction", "statement": "Van’t Hoff’s law, that reaction velocity is multiplied by a constant factor for each degree of temperature rise, applies with qualifications to growth, so that growth has a temperature coefficient (about 2 to 3 per 10 °C, of the same order as chemical reactions).", "quote": "Van’t Hoff’s law, which has become a fundamental principle of chemical mechanics, is likewise applicable (with certain qualifications) to the phenomena of vital chemistry; and it follows that, on very much the same lines, we may speak of the “temperature coefficient” of growth.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. III: The Rate of Growth", "kind": "mathematical-law", "status": "proved", "proof": "lean", "verification": "lean", "math": true, "theorem": true, "notation": "v(\\theta + n) = x^n v(\\theta) for a rise of n degrees; temperature coefficient of growth x^{10} \\approx 2\\text{--}3", "lean_theorems": [ "ThompsonLaws.Magnitude.vantHoffRate_shift", "ThompsonLaws.Magnitude.vantHoffRate_q10" ], "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.68, "truth": 0.865, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.89 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.84 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.745, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAEdcRgm_h10CjGhvfWGdav2r6DTPF9ZZlPH0ocCEW1Qg", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch03-22", "key": "851eacdace9aee70", "label": "Optimum temperature curves arise from acceleration combined with cumulative damage", "statement": "Growth rate has an optimum temperature because temperature both accelerates growth according to van’t Hoff’s law and progressively damages or fatigues the organism, so the optimum curve is a complex resultant rather than a primary phenomenon.", "quote": "It would seem to be this double effect of temperature in the case of the organism which gives us our “optimum” curves, which are the expression, accordingly, not of a primary phenomenon, but of a more or less complex resultant.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. III: The Rate of Growth", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.477, "truth": 0.81, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.82 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.8 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.645, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAL17AGjR--s6Yiz2fgUDa93qaZBqgul9dXz3rbbIQ58A", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch03-23", "key": "a3ac6ff94209bf96", "label": "Seasonal growth in fish and man follows a damped sine curve", "statement": "In fishes such as plaice and haddock, and in man, growth is slower in winter than in summer, as if an annual sine curve were superimposed on the growth curve, and the amplitude of this fluctuation dies away as growth slows, giving a damped sine curve.", "quote": "in short, our phenomenon is simply expressed by what is known as a “damped sine-curve.” Exactly the same thing occurs in man, though neither in his case nor in that of the fish have we sufficient data for its complete illustration.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. III: The Rate of Growth", "kind": "mathematical-law", "status": "proved", "proof": "lean", "verification": "lean", "math": true, "theorem": true, "notation": "L(t) = \\bar{L}(t) + A(t)\\sin(2\\pi t / 1\\,\\text{yr}), A(t) \\to 0 as d\\bar{L}/dt \\to 0 (damped sine)", "lean_theorems": [ "ThompsonLaws.Magnitude.seasonalGrowth_damped", "ThompsonLaws.Magnitude.seasonalGrowth_annual" ], "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.626, "truth": 0.51, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.42 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.6 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.72, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA4ng4cJQMDpmlxbtYHwj204YIYhxTIIVWBgi3P261bko", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch03-24", "key": "af42c71c80b61ed1", "label": "Arizona tree rings show a regular 150-year climate periodicity", "statement": "Century-smoothed annual ring widths of Arizona yellow pines show that the climate of Arizona over the past 500 years fluctuated with a regular period of almost exactly 150 years, probably mainly in moisture rather than temperature.", "quote": "from which we seem compelled to draw the direct conclusion that the climate of Arizona, during the last 500 years, has fluctuated with a regular periodicity of almost precisely 150 years.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. III: The Rate of Growth", "kind": "historical-inference", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "refutes", "evidence_kind": "biological", "data_test": { "verdict": "refutes", "confidence": 0.8, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "biological", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/thompson-growth-form/thompson1917-ch03-24/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered. Primary series: ITRDB chronology az572 (Flagstaff, Arizona, Pinus ponderosa, 'Modern + Archaeological', AD 570-1987), the standard index over the window 1390-1910 (521 yr). Replicate: ITRDB az547 (Walnut Canyon, Pinus ponderosa, 1420-1987) over 1420-1910. Test 1 (spectral): periodogram of the mean-removed annual index; null = AR(1) with the series' lag-1 autocorrelation and variance, 5000 surrogates; pass if the largest periodogram ordinate at periods 120-200 yr exceeds the pointwise 95th percentile of the surrogate periodograms and its period lies in 130-170 yr. Test 2 (regularity of century-smoothed maxima, Douglass's own procedure): 101-yr centred running mean of the index (using data from 1340 on so the smoothed series spans 1390-1910); find local maxima of the smoothed series separated by at least 50 yr; pass if there are at least two intervals between successive maxima and every interval lies in 125-175 yr. Supports if both tests pass on az572.", "disconfirming_observation": "Refutes if both tests fail on az572 (no significant 120-200-yr spectral peak against red noise, and smoothed maxima spaced irregularly or outside 125-175 yr). Mixed if exactly one test passes, or if az572 passes but the az547 replicate fails both tests.", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: itrdb-az572-flagstaff-pipo, itrdb-az547-walnut-canyon-pipo", "inference_method": "Downloaded the two Tucson-format .crn chronologies from NCEI, parsed the standard index (x1000, 9990 = missing) and sample depth, and took 1390-1910 (az572, 521 yr, complete) and 1420-1910 (az547, 491 yr). Test 1: raw periodogram of the mean-removed index against 5000 AR(1) surrogates matched in lag-1 autocorrelation (0.45, 0.52) and variance; the largest ordinate at 120-200 yr was compared with the pointwise 95th percentile (and with a band-maximum null). Test 2: 101-yr centred running mean (51-yr as sensitivity); local maxima at least 50 yr apart; intervals between successive maxima.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": { "verdict": "faithful-with-narrower-scope", "assessors": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "verdict": "faithful-with-narrower-scope", "confidence": 0.86, "file": "test-data/claim-tests/thompson-growth-form/thompson1917-ch03-24/faithfulness.json" } ], "status": "agreed" } }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.852, "truth": 0.12, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.08 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.16 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.865, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA2IrmSx7ryh1Orns3ryb1ixOY6o_hZxTEC_Pf98Jt-OM", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch03-25", "key": "370df31c501a6971", "label": "Growth rate depends largely on water uptake (turgor) as well as metabolism", "statement": "A large part of growth, in animals and more conspicuously in plants, depends on turgor and osmotic conditions: the velocity of growth depends largely on the amount of water taken into the cells as well as on chemical metabolism.", "quote": "A large part of the phenomenon of growth, both in animals and still more conspicuously in plants, is associated with “turgor,” that is to say, is dependent on osmotic conditions; in other words, the velocity of growth depends in great measure (as we have already seen, p. 113) on the amount of water taken up into the living cells", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. III: The Rate of Growth", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.465, "truth": 0.84, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.8 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.88 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.66, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAC23Ad9m1lxc7ETYtRzs2yyWvNWeMXaBA4DmVuBNJAJs", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch03-26", "key": "b298902beea72833", "label": "Brine-shrimp abdomen grows relatively longer the saltier the water", "statement": "In brine-shrimps (Artemia), increasing salinity changes the relative rates of growth of body parts, the abdomen growing relatively longer compared with the cephalothorax the salter the water, so that forms described as distinct species correspond to ranges of water density.", "quote": "_Pari passu_ with these changes, there is a marked change in the relative lengths of the fore and hind portions of the body, that is to say, of the “cephalothorax” and abdomen: the latter growing relatively longer, the salter the water.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. III: The Rate of Growth", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.651, "truth": 0.505, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.63 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.38 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.72, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAYgYqSytEPw3sJV-mluuq2ozkkuaEjyJ4MFIlEjUzqwY", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch03-27", "key": "351913030daee5d5", "label": "The organic curve of growth resembles the velocity curve of chemical autocatalysis", "statement": "The normal curve of growth of an organism closely resembles the velocity curve of an autocatalytic chemical reaction, with a phase of increasing acceleration, a phase in which limiting conditions reduce acceleration, and usually a final phase of retardation and loss of mass; but only a resemblance, not an identity, can yet be asserted.", "quote": "it is sufficiently clear that the normal “curve of growth” of an organism, in all its general features, very closely resembles the velocity-curve of chemical autocatalysis.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. III: The Rate of Growth", "kind": "mathematical-law", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": true, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.623, "truth": 0.65, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.62 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.68 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.725, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA3zcTNigXZfFgxolnSKwWlsSb8Wcd4SD8ALD6tP2OuoI", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch03-28", "key": "1c5c7c4b2f81cb9a", "label": "Internal secretions and other substances accelerate growth and alter proportions", "statement": "Substances inside and outside the organism, such as thyroid and pituitary secretions or iodine compounds, can accelerate growth in a way that changes not only the size but the form or proportions of the organism.", "quote": "We may take it, then, as an established fact, whose full extent and bearings are still awaiting investigation, that there exist substances both within and without the organism which have a marvellous power of accelerating growth, and of doing so in such a way as to affect not only the size but the form or proportions of the organism.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. III: The Rate of Growth", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.738, "truth": 0.955, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.98 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.93 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.77, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RASswb99z_nxvDaHFvd3cafMv5dyhZqIK9dNMqmnp25Vg", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch03-29", "key": "a80788f55dc2a68d", "label": "Natural selection removes forms rather than originating them", "statement": "Since forms, including exaggerated ones such as the great Secondary reptiles and Tertiary mammals, can arise from changes in growth, natural selection is needed to explain their disappearance rather than their appearance; in general its function is not to originate but to remove.", "quote": "And we then, I think, draw near to the conclusion that what is true of these is universally true, and that the great function of natural selection is not to originate, but to remove", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. III: The Rate of Growth", "kind": "historical-inference", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.301, "truth": 0.165, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.15 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.18 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.75, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAOb-bpsUt42LZGf3wXHiqy82qQgmUmN5SADKYwxVq0t8", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch03-30", "key": "871ebd3f9aed8bf5", "label": "Velocity of regenerative growth varies inversely as about the square of time", "statement": "After its early maximum, the velocity of regenerative growth (tadpole tails) falls off inversely as some power of the time since injury, approximately as 1/T^2, so that V T^2 is nearly constant.", "quote": "And in this particular case, the equation _V_ _T_^2 = constant, holds very nearly true; that is to say the velocity varies, or tends to vary, inversely as the square of the time.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. III: The Rate of Growth", "kind": "mathematical-law", "status": "proved", "proof": "lean", "verification": "lean", "math": true, "theorem": true, "notation": "V^m T^n = \\text{const}; for regenerating tadpole tails V T^2 \\approx \\text{const}", "lean_theorems": [ "ThompsonLaws.Magnitude.regen_log_linear", "ThompsonLaws.Magnitude.regenVelocity_family", "ThompsonLaws.Magnitude.regenVelocity_decreasing" ], "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [ { "id": "thompson1917-t1917-010", "relation": "tests", "note": "The audit refits Durbin's tadpole-tail regeneration tables to check Thompson's statement that regenerative velocity falls roughly as 1/T^2.", "label": "Thompson (1917) regeneration as a lawful growth process — Durbin/Ellis tadpole tail curves faithfully reproduces Rana (Lithobates) clamitans tadpoles (Ellis 1909); Rana tadpoles (Durbin 1909) morphology", "organism": "Rana (Lithobates) clamitans tadpoles (Ellis 1909)", "verdict": "mostly faithful", "score": 78.9, "thompson_verdict": "supported", "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAEtglrrsZbYFimHcrBL7OH6UXRm136R77Ije90yNct6E", "registry": "test", "report": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/morphoeval/kg/2026-10-28-t1917-010-the-rate-of-growth-audit-v2/REPORT.md" } ], "thumbnail": { "file": "docs/thumbs/thompson1917-t1917-010.jpg", "morpholib": "thompson1917-t1917-010", "source": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/docs/media/t1917_010_the_rate_of_growth_growth.gif" }, "testability": 0.637, "truth": 0.33, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.28 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.38 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.75, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAGOVHqFUW3uoY0qubF_pxqdDszkmmaSzEPqD8gH5Ehew", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch03-31", "key": "1bfa0e4179349b43", "label": "Regeneration is ordinary growth, with the same curve as growth from zero", "statement": "Regeneration is a particular case of growth obeying the same laws; the regeneration curve (short latent period, rapid rise to a maximum velocity, then slow decline) only appears different because ordinary growth curves start at birth, and a complete growth curve from zero has the same essential features.", "quote": "A complete curve of growth, starting from zero, has the same essential characteristics as the regeneration curve.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. III: The Rate of Growth", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [ { "id": "thompson1917-t1917-010", "relation": "tests", "note": "Fitting growth laws to the Durbin/Ellis regeneration curves checks that regeneration follows an ordinary lawful growth curve.", "label": "Thompson (1917) regeneration as a lawful growth process — Durbin/Ellis tadpole tail curves faithfully reproduces Rana (Lithobates) clamitans tadpoles (Ellis 1909); Rana tadpoles (Durbin 1909) morphology", "organism": "Rana (Lithobates) clamitans tadpoles (Ellis 1909)", "verdict": "mostly faithful", "score": 78.9, "thompson_verdict": "supported", "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAEtglrrsZbYFimHcrBL7OH6UXRm136R77Ije90yNct6E", "registry": "test", "report": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/morphoeval/kg/2026-10-28-t1917-010-the-rate-of-growth-audit-v2/REPORT.md" } ], "thumbnail": { "file": "docs/thumbs/thompson1917-t1917-010.jpg", "morpholib": "thompson1917-t1917-010", "source": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/docs/media/t1917_010_the_rate_of_growth_growth.gif" }, "testability": 0.509, "truth": 0.38, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.42 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.34 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.65, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAcZTbNn9QMtuXCyKc3iKFmIhCB5W93HotdEHNBiC3duM", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch03-32", "key": "d5c8e2dfdfc07943", "label": "Claw reversal after amputation depends on regeneration versus growth rates", "statement": "Whether an amputated large crustacean claw regenerates as the large claw, or the claws exchange roles, depends on the ratio between the regenerative growth rate of the amputated claw and the growth rate of the uninjured claw, since claw form follows claw size.", "quote": "It depends upon the respective rates of growth, upon a ratio between the rate of regeneration and the rate of growth of the uninjured limb", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. III: The Rate of Growth", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.502, "truth": 0.485, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.35 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.62 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.635, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAbHz79eEn_luDSKfcxJHQD-5QcBilXRFFGc3k6TMQMSI", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch03-33", "key": "7601959196626977", "label": "Reproduction by fission is a physical tendency to segment plus regeneration", "statement": "Reproduction by fission in worm-like animals consists essentially of the physical tendency of a long semi-fluid tube to break into segments, combined with ordinary regeneration, which explains its occurrence in zoologically unrelated animals and its absence in some close relatives.", "quote": "If we add to this natural tendency towards fission of a cylindrical or tubular worm, the ordinary phenomenon of regeneration, we have all that is essentially implied in “reproduction by fission.”", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. III: The Rate of Growth", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.358, "truth": 0.09, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.08 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.1 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.63, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAfT9KvU_tKKbUAPr4a7rCTDE1zktQ5Xxyi5ZpXolw0tk", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch03-34", "key": "23e8896055b0bbdd", "label": "Growth velocity peaks and falls because surface resistance suddenly increases", "statement": "The abrupt change from increasing to decreasing growth velocity is more likely due to a sudden increase of resistance, such as the formation of a comparatively firm skin during histological differentiation, than to a decline of internal growth forces; the later slowing reflects waning growth forces against rising superficial resistance.", "quote": "I take it that the sudden arrest of velocity is much more likely to be due to a sudden increase of resistance than to a sudden diminution of internal energies: in other words, I suspect that it is coincident with some notable event of histological differentiation, such as the rapid formation of a comparatively firm skin", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. III: The Rate of Growth", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.349, "truth": 0.13, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.12 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.14 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.67, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAifj5f6AoHScQdmDWIGwWrqYd465UxUri_tyxkqj7MIc", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch03-35", "key": "b6260feb9c362381", "label": "Form changes follow the same route in individual development and racial history", "statement": "Changes of form produced by varying rates of growth are the same phenomenon in individual development and in the differences between species; a transformation from one form to another follows the same course whether it happens within a lifetime or over ancestral history, which accounts for much of von Baer's law of recapitulation.", "quote": "From one form, or ratio of magnitude, to another there is but one straight and direct road of transformation, be the journey taken fast or slow; and if the transformation take place at all, it will in all likelihood proceed in the self-same way, whether it occur within the life-time of an individual or during the long ancestral history of a race.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. III: The Rate of Growth", "kind": "historical-inference", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.514, "truth": 0.22, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.2 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.24 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.66, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAjm3Lirh5asXybtH6QPu8dY5d3zu3aJL9nEhKBjW8sIc", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch04-01", "key": "ab05ed978c32c9e9", "label": "Cell structure matters only as the visible expression of forces and energy", "statement": "The study of visible cell structure has little value except as part of a dynamical investigation, because the activities of a cell are due to energy and forces, not to particular material particles or structures as such.", "quote": "In short it would seem evident that, except in relation to a dynamical investigation, the mere study of cell structure has but little value of its own.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. IV: On the Internal Form and Structure of the Cell", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.212, "truth": 0.055, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.03 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.08 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.87, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAk3XGRWXx3PYKCR4Cci3IS_s3PtkrlSzNqWNTZfHKe6k", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch04-02", "key": "d8efadbd65ce6f44", "label": "Mitotic figures require a polarised force like magnetism, not mechanical traction", "statement": "The spindle and asters of dividing cells are lines of force of a bipolar field made visible by more permeable particles, like iron filings between magnet poles, and they cannot be explained by mere mechanical traction on a protoplasmic web but require some polarised and polarising force analogous to magnetism or electricity.", "quote": "any explanation which is based, like Rhumbler’s, on mere mechanical traction, is obviously inadequate, and we shall find ourselves limited to the hypothesis of some polarised and polarising force, such as we deal with, for instance, in the phenomena of magnetism or electricity.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. IV: On the Internal Form and Structure of the Cell", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [ { "id": "thompson1917-t1917-012", "relation": "tests", "note": "The audit fits a two-like-pole field to the aster and spindle rays of the dividing Cerebratulus egg, checking that the mitotic figure has the geometry of a bipolar field of force.", "label": "Thompson (1917) T1917-012 — cleavage vs bipolar field (Pass 1 baseline) faithfully reproduces Cerebratulus egg (Fig. 58); Thompson Fig. 59 diagram morphology", "organism": "Cerebratulus egg (Fig. 58)", "verdict": null, "score": null, "thompson_verdict": "supported", "nanopub": null, "registry": "unpublished", "report": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/morphoeval/kg/2026-10-28-t1917-012-on-the-internal-form-and-struc-audit/REPORT.md" } ], "thumbnail": { "file": "docs/thumbs/thompson1917-t1917-012.jpg", "morpholib": "thompson1917-t1917-012", "source": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/docs/media/t1917_012_on_the_internal_form_and_struc_growth.gif" }, "testability": 0.635, "truth": 0.045, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.02 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.07 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.73, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RALTn0s-L-xBTiA9KGXFdiyhjU-74Dhb3PWclq0OR7Me4", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch04-03", "key": "a4611fa73b822973", "label": "The nucleus is spherical because it is an immiscible fluid drop under uniform tension", "statement": "The nucleus is almost always spherical because its fluid substance does not mix with the surrounding protoplasm, so it is bounded by a film of uniform surface tension and immersed in a medium transmitting uniform fluid pressure; where the cytoplasm becomes more solid (as in muscle cells or mucus-laden epithelial cells) the pressure becomes unsymmetrical and the nucleus is deformed.", "quote": "So long as the fluid substance of the nucleus is qualitatively different from, and incapable of mixing with, the fluid or semi-fluid protoplasm which surrounds it, we shall expect it to be, as it almost always is, of spherical form.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. IV: On the Internal Form and Structure of the Cell", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.658, "truth": 0.16, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.1 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.22 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.725, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAb6q2HZlaLA-JSrA4VHq23ElBBZEJK_VK1d2HA4xbzHI", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch04-04", "key": "3edfef6b06fea2c4", "label": "Morphological polarity of the cell is the outward sign of a dynamical polarity", "statement": "The visible polarity of a cell (symmetry of structure about an axis, such as nucleus–centrosome or free–attached surface) is the outward expression of a real polarised distribution of forces, whose lines of force are made visible where particles of matter become strung together under those forces.", "quote": "The _morphological_ “polarity” is accompanied by, and is but the outward expression (or part of it) of a true _dynamical_ polarity, or distribution of forces; and the “lines of force” are rendered visible by concatenation of particles of matter, such as come under the influence of the forces in action.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. IV: On the Internal Form and Structure of the Cell", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.369, "truth": 0.345, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.35 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.34 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.72, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAeKc_8FghpF9kI_4J9UoizOVydxfgHClw-KeguwUN1-c", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch04-05", "key": "ac8efd819ea31cb5", "label": "The alveolar meshwork of nucleus and cytoplasm is a surface-tension froth", "statement": "The alveolar 'reticulum' seen in the nucleus and cytoplasm is a froth or foam produced by the interacting surface tensions of two intermixed fluids of similar density striving to separate, and is not inherent in the nature of protoplasm.", "quote": "This phenomenon is nothing else than what we call in ordinary language, a “froth” or a “foam.” It is a surface-tension phenomenon, due to the interacting surface-tensions of two intermixed fluids, not very different in density, as they strive to separate.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. IV: On the Internal Form and Structure of the Cell", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.632, "truth": 0.075, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.04 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.11 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.72, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RABnkAzfYhJZuq006JmjUz8EgilkRqftsiZsx1LXMrKkw", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch04-06", "key": "0362b56a1f96d903", "label": "Fine internal networks and granules seen in fixed cells are largely artefacts", "statement": "Fixation preserves the general outward form of small organisms and cells, but the minute internal networks and granules described as the structure of protoplasm are to a large extent artefacts of coagulating fixatives, although larger structures such as nucleus, vacuoles, centrosomes and the spindle are really present in the living cell.", "quote": "While this assumption is reasonable and justified as regards the general outward form of small organisms or of individual cells, enough has been done of late years to shew that the case is totally different in the case of the minute internal networks, granules, etc., which represent the alleged _structure_ of protoplasm.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. IV: On the Internal Form and Structure of the Cell", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.762, "truth": 0.76, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.67 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.85 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.78, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RACm02iG8GNes7kT1qAsEkVlP6HEpnHZI4yZY-IeJc-sE", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch04-07", "key": "c69f503cb9605fbd", "label": "Chromatin behaves as a diamagnetic body and moves to the equatorial plane", "statement": "In the bipolar field between the centrosomes the nucleus as a whole behaves as a body more permeable than the cytoplasm and is drawn in between the poles, whereas its chromatin, once broken up, behaves like a diamagnetic body, is repelled to the weaker parts of the field, and so collects in a peripheral circle on the equatorial plane.", "quote": "the fact is that the chromatin substance now _behaves_ after the fashion of a “diamagnetic” body, and is repelled from the stronger to the weaker parts of the field.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. IV: On the Internal Form and Structure of the Cell", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.598, "truth": 0.03, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.01 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.05 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.7, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAurAsylxhQ80oLRZtq-v-3cAr6H1VhQ-B_5nfY34_xG0", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch04-08", "key": "650d381616ce25e9", "label": "Differences of electric potential play a great part in cell division", "statement": "Differences of electric potential between cell constituents, and between parts of the egg, play a great part in cell division; the potential difference between animal and vegetative poles of a fertilised egg fluctuates or reverses at successive segmentations, and the electrical difference of chromatin is greatest at mitosis.", "quote": "Among other investigations, all leading towards the same general conclusion, namely that differences of electric potential play a great part in the phenomenon of cell division", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. IV: On the Internal Form and Structure of the Cell", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.437, "truth": 0.22, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.18 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.26 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.645, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAzD5ViHw2wOKRx7sIAVFidszSqedvK-v9s5K5ckg7Gk4", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch04-09", "key": "d961f17b2a9f33e1", "label": "Every cell division results from conflict between surface tension and opposing forces", "statement": "In all cells the mechanical process of division must be explained as the result of a conflict between surface tension and its opposing forces, the division plane being set in the equatorial plane of the polar field.", "quote": "in all cells whatsoever, the process of division must somehow be explained as the result of a conflict between surface-tension and its opposing forces.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. IV: On the Internal Form and Structure of the Cell", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.484, "truth": 0.12, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.08 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.16 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.655, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAn9sghEPhHc8DimBHa9gUW_GQ9XB3C1GKAXpUf7uPYEs", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch04-10", "key": "3c7b707b8a5daa7a", "label": "Entry of the first spermatozoon raises the surface tension of the egg", "statement": "Because later spermatozoa fail to enter the egg after the first, an immediate consequence of sperm entry is an increase in the surface tension of the egg.", "quote": "other spermatozoa, subsequent to the first, fail to effect an entry, we may safely conclude that an immediate consequence of the entry of the spermatozoon is an increase in the surface-tension of the egg", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. IV: On the Internal Form and Structure of the Cell", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.564, "truth": 0.105, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.12 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.09 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.705, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAHo5KpGrZrgbFePfRoTvssk7AJlmPdZRILI2g5ca1nmI", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch04-11", "key": "75ddf00ef74e5a53", "label": "The pronuclei travel curved paths and meet before reaching the centre of the egg", "statement": "Given an attraction between the male and female pronuclei and a force drawing them toward the egg centre, their paths lie within the triangle formed by the two bodies and the centre, are curved (convex toward the line joining them) unless they start on a diameter, and the pronuclei meet a little before the centre and then travel straight to it.", "quote": "(2) unless the two bodies happen to lie, to begin with, precisely on a diameter of the cell, their paths until they meet one another will be curved paths, the convexity of the curve being towards the straight line joining the two bodies; (3) the two bodies will meet a little before they reach the centre;", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. IV: On the Internal Form and Structure of the Cell", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.707, "truth": 0.57, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.56 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.58 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.73, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAZa5eyAleZZLyWSSpqmhfQXnbyocbr5v1jGIkZgSJjwE", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch04-12", "key": "55393571a63774c8", "label": "Mitotic phenomena follow from simple physical assumptions and have secondary significance", "statement": "Most if not all of the intracellular phenomena of mitosis follow inevitably from very simple assumptions about the physical constitution of the cell and a simple distribution of polarised forces within it, and are likely to prove of only remote and secondary biological significance.", "quote": "Most, if not all of them, would seem to follow immediately and inevitably from very simple assumptions as to the physical constitution of the cell, and from an extremely simple distribution of polarised forces within it.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. IV: On the Internal Form and Structure of the Cell", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.313, "truth": 0.04, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.03 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.05 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.78, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA9L5jy1NoYR9a604XwWEXKE4EzeNovEkw4BhjVu3Ffis", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch04-13", "key": "92d18c43209fab3c", "label": "Chromosome numbers of germ-nuclei mostly lie between six and sixteen", "statement": "Although chromosome number is constant within a species, the range of numbers across plants and animals is small: few organisms have fewer than six chromosomes in the germ-nuclei and fewer still have more than sixteen.", "quote": "(as regards the germ-nuclei) few organisms have less than six chromosomes, and fewer still have more than sixteen", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. IV: On the Internal Form and Structure of the Cell", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "refutes", "evidence_kind": "biological", "data_test": { "verdict": "refutes", "confidence": 0.9, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "biological", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/thompson-growth-form/thompson1917-ch04-13/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered. Plants: species-level gametic numbers from the Chromosome Counts Database (CCDB) statistics service for all four major groups (Angiosperms, Gymnosperms, Pteridophytes, Bryophytes), using each species' median parsed n. Animals: the Animal Chromosome Count Database (ACC) table (haploid N where given, else 2N/2), one median value per species. For each kingdom compute f_low = fraction of taxa with n < 6, f_mid = fraction with 6 <= n <= 16, f_high = fraction with n > 16, at two resolutions: species level, and genus level (median of species values per genus, the primary resolution, to damp sampling bias toward well-studied genera). Supports if at genus level, in both kingdoms, f_low <= 0.10 and f_high <= 0.10 and f_high <= f_low.", "disconfirming_observation": "Refutes if at genus level f_high >= 0.25 in either kingdom (more than a quarter of genera above 16 is not 'fewer still'), or if f_high > f_low in both kingdoms (the upper tail is the larger tail, inverting the claim). Mixed otherwise (e.g. one kingdom satisfies the bounds and the other does not, without reaching the refutation thresholds).", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: ccdb-statistics-by-major-group, acc-animal-chromosome-counts", "inference_method": "Fetched the CCDB statistics CSV for each of the four plant major groups (69,948 species rows; median parsed n per species) and parsed the ACC data table embedded in its download page (12,221 animal records; haploid N where given, else 2N/2). Collapsed to one median value per species and per genus, then computed the fractions of taxa with n < 6, 6 <= n <= 16 and n > 16 for plants and animals at both resolutions, plus breakdowns by plant major group and animal phylum and a histogram (derived/histograms.csv).", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": { "verdict": "faithful", "assessors": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "verdict": "faithful", "confidence": 0.98, "file": "test-data/claim-tests/thompson-growth-form/thompson1917-ch04-13/faithfulness.json" } ], "status": "agreed" } }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.888, "truth": 0.045, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.02 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.07 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.9, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAnWV4_-mDcF2xIQcuhT_HGtwaj0d7qylJanLA8oB1yOc", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch04-14", "key": "03aaae745521eb9d", "label": "Details of mitosis vary among close relatives and are not specific to the organism", "statement": "The details of mitosis (presence of visible caryokinesis, position of the field of force, number of chromosome groups, chromosome form and arrangement) vary greatly even among closely related organisms or within one species, and are not specifically related to the organism in which they occur.", "quote": "there seem to be strong grounds for believing that these and many similar phenomena are in no way specifically related to the particular organism in which they have been observed, and are not even specially and indisputably connected with the organism as such.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. IV: On the Internal Form and Structure of the Cell", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.533, "truth": 0.3, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.28 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.32 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.65, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAVTooopdZaSNHyLU7xW0Dz48GS2P-zveyaczgBFC6d7o", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch04-15", "key": "8c008ae763e7a780", "label": "Early embryological categories seldom coincide with phylogenetic classification", "statement": "Early embryological data, up to and well beyond segmentation, are a subject for physiological and physical investigation, and their categories (yolk content, chromosome form and number, radial, bilateral or spiral cleavage) will only seldom and accidentally coincide with the natural or phylogenetic classification of the systematist.", "quote": "But we have little right to expect, and in point of fact we shall very seldom and (as it were) only accidentally find, that these embryological categories coincide with the lines of “natural” or “phylogenetic” classification which have been arrived at by the systematic zoologist.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. IV: On the Internal Form and Structure of the Cell", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.581, "truth": 0.26, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.22 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.3 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.69, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RArrJMdJgOiJCLGz9E6MEUdIIk87mACyd2nmPPob7Njfs", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch04-16", "key": "972579f66792d734", "label": "Surface tension gives the cell its outline and morphological individuality", "statement": "The cell is a sphere of action of localised forces, of which surface tension gives the cell its outline and individuality; partial versus total segmentation of eggs, and unicellular versus multicellular organisation, differ in whether surface tensions succeed in forming visible separations between cells.", "quote": "surface-tension is the particular force which is especially responsible for giving to the cell its outline and its morphological individuality.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. IV: On the Internal Form and Structure of the Cell", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.484, "truth": 0.205, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.25 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.16 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.63, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAtxt2lYCnkGXZEZiCut2THxM25O0IwOkkv_aES315QlA", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch04-17", "key": "13b5eb53c1c5a45c", "label": "The centrosome is essentially a centre of force, not necessarily a material body", "statement": "The centrosome is essentially a dynamic centre of force, which may or may not consist of a visible concentration of matter but tends to produce one, as shown by cells that live without visible centrosomes and centrosomes that disappear and form anew.", "quote": "We may safely take it that the centrosome, or the “attraction sphere,” is essentially a “centre of force,” and that this dynamic centre may or may not be constituted by (but will be very apt to produce) a concrete and visible concentration of matter.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. IV: On the Internal Form and Structure of the Cell", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.536, "truth": 0.215, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.05 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.38 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.645, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAG3wgKu9-MaVVL-pu8sf3snY_GOaol4-nmOjfqxb2lVI", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch04-18", "key": "3c5745af0b114e67", "label": "A continuous field of force shapes the whole organism regardless of its cells", "statement": "The multicellular organism is not a colony of independent cells: a continuous field of force runs through the entire organism, not restricted to protoplasmic continuity, and shapes it independently of the number, size and form of its cells.", "quote": "And such a continuous field of force, somehow shaping the whole organism, independently of the number, magnitude and form of the individual cells, which enter, like a froth, into its fabric, seems to me certainly and obviously to exist.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. IV: On the Internal Form and Structure of the Cell", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.428, "truth": 0.22, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.16 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.28 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.61, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA7Ude3dfx8zfRcg-HOVza-I18NJgWzfU--asFfARKcEs", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch05-01", "key": "6e067f2b0fc13df8", "label": "Fluid protoplasm growing by imbibition produces rounded rather than plane surfaces", "statement": "Because protoplasm is fluid and grows by imbibition (intussusception) rather than by deposition of particles on a surface, freely growing organisms tend to have swelling, rounded contours, and plane surfaces are rare in them unless produced by pressure.", "quote": "So far then, as growth goes on, unaffected by pressure or other external force, the fluidity of protoplasm, its mobility internal and external, and the manner in which particles move with comparative freedom from place to place within, all manifestly tend to the production of swelling, rounded surfaces, and to their great predominance over plane surfaces in the contour of the organism.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. V: The Forms of Cells", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.553, "truth": 0.575, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.55 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.6 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.65, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAzqUrUVoC-14cxoIN0CDIOsRKGnPPcE1MUNys2FTMhPI", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch05-02", "key": "d4c45c538397c89f", "label": "Surface tension is probably the paramount force determining cell form", "statement": "Of the physical forces that determine the forms of cells, solitary or in contact, surface tension is of great and probably paramount importance, usually acting together with gravity, mechanical pressure and osmosis.", "quote": "Among the forces which determine the forms of cells, whether they be solitary or arranged in contact with one another, this force of surface-tension is certainly of great, and is probably of paramount importance.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. V: The Forms of Cells", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.46, "truth": 0.2, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.18 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.22 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.625, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RACshYArde1C4aCw6hNPQC2RrHxYNRo1j4qZikP8eOo7M", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch05-03", "key": "a247689c31e79218", "label": "Organic symmetry reflects equilibrium and is absent without it, as in amoeba", "statement": "Symmetry is highly characteristic of organic forms because they are figures of equilibrium governed by a principle of minimal energy, as in liquid films; symmetry is lacking only where equilibrium is lacking, as in the amoeba.", "quote": "Such symmetry is in a high degree characteristic of organic forms, and is rarely absent in living things,—save in such cases as amoeba, where the equilibrium on which symmetry depends is likewise lacking.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. V: The Forms of Cells", "kind": "mathematical-law", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": true, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.404, "truth": 0.13, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.08 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.18 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.71, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAhzRBeOvQHQ0qlSqcMx2UqGqs0SP2TvoShjTtJ85teFA", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch05-04", "key": "0b7feecd2cbcbf19", "label": "Rounding off of protoplasm is due to surface tension, not vital contractility", "statement": "When a drop of protoplasm, or the tip of an amoeba's pseudopodium, rounds itself off, this is a simple consequence of surface tension and not of any special vital contractility.", "quote": "When any drop of protoplasm, either over all its surface or at some free end, as at the extremity of the pseudopodium of an amoeba, is seen likewise to “round itself off,” that is not an effect of “vital contractility,” but (as Hofmeister shewed so long ago as 1867) a simple consequence of surface tension", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. V: The Forms of Cells", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.605, "truth": 0.485, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.72 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.25 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.7, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA0QhPbxl8AcOuDi8p6uIFWVoEGZuR5FsSJYt7Mo2IsRk", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch05-05", "key": "df254763fe9803e7", "label": "Plasmodial taxes towards moisture, warmth and food parallel surface-tension phenomena", "statement": "The movements of a plasmodium (Aethalium) towards damp, warm or nutritious spots and away from sugar or salt solutions can each be accounted for by local changes of surface tension, as in inanimate drops moving on a warmed or chemically altered surface.", "quote": "When we find that a plasmodium of Aethalium, for instance, creeps towards a damp spot, or towards a warm spot, or towards substances that happen to be nutritious, and again creeps away from solutions of sugar or of salt, we seem to be dealing with phenomena every one of which can be paralleled by ordinary phenomena of surface tension", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. V: The Forms of Cells", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.425, "truth": 0.21, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.24 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.18 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.625, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAFeaCdkdRyPNdsZsCkEeXZLnS6KRxhGzflH44l-YS4bk", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch05-06", "key": "247c2e192cf1ca7e", "label": "Resting cells are spherical; the amoeboid phase is one of activity and unequal tensions", "statement": "In naked protoplasmic cells the amoeboid form marks a phase of activity with unequal surface tensions, whereas the spherical form marks a phase of rest when internal homogeneity and minimal potential energy are attained, at which time the cell also becomes encysted.", "quote": "In the case of the naked protoplasmic cell, as the amoeboid phase is emphatically a phase of freedom and activity, of chemical and physiological change, so, on the other hand, is the spherical form indicative of a phase of rest or comparative inactivity.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. V: The Forms of Cells", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.569, "truth": 0.65, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.62 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.68 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.675, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAcWffGXdWww0KvRYs7pw4Klyvv7uNcbUQzfnyfge9qfc", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch05-07", "key": "ecbccc28484ae5e7", "label": "A yeast bud arises where surface tension locally and suddenly diminishes", "statement": "A bud appears on a yeast cell because the surface tension diminishes at one part of the cell surface, so that this area expands, after which the bud's own surface tension rounds it into a roughly spherical form.", "quote": "When a “bud” appears, whether with or without actual growth by osmosis or otherwise of the mass, it does so because at a certain part of the cell-surface the surface tension has more or less suddenly diminished, and the area of that portion expands accordingly", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. V: The Forms of Cells", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.637, "truth": 0.13, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.14 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.12 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.7, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAib13xLEckuNDT2CaldqQD-5ZbE6ipRWAXPBSMUOFvgc", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch05-08", "key": "298afd7c7d398f67", "label": "Each new foraminiferal chamber is a surface-tension figure; the whole shell is not", "statement": "In multichambered organisms such as the foraminifera Globigerina or Rotalia, and in desmids, each newly formed bud or chamber is a figure of equilibrium shaped by surface tension while still fluid, and is then solidified onto earlier chambers, so the whole organism is not itself a figure of minimal area.", "quote": "The little organism as a whole is not a figure of equilibrium or of minimal area; but each new bud or separate chamber is such a figure, conditioned by the forces of surface tension, and superposed upon the complex aggregate of similar bubbles after these latter have become consolidated one by one into a rigid system.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. V: The Forms of Cells", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.62, "truth": 0.305, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.31 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.3 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.705, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAO9e1v_BMGddgdLMJDtFsLFicdUw2Hkp6mRmWaNcAYqk", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch05-09", "key": "3eabd233cb6b24f3", "label": "Surface tension governs the forms of small organisms and cells, not large organisms", "statement": "Surface tension governs form only where surface energy is a large fraction of total energy, so it determines the forms of minute organisms and of the small cells of larger organisms, while the general forms of large organisms are due to other, non-molecular forces.", "quote": "in other words it will be small or minute organisms, or the small cellular elements of larger organisms, whose forms will be governed by surface-tension; while the general forms of the larger organisms will be due to other and non-molecular forces.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. V: The Forms of Cells", "kind": "mathematical-law", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": true, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.593, "truth": 0.77, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.78 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.76 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.685, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAgyIbwx_kZ5XxxmLaVQWBIfUH54MVqTxKTdoTdi2gMMg", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch05-10", "key": "e5c52f7839bb3b53", "label": "Spheres, cylinders and unduloids are the commonest unicellular forms", "statement": "Of the six surfaces of revolution with constant mean curvature (plane, sphere, cylinder, catenoid, unduloid, nodoid), spheres, cylinders and unduloids are the commonest forms of small unicellular organisms and of cells in simple aggregates, and transitions between them are frequent during growth, reproduction and development.", "quote": "That spheres, cylinders and unduloids are of the commonest occurrence among the forms of small unicellular organism, or of individual cells in the simpler aggregates, and that in the processes of growth, reproduction and development transitions are frequent from one of these forms to another, is obvious to the naturalist", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. V: The Forms of Cells", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": true, "theorem": false, "notation": "1/r_1 + 1/r_2 = \\text{const}; surfaces of revolution: plane, sphere, cylinder, catenoid, unduloid, nodoid", "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [ { "id": "thompson1917-t1917-014", "relation": "tests", "note": "The audit fits Delaunay sphere, cylinder and unduloid composites to the meridional profiles of real Lagena and other unilocular tests, checking that these cells take constant-mean-curvature forms.", "label": "Thompson (1917) T1917-014 — Lagena and other unilocular tests vs. the Plateau/Delaunay catalogue (Pass 2) faithfully reproduces Lagena spp., Oolina sp., Fissurina sp. (monothalamic Foraminifera); 13 Thompson/Brady drawings + 5 photographs; Globobulimina and Quinqueloculina as polythalamous controls morphology", "organism": "Lagena spp., Oolina sp., Fissurina sp. (monothalamic Foraminifera)", "verdict": "mostly faithful", "score": 73.8, "thompson_verdict": "mixed", "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAbhbOLoEBJWqxH-L4X8LRItGQHzvY335Jn2WVkAJam8k", "registry": "test", "report": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/morphoeval/kg/2026-10-28-t1917-014-the-forms-of-cells-audit-v2/REPORT.md" } ], "thumbnail": { "file": "docs/thumbs/thompson1917-t1917-014.jpg", "morpholib": "thompson1917-t1917-014", "source": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/docs/media/t1917_014_the_forms_of_cells_growth.gif" }, "testability": 0.593, "truth": 0.625, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.58 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.67 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.68, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA2jdqIjk-Oy21TJP0Yu0FKYa-FmlY1FcRd_7B0-A9YF8", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch05-11", "key": "1c01d966301a6cdf", "label": "A cylindrical cell's end cap has twice the cylinder's radius and height about 0.27R", "statement": "Where a cylindrical cell of uniform wall tension is capped by part of a sphere, the sphere's radius is twice the cylinder's radius, the cap subtends a cone of 60°, and its height is about 0.27 of the cylinder radius (a little more than one-eighth of the diameter), proportions seen in the free end cells of Spirogyra.", "quote": "the normal height of the spherical cap over the end of the cylindrical cell is just a very little more than one-eighth of the diameter of the cylinder, or of the radius of the sphere. And these are the proportions which we recognise, under normal circumstances, in such a case as the cylindrical cell of Spirogyra where its free end is capped by a portion of a sphere.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. V: The Forms of Cells", "kind": "mathematical-law", "status": "proved", "proof": "lean", "verification": "lean", "math": true, "theorem": true, "notation": "R_{cap} = 2R; cap subtends a cone of 60^\\circ; cap height = R(2 - \\sqrt{3}) \\approx 0.27R", "lean_theorems": [ "ThompsonLaws.Cells.cylinderCap_geometry", "ThompsonLaws.Cells.capHeight_bounds" ], "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.697, "truth": 0.77, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.9 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.64 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.755, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAYUAJWXlbSklXhGDLD88DoD_rBVkgaXc7di_Ggrv-t-Q", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch05-12", "key": "ba37aa8ba93da8f9", "label": "Viscid spider-thread coating breaks into beads at the cylinder stability limit", "statement": "The sticky fluid coating of a spider's spiral thread, being a liquid cylinder, becomes unstable when its length exceeds its circumference and breaks up into equal, equally spaced beads (often with smaller beads between), the spacing being somewhat greater than theory owing to viscosity and drag on the core thread.", "quote": "But this liquid cylinder has its limit of stability when its length equals its own circumference, and therefore just at the points so defined it tends to disrupt into separate segments", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. V: The Forms of Cells", "kind": "mathematical-law", "status": "proved", "proof": "lean", "verification": "lean", "math": true, "theorem": true, "notation": "liquid cylinder of radius r unstable for length l > 2\\pi r; breaks into equal, equally spaced beads", "lean_theorems": [ "ThompsonLaws.Cells.liquidCylinder_unstable" ], "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.645, "truth": 0.8, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.72 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.88 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.71, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RApfDNGgL3F9AJzTqrBu_ePmpXzVhjtCEyxnRtjk4pq8c", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch05-13", "key": "ca1c0d2fe4cad23d", "label": "Notched hydroid cups and annulated stems are both due to surface tension", "statement": "The notching of the rim of hydroid calycles and the annular constrictions of their cylindrical stems are phenomena of the same order, both produced by surface tension acting on the structures while they are still fluid or semifluid films, as in the beaded rim of a splash.", "quote": "In the case of the hydroid calycle (Fig. 72), we are led to the conclusion that the two common and conspicuous features of notching or indentation of the cup, and of constriction or annulation of the long cylindrical stem, are phenomena of the same order and are due to surface-tension in both cases alike.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. V: The Forms of Cells", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.465, "truth": 0.145, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.12 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.17 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.615, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAPyo2X016WuOSEboGGI2z8YNE3jLY3PuRdejDAca8Dt8", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch05-14", "key": "3a2f9d81ebc4f4fa", "label": "Freely growing cylindrical cells owe their form to an anisotropic wall", "statement": "A cylindrical cell such as Spirogyra that grows without external restraint takes its form because its developing membrane is anisotropic, extending more easily in one direction; a slight inequality of tension in two directions gives an ellipsoidal cell and a great inequality a cylindrical one.", "quote": "I take it therefore, that the cylindrical cell of Spirogyra, or any other cylindrical cell which grows in freedom from any manifest external restraint, has assumed that particular form simply by reason of the molecular constitution of its developing surface-membrane; and that this molecular constitution was anisotropous, in such a way as to render extension easier in one direction than another.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. V: The Forms of Cells", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.647, "truth": 0.88, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.88 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.88 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.72, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAYsxRhoZQcXiyxrYLNQQiDQrl4saUGi4LQOndhy1O_aA", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch05-15", "key": "c7d95d5ca5d31c2d", "label": "Small organisms show a limited range of forms because molecular forces control them", "statement": "Because protozoa, bacteria and other minute cells are of a size at which form is mainly controlled by molecular forces, they exhibit only a limited range of forms, which vary with physical conditions.", "quote": "To the fact that these little organisms belong to an order of magnitude in which form is mainly, if not wholly, conditioned and controlled by molecular forces, is due the limited range of forms which they actually exhibit.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. V: The Forms of Cells", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.58, "truth": 0.53, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.56 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.5 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.665, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA0NK8obMsszs-amwJlC2_tSGMbaAiy18mVIPAbPN6Jh4", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch05-16", "key": "8f3e3129d4e9eda4", "label": "Bacterial form is too plastic to serve for species identification", "statement": "Bacteria and micrococci change shape so much with life stage, circumstances and preparation that their specific identity can seldom be recognised by form, so they have a physiological rather than morphological specificity.", "quote": "Whatever grounds we may have for attributing to these organisms a permanent or stable specific identity (after the fashion of the higher plants and animals), we can seldom safely do so on the ground of definite and always recognisable _form_", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. V: The Forms of Cells", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.754, "truth": 0.52, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.32 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.72 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.79, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAg9xz2h1kKhoYJN1s1eEFUL1vlJdxvY_LcK4jsHK_hcU", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch05-17", "key": "a572d536d164227e", "label": "Vorticella bells form a graded series of unduloids", "statement": "The bells of the various species of Vorticella, like many other Infusoria, are unduloids or partial unduloids spanning every gradation from nearly cylindrical to nearly spherical, bounded by the stalk attachment and the ciliary ring as by two unequal supporting rings, and the species differ only in ratio or degree.", "quote": "The cups of the various species of Vorticella (Fig. 75) are nothing in the world but a beautiful series of unduloids, or partial unduloids, in every gradation from a form that is all but cylindrical to one that is all but a perfect sphere.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. V: The Forms of Cells", "kind": "mathematical-law", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": true, "theorem": false, "notation": "1/r_1 + 1/r_2 = \\text{const} (unduloid between two unequal supporting rings)", "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.599, "truth": 0.325, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.25 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.4 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.655, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAI75FRgZR_NVDSgYpUd8tiRfWLPVeRzyu1fySskuUnVQ", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch05-18", "key": "4387ab8efd773a57", "label": "Protozoan loricas form by adsorption into least-area surfaces, not for protection", "statement": "The membranous cups (loricas) of Salpingoeca, Tintinnus and similar protozoa arise inevitably from substances adsorbed in the surface layer of the protoplasm, and molecular forces make the resulting pellicle a surface of least possible area under the circumstances, here an unduloid; this efficient cause, rather than a protective purpose, explains their form.", "quote": "that this surface pellicle or membrane was inevitably bound, by molecular forces, to become a surface of the least possible area which the circumstances permitted", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. V: The Forms of Cells", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.406, "truth": 0.115, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.08 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.15 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.61, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAiBBNgikm9xdhItPkKueqbUrV5zbBgArtLAboMbe5KM8", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch05-19", "key": "e4eacbab412f0e11", "label": "Shared form in simple organisms need not imply common descent", "statement": "The assumption that similar or identical forms indicate genealogical relationship is far less well founded for minute organisms with few, simple characters whose form is largely produced directly by a physical force, so identical forms of such organisms in different times or places need not indicate unbroken descent or common stock.", "quote": "when we attempt to extend it to minute organisms whose specific characters are few and simple, whose simplicity becomes much more manifest when we regard it from the point of view of physical and mathematical description and analysis, and whose form is referable, or (to say the least of it) is very largely referable, to the direct and immediate action of a particular physical force.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. V: The Forms of Cells", "kind": "historical-inference", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.569, "truth": 0.86, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.87 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.85 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.63, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAg94yIrhi31fzIVmtprAw_aSMs_vn4RJUa-xuAEYyKE0", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch05-20", "key": "949a2607cd591cd4", "label": "The unduloid Lagena shell is formed while hanging vertically in the sea", "statement": "The flask-shaped (unduloid) shell of Lagena is formed while the organism hangs vertically, in a position of symmetry about its vertical axis, like a hanging drop; flattened or winged forms are those formed when this symmetry of position was absent and the shell lay horizontally.", "quote": "but we may be pretty sure that it is suspended vertically in the sea, that is to say in a position of symmetry as regards its vertical axis, about which the unduloid surface of revolution is symmetrically formed.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. V: The Forms of Cells", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.47, "truth": 0.115, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.05 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.18 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.69, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAr2pbMbeFMovtDT5RrCOrMwfBh3MVVCY9I_-AR-ELW_A", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch05-21", "key": "d7e94e400f63a52a", "label": "Thin walls flute longitudinally; thick narrow necks pleat transversely", "statement": "Small tension changes in a thin-walled elongated cell produce wrinkling in the plane of greatest curvature, hence longitudinal fluting, especially near the ends; where the wall is thick relative to diameter, as in the narrow neck of Lagena or tubular hydroid gonangia, bending stiffness makes folding transverse instead.", "quote": "The manner in which our little Lagena-shell tends to fold or wrinkle, longitudinally in its wider part, and transversely or annularly in its narrow neck, is thus completely and easily explained.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. V: The Forms of Cells", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.576, "truth": 0.335, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.34 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.33 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.66, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA-tEny-2l9BcFbsFtO8SAyAnRQ2uWikLOIl_-eAMOWv8", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch05-22", "key": "bbb37060cc0b9971", "label": "Symmetrical surface-tension pull sets heliozoan filaments radially", "statement": "Fluid surface protoplasm creeps up the stiff axial filaments of a heliozoan such as Actinophrys, and because this surface-tension pull is symmetrical around each filament the filaments are set normal to the cell surface, radiating from the centre; closely spaced filaments produce honeycomb-like depressions between them.", "quote": "Since the attraction exercised by this surface tension is symmetrical around the filament, the latter will be pulled equally in all directions; in other words it will tend to be set normally to the surface of the sphere, that is to say radiating directly outwards from the centre.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. V: The Forms of Cells", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.468, "truth": 0.25, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.34 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.16 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.57, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RARScEd8H32LkC8bXS0MOZjoqJCXKEI0STk_cDqgQUg2E", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch05-23", "key": "6fb9b9d3d5b1cbc0", "label": "The trypanosome undulating membrane is a liquid film drawn up along a flagellum", "statement": "The undulating membrane of trypanosomes and related flagellates forms when the flagellum lies near and parallel to the body and the fluid surface protoplasm is drawn up as a film along it, as a soap-film would be; the membrane is thus a liquid film of constant mean curvature whose undulations are produced by molecular tensions, not by its own active mobility.", "quote": "It is a plausible assumption to suppose that, as the flagellum waves about, it comes to lie near and parallel to the body of the cell, and that the frill or undulating membrane is formed by the clear, fluid protoplasm of the surface layer springing up in a film to run up and along the flagellum, just as a soap-film would be formed in similar circumstances.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. V: The Forms of Cells", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": true, "theorem": false, "notation": "1/r_1 + 1/r_2 = \\text{const} (undulating membrane as a liquid film)", "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.597, "truth": 0.06, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.02 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.1 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.68, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RACifCf016RucOzjmbkxAfigL6Ri0cFZ5Vlbt1qOLz7Sc", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch05-24", "key": "7199a467f32ce54f", "label": "The biconcave red blood corpuscle is not a surface-tension equilibrium figure", "statement": "The biconcave mammalian red blood corpuscle is not a surface of constant mean curvature and so cannot be a fluid drop in equilibrium under surface tension alone; some other force, possibly osmotic inequilibrium or fluid-crystal forces of its cholesterin-like constituents, must maintain its shape, which changes to a sphere in diluted blood.", "quote": "Accordingly, from the point of view of surface tension alone, the blood-corpuscle is not a surface of equilibrium; or in other words, it is not a fluid drop suspended in another liquid.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. V: The Forms of Cells", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "proved", "proof": "lean", "verification": "lean", "math": true, "theorem": true, "notation": "biconcave corpuscle: 1/r_1 + 1/r_2 \\neq \\text{const}, so not a fluid drop in equilibrium under surface tension alone", "lean_theorems": [ "ThompsonLaws.Cells.biconcave_not_equilibrium" ], "formalization": null, "evidence": "inconclusive", "evidence_kind": "biological", "data_test": { "verdict": "inconclusive", "confidence": 0.3, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "biological", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/thompson-growth-form/thompson1917-ch05-24/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Most isolated red cells in quantitative phase maps have a central thickness minimum and a rim maximum, giving opposite-sign mean curvature at centre and rim on the same face; spheres analysed identically do not.", "disconfirming_observation": "Red cells have dome-like (centrally maximal) thickness profiles like the spheres, i.e. no centre-rim sign change in mean curvature, consistent with a constant-mean-curvature drop.", "admissible_datasets": "Quantitative thickness or phase maps, or 3D reconstructions, of individual unfixed or lightly fixed mammalian red cells at a resolution of >= 12 pixels across a cell, together with a sphere control imaged on the same instrument; public licence; independent of Thompson.", "inference_method": "Segmentation of isolated objects, azimuthal thickness profile, sign of the central quadratic coefficient vs the crest curvature, fraction of cells with a sign change compared with the bead control against the pre-registered 70%/30%/10% thresholds.", "explicit": true }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.851, "truth": 0.865, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.91 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.82 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.85, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAUA0oAQY3JGW7vIhTxuH57cYM1xfLG1mIM99kLJBV9qc", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch05-25", "key": "942df9f8f45c403d", "label": "Decapod sperm-cell shape is an intermediate phase of osmotic shrinkage", "statement": "The normal form of decapod crustacean sperm-cells is one of many intermediate phases of shrinkage from a spherical form, caused by osmotic withdrawal of fluid without a matching reduction of surface area, so that equivalent shapes are produced by salt solutions of equivalent (molecular-weight-proportional) concentration.", "quote": "we see that what we call its normal appearance is just one of many intermediate phases of shrinkage, brought about by the abstraction of fluid from its interior as the result of an osmotic pressure greater outside than inside the cell", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. V: The Forms of Cells", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.515, "truth": 0.195, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.13 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.26 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.675, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA9mFvoWg-ag3X2AtxU0V4cWWYBEwICfahQS7QIZifINE", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch05-26", "key": "0ee15c679247ec66", "label": "Elastic fibrillae act as a microscopic skeleton shaping spiral cells", "statement": "The spiral and other peculiar forms of decapod sperm-cells and of many Infusoria are produced by more or less elastic fibrillae in the cell, which restrain and modify the surface forces like the wire frames and coils in Plateau's experiments, acting as a microscopic skeleton.", "quote": "In all probability we must in like manner attribute the peculiar spiral and other forms, for instance of many Infusoria, to the presence, among the multitudinous other differentiations of their protoplasmic substance, of such more or less elastic fibrillae, which play as it were the part of a microscopic skeleton", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. V: The Forms of Cells", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.5, "truth": 0.73, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.76 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.7 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.595, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA9m7uaUZPRhK8ErZnSjJvhUodHP-8HhOa8D3Dhja3Ovs", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch06-01", "key": "a55abf7467bb7790", "label": "Cell-wall secretion is adsorption of constituents at the surface", "statement": "The so-called secretion of a cell-wall or membrane is the adsorption of certain constituents of the cell, which lower surface tension, to its surface (as formulated by the Gibbs-Thomson law), where they also increase viscosity and rigidity; the formation of a cell membrane is thus a chemico-physical phenomenon.", "quote": "The so-called “secretion” of this cell-wall is nothing more than a sort of exudation, or striving towards the surface, of certain constituent molecules or particles within the cell; and the Gibbs-Thomson law formulates, in part at least, the conditions under which they do so.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. VI: A Note on Adsorption", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.546, "truth": 0.11, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.09 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.13 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.64, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA2m428Iu4Jk4B4DEx-OzMq3-Bj1W0hexa18AJ0jmpDkk", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch06-02", "key": "a499b33e00b73bb4", "label": "Spicules are deposited at interfaces between cells or vacuoles", "statement": "Skeletal spicules, as in sponges and radiolaria, are characteristically deposited in the interfacial boundaries between cells or vacuoles, and their form is in many cases regulated by the arrangement of these boundaries.", "quote": "it is highly characteristic of the whole process of spicule-formation for the deposits to be laid down just in the “interfacial” boundaries between cells or vacuoles, and that the form of the spicular structures tends in many cases to be regulated and determined by the arrangement of these boundaries.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. VI: A Note on Adsorption", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.603, "truth": 0.525, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.57 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.48 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.655, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RArBDwjpd6zdN5n_zj2LtSYBPAhxhuvHpyMs-9tWKrAY8", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch06-03", "key": "d42c98e6fd4db4bc", "label": "Membranes and cysts form only after protoplasm rounds up with positive surface tension", "statement": "Because adsorption requires a surface tension greater than zero, films or threads of creeping protoplasm do not form an encysting membrane, and an organism forms its cyst or cell-wall only when its protoplasm has developed a positive surface tension and gathered into a roughly spherical body.", "quote": "It is for this reason that films or threads of creeping protoplasm shew little tendency, or none, to cover themselves with an encysting membrane; and that it is only when, in an altered phase, the protoplasm has developed a positive surface tension, and has accordingly gathered itself up into a more or less spherical body, that the tendency to form a membrane is manifested", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. VI: A Note on Adsorption", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.47, "truth": 0.25, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.2 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.3 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.61, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RALVzsaEGUJbLwCZz9u-_LQaEF2THQMvkSCTG9OIfhlyE", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch06-04", "key": "7944f7c7f953f8b0", "label": "Winter encystment and winter-egg shells relate to temperature effects on adsorption", "statement": "Since a rise of temperature reduces adsorbability (and surface tension), lower temperature favours adsorption and membrane formation, which probably accounts for the encystment of unicellular organisms at the approach of winter and the strong shells or capsules of winter eggs.", "quote": "We may in all probability ascribe to this fact and to its converse, or at least associate with it, such phenomena as the encystment of unicellular organisms at the approach of winter, or the frequent formation of strong shells or membranous capsules in “winter-eggs.”", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. VI: A Note on Adsorption", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.477, "truth": 0.14, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.16 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.12 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.58, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA_r35Wku3Khh-QjLPyrLvqz5vDgg9dHEU4AuhKi-ZX48", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch06-05", "key": "a6f5fd434f02b610", "label": "Chondriosomes and similar fibrils are surface-tension clumps drawn along the cell axis", "statement": "The mitochondria, chondriosomes and similar granules and fibrils of cells are not special entities with specific functions but clumps of heterogeneous cell contents gathered by surface tension and drawn out along the cell axis by osmotic currents arising from surface energy and adsorption, revealing a field of force and dynamical polarity in the cell.", "quote": "while, from the physical point of view we are tempted to see but little mystery in the whole phenomenon, and to ascribe it, in all probability and in general terms, to the gathering or “clumping” together, under surface tension, of various constituents of the heterogeneous cell-content, and to the drawing out of these little clumps along the axis of the cell towards one or other of its extremities", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. VI: A Note on Adsorption", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.777, "truth": 0.03, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.01 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.05 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.82, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RANZVHbo0RJ4LTP3vJoEvUiJmn4ng5NX37S4rMsFn8sYY", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch06-06", "key": "addba8fa95f81848", "label": "Potassium salts concentrate where cell-surface tension is weak", "statement": "Potassium salts, like inorganic substances generally, raise surface tension and therefore concentrate at those parts of a cell surface where the tension is weak, so their localised accumulation (shown by Macallum's cobalt-nitrite method) indicates inequalities of surface tension.", "quote": "and we may safely take it that our potassium salts, like inorganic substances in general, tend to _raise_ the surface tension, and will therefore be found concentrating at a portion of the surface whose tension is weak", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. VI: A Note on Adsorption", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.39, "truth": 0.085, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.08 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.09 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.64, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAtXj18qjbmex7RNaxHk_bKJRc1o01vYimz3trM_EXFaM", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch06-07", "key": "1c2f2ae557e92bee", "label": "Conjugation outgrowths and root-hairs arise at sites of potassium concentration", "statement": "The bulges that begin conjugation in algae such as Pleurocarpus and Mesocarpus, and the root-hair outgrowth of Equisetum spores, arise where surface tension is weakened, and these sites coincide with heavy concentrations of potassium salts, which disperse when the cell becomes symmetrical again.", "quote": "This bulge is, in the first place, a sign of weakened surface tension on one side of the cell, which as a whole had hitherto been a symmetrical cylinder; in the second place, we see that the bulging area corresponds to the position of a great concentration of the potassic salt", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. VI: A Note on Adsorption", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.446, "truth": 0.155, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.17 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.14 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.66, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAexmGEhkHOJJCAWS3-VfpwcI-XzEEADKzkJiUN97tpvQ", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch06-08", "key": "b2478432ff38c04b", "label": "Potassium accumulates at the bases of cilia and flagella", "statement": "Ciliate and flagellate cells show a characteristic accumulation of potassium at and near the base of their cilia, which accounts (through weakened surface tension) for the small protuberance where a flagellum arises and the ridge at the base of a row of cilia.", "quote": "In the case of ciliate or flagellate cells, there is to be found a characteristic accumulation of potassium at and near the base of the cilia.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. VI: A Note on Adsorption", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.451, "truth": 0.14, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.13 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.15 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.65, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RACIOkRGLhMoHP3vwYF6EixlA6gRy5tRICr6JyMAot81w", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch06-09", "key": "f300f099dae6e457", "label": "Unicellular forms and their asymmetries follow surface molecular forces", "statement": "In unicellular organisms not only the general configuration but also the departures from symmetry can be correlated with molecular forces, especially local variations of surface tension, acting in their fluid or semifluid surfaces.", "quote": "we have arrived at the conclusion, as regards unicellular organisms, that not only their general configuration but also _their departures from symmetry_ may be correlated with the molecular forces manifested in their fluid or semi-fluid surfaces.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. VI: A Note on Adsorption", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.455, "truth": 0.29, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.3 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.28 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.54, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RALrQbSz9BG6hl-kKOU-C_bhJ_tMGn18ZI-7vhSVI1xHU", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch07-01", "key": "293467f9b22cc52c", "label": "Forms of cell-aggregates are shaped chiefly by surface tension toward minimal areas", "statement": "The forms of cells in contact with one another, and ultimately of tissues, are determined especially by surface tension, which shows itself in the production of surfaces of (relatively) minimal area.", "quote": "we shall probably find, and we may at least begin by assuming, that the agency of surface tension is especially manifest and important. The effect of this surface tension will chiefly manifest itself in the production of surfaces _minimae areae_", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. VII: The Forms of Tissues, or Cell-Aggregates", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [ { "id": "graner-cellular-potts-cell-sorting", "relation": "models", "note": "The Cellular Potts Hamiltonian assigns bond-energy surface tensions between cell types and medium, so sorting of the reaggregate proceeds by minimising interfacial area, the surface-tension mechanism Thompson proposes for the form of cell aggregates.", "label": "Graner & Glazier (1992) / Glazier & Graner (1993) extended large-Q Cellular Potts Model cell sorting + Ouchi et al. (2003) cortical tension faithfully reproduces Hydra attenuata (endoderm/ectoderm reaggregates) & Gallus gallus embryonic cell spheroids morphology", "organism": "Hydra attenuata (endoderm/ectoderm reaggregates) & Gallus gallus embryonic cell spheroids", "verdict": "faithful", "score": 84.5, "thompson_verdict": null, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA2pLjmXJMR03sV7V2z3f7vccG-GnIQki0SdvRFlYyhjM", "registry": "production", "report": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/morphoeval/kg/2026-10-19-cellular-potts-cell-sorting-audit-v3/REPORT.md" } ], "thumbnail": { "file": "docs/thumbs/graner-cellular-potts-cell-sorting.jpg", "morpholib": "graner-cellular-potts-cell-sorting", "source": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/docs/media/cellular_potts_cell_sorting_growth.gif" }, "testability": 0.635, "truth": 0.415, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.29 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.54 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.685, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAU_-35Ib_155La8JH9PZlQu81ErXgSzqjInR0BpfwBjc", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch07-02", "key": "aa8b8e62bfb7d127", "label": "Right-angled cell walls arise because older walls solidify before new partitions form", "statement": "Plant cell walls often meet at right angles (Sachs’s Rule) because an earlier wall has usually become solid and rigid before a later partition joins it, so the fluid partition sets itself at equal angles, i.e. perpendicular, to the rigid wall.", "quote": "such validity as the rule possesses is due to the fact that among plant-tissues it very frequently happens that one cell-wall has become solid and rigid before another and later partition-wall is developed in connection with it.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. VII: The Forms of Tissues, or Cell-Aggregates", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "proved", "proof": "lean", "verification": "lean", "math": true, "theorem": true, "notation": "fluid partition meets a rigid wall at 90^\\circ (Sachs's rule)", "lean_theorems": [ "ThompsonLaws.Cells.sachsRule" ], "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.629, "truth": 0.645, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.53 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.76 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.675, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAfDzdTa88kWhf7OjVqWVC4MVvGNsNIoxVabgjQEuBvyU", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch07-03", "key": "9dd8b872f0f8b561", "label": "Shape of paired cells depends on relative tensions at outer surface and partition", "statement": "Whether two adjacent cells in a filament (as in Nostoc and its allies) are separated by flat partitions, are hemispherical, or are each more than a hemisphere depends on the relative magnitudes of the tension at the outer cell surface and at the boundary between the cells.", "quote": "These various conditions depend, according to what we have already learned, upon the relative magnitudes of the tensions at the surface of the cells and at the boundary between them", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. VII: The Forms of Tissues, or Cell-Aggregates", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.566, "truth": 0.82, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.84 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.8 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.655, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAvDXNt_xgnIqQYNClrroDlq14OhlB4lgCb5zAjaPTG6o", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch07-04", "key": "e750e41800bde57f", "label": "Tissue cell walls meet three at a time at 120°, regardless of cell size", "statement": "In sections of tissues such as plant parenchyma, as in a froth of soap-bubbles, cell walls meet three at a time at angles of 120° whatever the sizes of the cells, while the relative sizes of neighbouring cells determine only the curvature of the walls.", "quote": "in both cases we see the cell-walls everywhere meeting, by threes, at angles of 120°, irrespective of the size of the individual cells: whose relative size, on the other hand, determines the _curvature_ of the partition-walls.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. VII: The Forms of Tissues, or Cell-Aggregates", "kind": "mathematical-law", "status": "proved", "proof": "lean", "verification": "lean", "math": true, "theorem": true, "notation": "walls meet three at a time at 120^\\circ, independent of cell size; relative sizes set only wall curvature", "lean_theorems": [ "ThompsonLaws.Cells.junction_inner", "ThompsonLaws.Cells.cos_two_pi_div_three", "ThompsonLaws.Cells.tripleJunction_120", "ThompsonLaws.Cells.partitionCurvature_eq" ], "formalization": null, "evidence": "mixed", "evidence_kind": "biological", "data_test": { "verdict": "mixed", "confidence": 0.65, "preregistered": false, "data_kind": "biological", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/thompson-growth-form/thompson1917-ch07-04/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "In planar sections of a cellular tissue, the three angles at each three-way wall junction cluster near 120 degrees: junction-angle SD and T-junction fraction are both below those of a random Voronoi tiling of the same cell count.", "disconfirming_observation": "Junction angles in a tissue are as dispersed as, or more dispersed than, a random Voronoi tiling, or T-junctions (one angle near 180 degrees) are the majority, as in cell-file tissues such as grass epidermis.", "admissible_datasets": "Public micrographs of planar (one-cell-thick or surface) tissue with resolvable cell walls, segmentable to label images; not drawings or diagrams; not images used to illustrate the claim in the source; licence permitting reuse. Segmenter output must be calibrated against synthetic tilings with known junction statistics (see revisions).", "inference_method": "Cellpose-SAM segmentation, three-way junction extraction from the label image, angle SD and T-junction fraction per tissue, compared with a perfect hexagonal lattice and a random Voronoi control; pass if both statistics fall below the random control, with segmenter bias measured on synthetic tilings and subtracted from the margin. Planned ridge-based re-measurement (no learned boundary model): fit a straight line to each wall ridge in an annulus starting several blur widths from the vertex and take angles between fitted lines; validate on the synthetic tilings first and sweep the inner annulus radius, reporting the radius at which the brick-wall T fraction plateaus as the measurement floor (cautions from nanoswarm, Moltbook, 2026-10-31).", "explicit": true }, "revisions": [ { "date": "2026-10-31", "from": { "verdict": "mixed", "confidence": 0.6, "summary": "4 of 5 tissues conform" }, "to": { "verdict": "mixed", "confidence": 0.35, "summary": "4 of 5 tissues are not cell-file tissues; margin over the random control is inflated by the segmenter" }, "prompted_by": [ "vina", "hivefound", "nanoswarm" ] }, { "date": "2026-11-01", "from": { "verdict": "mixed", "confidence": 0.35, "summary": "4 of 5 tissues are not cell-file tissues; margin over the random control is inflated by the segmenter" }, "to": { "verdict": "mixed", "confidence": 0.6, "summary": "three-at-a-time holds (98-99.7% of interior vertices in 8 expert-segmented Drosophila epithelia); 120 degrees holds only loosely and only once division has stopped" }, "prompted_by": [] }, { "date": "2026-11-01", "from": { "verdict": "mixed", "confidence": 0.6, "summary": "three-at-a-time holds (98-99.7% of interior vertices in 8 expert-segmented Drosophila epithelia); 120 degrees holds only loosely and only once division has stopped" }, "to": { "verdict": "mixed", "confidence": 0.65, "summary": "three-at-a-time holds; 120 degrees only once division stops; 'irrespective of size' refuted on the side-count reading in 2,000 eye-bank images of non-dividing human corneal endothelium (hexagonal fraction falls with cell-area CV, rho -0.34)" }, "prompted_by": [] } ], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [ { "id": "thompson1917-t1917-018", "relation": "tests", "note": "Junction-angle statistics on corneal endothelium, onion epidermis and Thompson's parenchyma figures check that cell walls meet three at a time near 120 degrees regardless of cell size.", "label": "Thompson (1917) T1917-018 — Plateau tri-junction (120 degree) claim: Lami balance, periodic froth relaxation, junction-angle statistics faithfully reproduces species-agnostic claim; specimens: Homo sapiens corneal endothelium, Allium cepa epidermis, Thompson Fig. 103 (Zea mays parenchyma), Fig. 124 (Girardia epidermis) morphology", "organism": "species-agnostic claim", "verdict": "faithful", "score": 87, "thompson_verdict": "supported", "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAl-1jHcB1IWuHI_Iznp7nWPre-7Wr6Vh4_g0V_XsyxX4", "registry": "test", "report": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/morphoeval/kg/2026-10-28-t1917-018-the-forms-of-tissues-or-cell-a-audit-v2/REPORT.md" } ], "thumbnail": { "file": "docs/thumbs/thompson1917-t1917-018.jpg", "morpholib": "thompson1917-t1917-018", "source": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/docs/media/t1917_018_the_forms_of_tissues_or_cell_a_growth.gif" }, "testability": 0.847, "truth": 0.62, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.42 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.82 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.86, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA-IosdDdtcLjQiGh4idcEfGXiC0VgMCJ-0fWq-VzdbnE", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch07-05", "key": "8a75f20ac6984d04", "label": "Four cells of a segmenting egg never meet in a point; a polar furrow is always present", "statement": "In the four-celled stage of a segmenting egg whose cells are in full fluid contact, the four cells cannot meet in a single point; a short intermediate partition (the polar furrow) must be present, and reports of four cells meeting in a simple cross are due to error or imperfect observation.", "quote": "it is quite certain that no simple and homogeneous system of fluid films such as we are dealing with is in equilibrium without its presence.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. VII: The Forms of Tissues, or Cell-Aggregates", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.768, "truth": 0.66, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.56 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.76 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.765, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAvkncZAPqP5ndclglO8Hdgwo-9wtqTdSJBG-tLKqWJos", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch07-06", "key": "63cb270a162c975f", "label": "Strong cell–cell tension relative to cell–medium tension makes cells round off", "statement": "Where the tension at cell–cell contacts exceeds that at cell–medium surfaces, the external angle between neighbouring cells is less than 120°, and if the cell–cell tension equals or exceeds the sum of the other two the cells touch only at a point, which explains rounded-off blastomeres separated by spaces.", "quote": "If the former be greater than either of the other two, the outside angle will be less than 120°; and if the tension along the surface _cc′_ be as much or more than the sum of the other two, then the drops will stand in contact only, save for the possible effect of external pressure, at a point.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. VII: The Forms of Tissues, or Cell-Aggregates", "kind": "mathematical-law", "status": "proved", "proof": "lean", "verification": "lean", "math": true, "theorem": true, "notation": "T_{cc} > T_{cm} \\Rightarrow external angle < 120^\\circ; T_{cc} \\ge T_{cm} + T'_{cm} \\Rightarrow contact only at a point", "lean_theorems": [ "ThompsonLaws.Cells.junction_inner", "ThompsonLaws.Cells.external_angle_lt_120", "ThompsonLaws.Cells.contact_at_point" ], "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [ { "id": "thompson1917-t1917-018", "relation": "models", "note": "The Lami force balance implements the relation between relative interface tensions and junction angles that this claim invokes, with tensions only inferred, not measured.", "label": "Thompson (1917) T1917-018 — Plateau tri-junction (120 degree) claim: Lami balance, periodic froth relaxation, junction-angle statistics faithfully reproduces species-agnostic claim; specimens: Homo sapiens corneal endothelium, Allium cepa epidermis, Thompson Fig. 103 (Zea mays parenchyma), Fig. 124 (Girardia epidermis) morphology", "organism": "species-agnostic claim", "verdict": "faithful", "score": 87, "thompson_verdict": "supported", "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAl-1jHcB1IWuHI_Iznp7nWPre-7Wr6Vh4_g0V_XsyxX4", "registry": "test", "report": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/morphoeval/kg/2026-10-28-t1917-018-the-forms-of-tissues-or-cell-a-audit-v2/REPORT.md" } ], "thumbnail": { "file": "docs/thumbs/thompson1917-t1917-018.jpg", "morpholib": "thompson1917-t1917-018", "source": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/docs/media/t1917_018_the_forms_of_tissues_or_cell_a_growth.gif" }, "testability": 0.628, "truth": 0.845, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.85 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.84 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.665, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAvQp7X-pQpqibHB4_YG4LxA4ZtMx9XaQoFybDmagYYkg", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch07-07", "key": "6d33ffb662d1cfd6", "label": "An epidermis’s physical characters follow simply from its lying on the outside", "statement": "The fundamental character of an epidermis is that it lies on the outside of the cell mass, and its main physical features (flattened, rectangular cells meeting partitions at near right angles) follow from that position through unequal and consolidated tensions in its outer walls.", "quote": "the fundamental character of an epidermis simply is that it lies on the outside, and that its main physical characteristics follow, as a matter of course, from the position which it occupies and from the various consequences which that situation entails.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. VII: The Forms of Tissues, or Cell-Aggregates", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.572, "truth": 0.44, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.44 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.44 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.595, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAz-G_gE77L3Xrk3rNENLng7cUwpRg_LhSiOqTNelHk_o", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch07-08", "key": "4a84900d14d0987c", "label": "Hexagons are regular only where cells are equal in size and forces uniform", "statement": "Perfectly regular hexagonal cell patterns occur only where the cells are uniform in size and subject to uniform forces, as in the retinal pigment epithelium; where cell sizes vary (intestinal epithelium, parenchyma) or growth adds directional traction, the hexagons become irregular or elongated.", "quote": "the cells, uniform in size, are flattened out to a uniform thickness by the fluid pressure acting radially; and their reaction on each other converts the flattened discs into regular hexagons.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. VII: The Forms of Tissues, or Cell-Aggregates", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "mixed", "evidence_kind": "biological", "data_test": { "verdict": "mixed", "confidence": 0.6, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "biological", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/thompson-growth-form/thompson1917-ch07-08/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered. For every corrected RPE segmentation ROI of the 10 participants in Granger et al. 2018 (in vivo adaptive-optics imaging of the human RPE mosaic), identify the cells not touching the ROI border, their pixel areas and their numbers of neighbours. For ROIs with >= 30 interior cells compute the coefficient of variation of cell area (CV_A), the fraction of six-sided cells (f6) and the standard deviation of neighbour number (SD_n). The claim is supported if, across ROIs, Spearman's rho between f6 and CV_A is <= -0.3 with p < 0.01, and the mean f6 of the quartile of ROIs with the lowest CV_A exceeds that of the highest-CV_A quartile by at least 0.10 (ten percentage points). SD_n versus CV_A (expected positive) is reported as a consistency check.", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered. The claim is refuted if Spearman's rho between f6 and CV_A is >= 0, or if the relation is not significant (p >= 0.05) with the quartile difference in f6 below 0.05, i.e. hexagon regularity does not track size uniformity. Intermediate results (e.g. significant but weak, rho in (-0.3, 0)) are 'mixed'. If fewer than 20 ROIs qualify the verdict is inconclusive (underpowered).", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: dryad-b41j15h-granger-2018-human-rpe-aoslo-mosaic", "inference_method": "Each corrected-segmentation TIFF was decoded with a minimal TIFF reader; cells were taken as 4-connected components of non-boundary pixels and two cells counted as neighbours when their labels co-occur in the 3 x 3 neighbourhood of a boundary pixel. Cells touching the image border, oversized components (unsegmented area) and cells adjacent to oversized components were excluded, leaving 813 fully-surrounded cells in the 21 ROIs (8 participants) with at least 30 counted cells. Per ROI, CV of pixel area, fraction of six-sided cells and SD of neighbour number were computed; Spearman correlations across ROIs and the f6 difference between the lowest- and highest-CV_A quartiles were evaluated against the pre-registered thresholds. A non-pre-registered sensitivity analysis repeated the correlation with 15- and 20-cell minimum thresholds.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [ { "date": "2026-11-01", "from": { "verdict": "supports", "confidence": 0.65, "summary": "between RPE regions, six-sided fraction falls as cell-area CV rises (rho -0.6, quartile gap 0.17)" }, "to": { "verdict": "mixed", "confidence": 0.6, "summary": "between tissues and regions size uniformity goes with hexagons; within a proliferating tissue local size uniformity predicts nothing; directional traction elongates hexagons without disrupting them" }, "prompted_by": [] } ], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [ { "id": "farhadifar-drosophila-wing-vertex-model", "relation": "models", "note": "The vertex energy yields a regular hexagonal ground state under uniform tension and cell area, with Lewis-law departures from hexagons as cell sizes vary, implementing the claim that hexagons are regular only with equal cells and uniform forces.", "label": "Farhadifar et al. (2007) Drosophila wing disc apical vertex model, Lewis's law packing & PCP (Fz/Stbm) hinge-contraction vertex dynamics faithfully reproduces Fruit fly (Drosophila melanogaster) 3rd-instar larval wing imaginal disc & pupal wing epithelium (vendored specimen micrograph is a Mus musculus epithelium — see transfer_boundary) morphology", "organism": "Fruit fly (Drosophila melanogaster) 3rd-instar larval wing imaginal disc & pupal wing epithelium (vendored specimen micrograph is a Mus musculus epithelium — see transfer_boundary)", "verdict": "faithful", "score": 84.8, "thompson_verdict": null, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAvXzlQdHMoSerHLrpdnciQfcpRItge0FUCYBVkyk6B38", "registry": "production", "report": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/morphoeval/kg/2026-10-19-drosophila-wing-vertex-model-audit-v3/REPORT.md" } ], "thumbnail": { "file": "docs/thumbs/farhadifar-drosophila-wing-vertex-model.jpg", "morpholib": "farhadifar-drosophila-wing-vertex-model", "source": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/docs/media/drosophila_wing_vertex_model_growth.gif" }, "testability": 0.773, "truth": 0.87, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.88 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.86 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.755, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAh96Pg_TJsnjN5MFT6X2kgDfnRaA5pgjriNQLepus2DQ", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch07-09", "key": "b6922842c8a27d91", "label": "Cylinders or spheres pressed into full surface contact form hexagons", "statement": "Whenever cylinders or spheres of similar size are brought into complete surface contact by any uniform force (surface tension, growth pressure or external pressure), they tend to form a pattern of hexagons in section or surface view, each meeting six neighbours with 120° angles.", "quote": "wherever we have a system of cylinders or spheres, associated together with sufficient mutual interaction to bring them into complete surface contact, there, in section or in surface view, we tend to get a pattern of hexagons.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. VII: The Forms of Tissues, or Cell-Aggregates", "kind": "mathematical-law", "status": "proved", "proof": "lean", "verification": "lean", "math": true, "theorem": true, "notation": "uniform pressure on similar cylinders or spheres \\Rightarrow hexagons, 6 neighbours, angles 120^\\circ", "lean_theorems": [ "ThompsonLaws.Cells.hexagon_of_120" ], "formalization": null, "evidence": "mixed", "evidence_kind": "biological", "data_test": { "verdict": "mixed", "confidence": 0.75, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "biological", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/thompson-growth-form/thompson1917-ch07-09/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "In an epithelium of similar-sized cells in complete contact under cortical tension, six-sided cells are the clearly dominant class (fraction >= 0.60), the mean neighbour number is 6 with three-way junctions, and the hexagon fraction does not decline while the tissue is observed.", "disconfirming_observation": "Six-sided cells are a minority (< 0.50) in such an epithelium, or the hexagon fraction declines over time while the cells remain in contact under tension, or the neighbour number is explained by division history rather than by cell size and forces.", "admissible_datasets": "Public, licensed, expert-corrected cell-boundary segmentations of a living epithelium in which every cell is in full contact with its neighbours, with per-cell neighbour relations (or masks from which they follow), cell areas and, for the mechanism diagnostic, lineage over time; the tissue must not be one the claim's author used as his example (bee comb, coral, RPE) and the segmentation must not be produced by a method shown in this repo to round off junctions (Cellpose).", "inference_method": "Per movie: time-averaged f6, mean and SD of neighbour number, Spearman rho of f6 against frame time, CV of cell area, fraction of three-way vertices; verdict by majority of movies against the fixed thresholds; a Poisson-Voronoi partition (f6 ~ 0.29, CV_A ~ 0.62) computed in the analysis script is the random baseline, and the published proliferating-epithelium polygon distribution (about 45% hexagons, Gibson et al. 2006) is the literature reference.", "explicit": true }, "revisions": [ { "date": "2026-11-01", "from": { "verdict": "refutes", "confidence": 0.7, "summary": "five proliferating wing discs: 38-40% hexagons, flat or falling over 12-17 h" }, "to": { "verdict": "mixed", "confidence": 0.75, "summary": "refuted as a sufficient rule while cells divide (38-40% hexagons); supported once division stops (45% to 76% hexagons in three pupal wings, tracking division rate and size variation)" }, "prompted_by": [] } ], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [ { "id": "thompson1917-t1917-019", "relation": "tests", "note": "Segmented human corneal endothelium is checked for the hexagonal tessellation that closely packed cells in full contact are claimed to form.", "label": "Thompson (1917) Ch. VII — tissue cells as hexagons / froth vs. human corneal endothelium (Pass 2: segmented specimen, sweep, controls, statistics) faithfully reproduces Homo sapiens — corneal endothelium in situ (ocular monolayer epithelium); Elodea canadensis leaf epidermis (secondary, visual only) morphology", "organism": "Homo sapiens — corneal endothelium in situ (ocular monolayer epithelium)", "verdict": "mostly faithful", "score": 77.5, "thompson_verdict": "supported", "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAQ6r65uAVGXzfVjCXl7oDuuu7Ll72wGDRyf6g15pVGhU", "registry": "test", "report": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/morphoeval/kg/2026-10-28-t1917-019-the-forms-of-tissues-or-cell-a-audit-v2/REPORT.md" } ], "thumbnail": { "file": "docs/thumbs/thompson1917-t1917-019.jpg", "morpholib": "thompson1917-t1917-019", "source": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/docs/media/t1917_019_the_forms_of_tissues_or_cell_a_growth.gif" }, "testability": 0.744, "truth": 0.795, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.68 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.91 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.75, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RARhX0IxOsNGXPa846_0ZMhovWNIb6KuPiZW_JPcolVX0", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch07-10", "key": "68fc4a75d9aaf031", "label": "Close-packed corallites of varying size are on average hexagonal", "statement": "In colonial corals whose corallites are in close contact, the corallites are squeezed into hexagonal prisms; where their sizes vary irregularly they are hexagonal on average, some having fewer and some more than six sides, while loosely bundled corallites stay cylindrical.", "quote": "where there is greater and more irregular variation in size, the cells will be _on the average_ hexagonal, but some will have fewer and some more sides than six", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. VII: The Forms of Tissues, or Cell-Aggregates", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": { "tags": [ "identity" ], "note": "For any plane tiling in which exactly three cells meet at every vertex, Euler's formula forces the mean number of sides to be 6 (in the infinite limit). Our random-Voronoi control returns 5.94 as well as the tissues (5.94-5.99). The claim is true and carries no information about the biology of the tissue; it should not be counted as a confirmed Thompson result." }, "evidence": "supports", "evidence_kind": "biological", "data_test": { "verdict": "supports", "confidence": 0.8, "preregistered": false, "data_kind": "biological", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/thompson-growth-form/thompson1917-ch07-10/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Exploratory, not pre-registered: the images were segmented and inspected before the pass criterion was written. Treat the verdict as hypothesis-generating; a pre-registered replication on new images is needed before it counts as a test. A tissue conforms if its mean neighbour number is within 0.1 of 6. Supports if most usable tissues conform.", "disconfirming_observation": "Refutes if most usable tissues have a mean neighbour number more than 0.1 from 6.", "admissible_datasets": "", "inference_method": "Cells in each image were segmented with Cellpose CPSAM v2 on the Nebius Scientific AI Platform (claim-sources/cell-geometry/segment.py; operation IDs and model checksum in claim-sources/cell-geometry/results//cellpose.json). claim-sources/cell-geometry/analyze.py closes inter-cell gaps, finds points where three or more cells meet, estimates each wall's direction from wall pixels 0.08-0.25 median cell diameters from the junction, counts neighbours of cells fully surrounded by segmented cells, and runs the same measurement on three synthetic tilings (hexagonal lattice, brick wall, random Voronoi) as calibration.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.749, "truth": 0.88, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.87 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.89 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.73, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAPDVSEqKJPw5X8B_dG2mMPjXjHbNlpJSBD5YoNlWZeeE", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch07-11", "key": "9d5146048c09e757", "label": "The bee’s cell is a hexagonal prism capped by rhombic-dodecahedral facets", "statement": "The hive-bee’s cell is a hexagonal prism closed at one end by three rhombic facets of a rhombic dodecahedron meeting at about 109° 28′, the configuration that encloses a given volume with the least surface.", "quote": "The bee’s cell, then, is this figure incompletely formed: it is a hexagonal prism with one open or unfinished end, and one trihedral apex of a rhombic dodecahedron.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. VII: The Forms of Tissues, or Cell-Aggregates", "kind": "mathematical-law", "status": "proved", "proof": "lean", "verification": "lean", "math": true, "theorem": true, "notation": "hexagonal prism closed by three rhombic facets at 109^\\circ 28' (\\cos\\theta = -1/3); minimal surface for given volume", "lean_theorems": [ "ThompsonLaws.Cells.beeCellArea_min", "ThompsonLaws.Cells.beeCell_rhombus_angle" ], "formalization": null, "evidence": "inconclusive", "evidence_kind": "none", "data_test": { "verdict": "inconclusive", "confidence": 0, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "none", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/thompson-growth-form/thompson1917-ch07-11/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered. From a public micro-CT or 3-D scan of natural (foundationless) worker comb, fit planes to the three basal facets of each measurable cell and compute the rhombus obtuse angle at the apex of the base. The claim is supported if the median apex angle over >= 20 cells lies within 109.47 +/- 3 degrees and the facet-plane fit residuals are small relative to wall thickness (planar facets), with the prismatic walls meeting at 120 +/- 5 degrees in cross-section.", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered. Refuted if the median apex angle differs from 109.47 degrees by more than 6 degrees (e.g. if bases are rounded or formed of a single curved surface with no three-facet structure in the majority of cells), or if fewer than half of the cells show three identifiable planar basal facets. Results in between are 'mixed'. If no public 3-D data of bee-built cell bases can be obtained, the verdict is inconclusive with reason data-unavailable.", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: dryad-z8w9ghxmw-honeybee-adaptive-comb-construction-xrm, dryad-r4xgxd2f3-yang-2022-natural-comb-cell-orientation", "inference_method": "No analysis was run. The file inventories and README files of the two candidate Dryad datasets were examined via the Dryad API (datasets endpoint and /files listing) and the README of dryad.z8w9ghxmw was read. Neither contains 3-D geometry of bee-built cell bases: dryad.z8w9ghxmw (Peleg lab, 19.2 GB) holds X-ray microscopy of comb built on 3-D-printed plastic foundation frames, whose cell bases are the printed plastic, plus cell-size tables and cell tilt angles; dryad.r4xgxd2f3 (Yang 2022) holds cell orientation (in-plane rotation) angles and cell counts of natural combs in spreadsheets, with no basal geometry. MorphoSource and other scan repositories require a login. No other public micro-CT or 3-D scan of natural comb was located.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.762, "truth": 0.63, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.48 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.78 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.715, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAoAiYCK5aMpfTXbNXud7RfzUMSwettUMEuG1I_dkh9oA", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch07-12", "key": "3fe7b57b91a35cb6", "label": "Comb geometry arises from surface tension in semi-fluid wax, not bee design", "statement": "The regular hexagonal and pyramidal geometry of the bee’s comb is produced automatically by surface tension acting on the cell walls while the wax (or the wasp’s paper pulp) is still semi-fluid, the insects merely building thin tubular cells packed closely together; it is not due to the bee seeking to economise wax.", "quote": "It seems more likely that we have to do with a true surface-tension effect; in other words, that the walls assume their configuration when in a semi-fluid state, while the papery pulp is still liquid, or while the wax is warm under the high temperature of the crowded hive", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. VII: The Forms of Tissues, or Cell-Aggregates", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.498, "truth": 0.295, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.09 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.5 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.665, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAahi1sr3Au1N1Njee7qEX1NsgYlYRLbsj-n2YKmYTMQs", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch07-13", "key": "5831cb6712368c16", "label": "Parenchyma cells are generally rhombic dodecahedra, ideal froths tetrakaidecahedra", "statement": "A perfectly fluid froth of equal cells is divided into Kelvin’s fourteen-sided tetrakaidecahedra, but in plant parenchyma, given restraint and imperfect fluidity, the cells generally take the rhombic dodecahedral form even under symmetrical conditions.", "quote": "Accordingly, it is very probably the case that, in the parenchymatous tissue, under the actual conditions of restraint and of very imperfect fluidity, it is after all the rhombic dodecahedral configuration which, even under perfectly symmetrical conditions, is generally assumed.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. VII: The Forms of Tissues, or Cell-Aggregates", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.668, "truth": 0.23, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.12 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.34 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.69, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAgLGXG5QUrvCYz99-HVO-1-vSYxNm29uhVqaFSzlcWAg", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch07-14", "key": "52af46288c0dcefc", "label": "Physical laws govern the whole configuration of later-stage segmenting eggs", "statement": "The whole configuration of an egg in advanced stages of segmentation is determined by simple physical laws just as in the two- and four-celled stages, even though the mathematics becomes too difficult to follow.", "quote": "We have little reason to doubt, and no just cause to disbelieve, that the whole configuration, for instance of an egg in the advanced stages of segmentation, is accurately determined by simple physical laws", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. VII: The Forms of Tissues, or Cell-Aggregates", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.487, "truth": 0.4, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.62 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.18 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.63, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA0dQ1xZV1nDcExpzNme17kdMAkaCqyUXO3q3kie5nSF8", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch07-15", "key": "107e8dd75464d91b", "label": "Polar-furrow arrangements follow relative cell sizes, not species identity", "statement": "Small changes in the relative sizes of the four cells carry the median partition and its polar furrows through all their possible arrangements, which correspond to those observed in various embryos; these arrangements are physical phenomena distributed without relation to zoological classification, not species characters.", "quote": "So, by slight and delicate modifications in the relative size of the cells, we may pass through all the possible arrangements of the median partition, and of the “furrows” which correspond to its upper and lower edges; and every one of these arrangements has been frequently observed in the four-celled stage of various embryos.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. VII: The Forms of Tissues, or Cell-Aggregates", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.635, "truth": 0.4, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.38 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.42 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.66, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAslagpMq8iUNMKsn2q17u1-UlHF5OoSvkU15Qy0OqBug", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch07-16", "key": "f5af7417a22832ea", "label": "No evidence that physical forces give way to unknown vital agencies in development", "statement": "Although forces other than surface tension act in a growing embryo, there is no evidence at any stage that physical forces cease to govern its material form and are replaced by agencies unknown to physics.", "quote": "But we have no evidence whatsoever that at this point, or that point, or at any, the dominion of the physical forces over the material system gives place to a new condition where agencies at present unknown to the physicist impose themselves on the living matter", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. VII: The Forms of Tissues, or Cell-Aggregates", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.093, "truth": 0.96, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.98 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.94 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.845, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAtwTQLOXzS967uTGYCm-1BwMPpbdNv3vdJHG6JqqR6q4", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch08-01", "key": "90be139d3a639e80", "label": "Minimal bisecting walls cut the longest axis and alternate at right angles", "statement": "For a rectangular cell to be divided equally by a partition of least area, the partition must cut across its longest axis, and in successive bisections each new partition must be at right angles to the one before.", "quote": "From this we may draw the simple rule that, for a rectangular body or parallelopiped to be divided equally by means of a partition of minimal area, (1) the partition must cut across the longest axis of the figure; and (2) in the event of successive bisections, each partition must run at right angles to its immediate predecessor.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. VIII: The Forms of Tissues, or Cell-Aggregates (continued)", "kind": "mathematical-law", "status": "proved", "proof": "lean", "verification": "lean", "math": true, "theorem": true, "notation": "minimal bisecting partition of a rectangular cell \\perp longest axis; successive partitions mutually \\perp", "lean_theorems": [ "ThompsonLaws.Cells.boxCut_longest_minimal", "ThompsonLaws.Cells.successive_bisection_perpendicular" ], "formalization": null, "evidence": "mixed", "evidence_kind": "biological", "data_test": { "verdict": "mixed", "confidence": 0.5, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "biological", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/thompson-growth-form/thompson1917-ch08-01/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "New-wall normals cluster near the mother's longest axis (median angle <= 30 deg, versus 60 deg for random planes), and successive recent walls meet near 90 deg.", "disconfirming_observation": "New-wall normals are oriented no better than random relative to the longest axis (median angle >= 50 deg), and successive walls are no closer to perpendicular than random (median <= 60 deg).", "admissible_datasets": "3D segmentations of dividing plant cells with identifiable sister pairs and known voxel size; independent of Thompson; public licence.", "inference_method": "Principal axes of the reconstructed mother and of the interface; angle statistics compared with the random-orientation expectation and the pre-registered thresholds.", "explicit": true }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.795, "truth": 0.545, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.68 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.41 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.8, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAJqODjYoD-lADelnThTybfJkk4roRLmoocowAzd4W7yo", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch08-02", "key": "93d5227f51144267", "label": "A new cell wall has the least area that can enclose the given volume (Errera)", "statement": "The fundamental rule of cell division is that the incipient partition of a dividing cell takes the least possible area that can divide the given volume; Sachs’s rule of successive divisions at right angles is a subordinate case of this principle.", "quote": "a much more important and fundamental rule, due not to Sachs but to Errera; that (3) the incipient partition-wall of a dividing cell tends to be such that its area is the least possible by which the given space-content can be enclosed.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. VIII: The Forms of Tissues, or Cell-Aggregates (continued)", "kind": "mathematical-law", "status": "proved", "proof": "lean", "verification": "lean", "math": true, "theorem": true, "notation": "partition \\Sigma = \\arg\\min |\\Sigma| subject to dividing V in the given ratio", "lean_theorems": [ "ThompsonLaws.Cells.errera_implies_sachs" ], "formalization": null, "evidence": "mixed", "evidence_kind": "biological", "data_test": { "verdict": "mixed", "confidence": 0.55, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "biological", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/thompson-growth-form/thompson1917-ch08-02/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "The new wall's area is near the minimum over planar cuts of the mother at the same volume ratio (q close to or below 1) and in the lowest tail of the area distribution over cut orientations.", "disconfirming_observation": "New walls are no smaller than cuts of random orientation (percentile around 0.5) or are usually much larger than the least-area cut.", "admissible_datasets": "3D segmentations of plant tissue in which recently divided sister cells can be identified (lineage tracking or detection of new walls), with known voxel size; independent of Thompson; public licence.", "inference_method": "Reconstruct mother = union of sisters; compare observed interface area with the planar cut-area distribution over 500 orientations at the observed volume fraction; median percentile and fraction within 10% of the minimum against the pre-registered thresholds.", "explicit": true }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [ { "id": "thompson1917-t1917-022", "relation": "tests", "note": "The audit compares plant tissue partitions and other aggregate partitions with least-area configurations, the minimal-partition rule this claim states.", "label": "Thompson (1917) T1917-022 — isoperimetric/minimal-area hollow & aggregate partitions faithfully reproduces Ophiurid pluteus; plant tissue partitions; pollen; radiolarian analogues (Commons) morphology", "organism": "Ophiurid pluteus", "verdict": "mostly faithful", "score": 71.6, "thompson_verdict": "mixed", "nanopub": null, "registry": "unpublished", "report": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/morphoeval/kg/2026-10-28-t1917-022-the-forms-of-tissues-continued-audit-v2/REPORT.md" } ], "thumbnail": { "file": "docs/thumbs/thompson1917-t1917-022.jpg", "morpholib": "thompson1917-t1917-022", "source": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/docs/media/t1917_022_the_forms_of_tissues_continued_growth.gif" }, "testability": 0.778, "truth": 0.6, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.62 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.58 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.785, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAtsAByjkL9JKPgWTp9VVWm76xO8vP8BHsoJtMkGtV680", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch08-03", "key": "e82e970067f32ee2", "label": "A cell cutting off under ~3/10 of its volume uses a curved corner wall, not a plane", "statement": "When a cubical or rectangular cell divides unequally and the smaller part is less than about three-tenths of the whole, the minimal partition is a quarter-cylinder cutting off one corner rather than a plane wall; below about 0.15 of the volume a spherical octant in a corner is smaller still.", "quote": "that one portion by anything less than about three-tenths of the whole, or three-sevenths of the other portion, there will be a tendency for the cell to divide, not by means of a plane transverse partition, but by means of a curved, cylindrical wall cutting off one corner of the original cell", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. VIII: The Forms of Tissues, or Cell-Aggregates (continued)", "kind": "mathematical-law", "status": "proved", "proof": "lean", "verification": "lean", "math": true, "theorem": true, "notation": "unequal division of a cube: quarter-cylinder in a corner minimal for V_{small}/V \\lesssim 0.3; spherical octant for V_{small}/V \\lesssim 0.15", "lean_theorems": [ "ThompsonLaws.Cells.quarterCyl_lt_plane", "ThompsonLaws.Cells.octant_lt_quarterCyl", "ThompsonLaws.Cells.corner_thresholds" ], "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.653, "truth": 0.685, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.54 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.83 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.685, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA-ejj5LcGZ3pbJ8xBjhxDMZPKHvzITNrrBTME9wyZxSQ", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch08-04", "key": "8bf99853bc5af543", "label": "A quadrant-shaped flat cell divides by a curved anticlinal wall about 3:7 along its side", "statement": "A flattened cell shaped like a quadrant of a circle divides into equal halves by a circular-arc anticlinal wall meeting the side and periphery at right angles, cutting off about 55° 22′ of the arc and starting about three-tenths of the radius from the centre, since this is the shortest bisecting wall.", "quote": "Now we find that a flattened cell which is approximately a quadrant of a circle invariably divides after the manner of Fig. 145, C, that is to say, by an approximately circular, _anticlinal_ wall", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. VIII: The Forms of Tissues, or Cell-Aggregates (continued)", "kind": "mathematical-law", "status": "proved", "proof": "lean", "verification": "lean", "math": true, "theorem": true, "notation": "bisecting a quadrant: circular arc \\perp side and periphery, cutting off 55^\\circ 22' of the arc, starting \\approx 0.3r from the centre", "lean_theorems": [ "ThompsonLaws.Cells.quadrant_bisected", "ThompsonLaws.Cells.anticlinal_shortest" ], "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.638, "truth": 0.755, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.72 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.79 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.65, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RARzvuYkI9UO7uiBfqrOQTKGn6b4LxB2Fxq2JJzathjZc", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch08-05", "key": "0d50131aa3934371", "label": "Sector cells divide anticlinally only between 62½° and 90°, otherwise periclinally", "statement": "A sector-shaped (triangular) cell is likely to divide by an anticlinal wall only when its angle of arc lies between about 62½° and 90°; narrower, more tapering cells divide by a periclinal wall, which then has the smaller area.", "quote": "We see from this, then, that what we have called an anticlinal partition, as _MP_, is only likely to occur in a triangular or prismatic cell whose angle of arc lies between 90° and 62½°. In all narrower or more tapering cells, the periclinal partition will be of less area, and will therefore be more and more likely to occur.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. VIII: The Forms of Tissues, or Cell-Aggregates (continued)", "kind": "prediction", "status": "proved", "proof": "lean", "verification": "lean", "math": true, "theorem": true, "notation": "sector cell divides anticlinally iff 62\\tfrac{1}{2}^\\circ \\lesssim \\theta \\le 90^\\circ, otherwise periclinally", "lean_theorems": [ "ThompsonLaws.Cells.periclinal_bisects", "ThompsonLaws.Cells.anticlinal_lt_periclinal" ], "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.658, "truth": 0.62, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.48 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.76 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.67, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAfup5YPKCaJeX4t-W7gxmmwNU3fueb3p5nqK_0Wy2RjU", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch08-06", "key": "f49ca0f1570aeb63", "label": "Uniform growth of a disc makes its daughter cells divide at different times", "statement": "Uniform, symmetrical growth of a flattened disc does not imply uniform growth of its cells: after a quadrant divides into triangular and quadrilateral halves, the triangular cell gains area faster and reaches division size first (at about 1.345 times the radius, against about 1.517 for the quadrilateral).", "quote": "For it shews us that a uniform and symmetrical growth of the organism (symmetrical, that is to say, under the limitations of a plane surface, or plane section) by no means involves a uniform or symmetrical growth of the individual cells, but may, under certain conditions, actually lead to inequality among these", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. VIII: The Forms of Tissues, or Cell-Aggregates (continued)", "kind": "prediction", "status": "proved", "proof": "lean", "verification": "lean", "math": true, "theorem": true, "notation": "after bisecting a quadrant: triangular cell reaches division size at 1.345r, quadrilateral at 1.517r", "lean_theorems": [ "ThompsonLaws.Cells.doublingRadius_spec", "ThompsonLaws.Cells.triangular_divides_first" ], "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.53, "truth": 0.51, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.7 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.32 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.66, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA9Ei4f6nzB25yDNncsat6mR5GpiZDp53oamERIddZMW0", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch08-07", "key": "ca069596f679afee", "label": "Successive minimal-area divisions leave quadrilateral cells forming an epidermis", "statement": "Successive minimal-area divisions of a disc soon leave only quadrilateral cells at the periphery, which divide radially, producing a superficial layer of parallel-sided cells (an epidermis) contrasting with the irregular cells beneath.", "quote": "we shall consequently have a superficial or peripheral layer of quadrilateral cells, with sides approximately parallel, that is to say what we are accustomed to call _an epidermis_.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. VIII: The Forms of Tissues, or Cell-Aggregates (continued)", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.582, "truth": 0.475, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.57 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.38 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.635, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAElLtZNj8dXG3Bvy-8yWfPqvC1qErlTcbRFbSkgPJM0o", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch08-08", "key": "694c22c800fa0cab", "label": "The arrangement of the first eight cells is not a constant character of a species", "statement": "A particular arrangement of cell partitions at the eight-celled stage is not a specific or constant character of an organism; within a single species such as the frog, several essentially different arrangements occur.", "quote": "is a particular arrangement of cell-partitions to be looked upon (as the published figures of the embryologist are apt to suggest) as a _specific character_, or at least a constant or normal character, of the particular organism? The answer to this question is a direct negative", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. VIII: The Forms of Tissues, or Cell-Aggregates (continued)", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.744, "truth": 0.805, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.94 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.67 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.74, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAhdKDQLGfkPkaDKIhqYiGktRdpK3rz8eiSVoZOdDqNvY", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch08-09", "key": "4f7307a44f9729ae", "label": "All surface groupings of eight cells belong to one of thirteen types", "statement": "Because n cells sharing a common outer boundary and meeting three at a time need n − 3 intermediate partitions, every possible grouping of eight cells all reaching the surface belongs to one of thirteen topological types, so all drawings of such eight-celled structures represent one of these types.", "quote": "all possible groupings or arrangements whatsoever of eight cells (where all take part in the _surface_ of the group, none being submerged or wholly enveloped by the rest) are referable to some one or other of _thirteen_ types or forms.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. VIII: The Forms of Tissues, or Cell-Aggregates (continued)", "kind": "mathematical-law", "status": "proved", "proof": "lean", "verification": "lean", "math": true, "theorem": true, "notation": "n cells meeting three at a time with a common outer boundary need n - 3 partitions; n = 8 gives 13 types", "lean_theorems": [ "ThompsonLaws.Cells.intermediatePartitions" ], "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.64, "truth": 0.72, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.66 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.78 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.64, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA4rt708HQHCEB10QQuanV63RkCWegnSJIoAwnOPhrkWo", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch08-10", "key": "102aff8b10f8ea2f", "label": "Most stable cell groupings spread contacts evenly; unstable ones concentrate them", "statement": "Among the possible arrangements of a small group of cells, the most stable (and therefore commonest) are those in which the cell-to-cell contacts are most evenly divided among the cells, and the least stable are those in which one cell has a predominant number of contacts.", "quote": "But it would appear that the most stable arrangements are those in which the total number of contacts is most evenly divided, and the least stable are those in which some one cell has, as in type _f_, a predominant number of contacts.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. VIII: The Forms of Tissues, or Cell-Aggregates (continued)", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.594, "truth": 0.575, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.55 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.6 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.625, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RATGdheBOywsl22dikPVj03jseLxq1f1xGa6vqzaJjl0k", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch08-11", "key": "41333bc2a9c7be17", "label": "Few partition patterns recur across organisms regardless of classification", "statement": "Because a closed surface divided into a small number of faces admits only a small number of arrangements, the same few configurations of cells (and of parts and organs) recur in all kinds of plants and animals with no relation to biological classification.", "quote": "This is the simple reason why we meet in such a case as we have been discussing (viz. the arrangement of a group or system of eight cells) with the same few types recurring again and again in all sorts of organisms, plants as well as animals, and with no relation to the lines of biological classification", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. VIII: The Forms of Tissues, or Cell-Aggregates (continued)", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.562, "truth": 0.475, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.65 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.3 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.585, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RANWrpgOLL_Bt0QEsJ3BUH16qdFW8h9WkmtrEcHijeLHU", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch08-12", "key": "9b6c9d19f127781d", "label": "A coral fossula reflects space-partitioning, not higher bilateral organisation", "statement": "The asymmetrical chamber (fossula) of corals such as Heterophyllia and Zaphrentis arises as one of the possible arrangements of septa meeting three at a time, and gives no grounds for interpreting it as a sign of bilaterality or a higher grade of organisation.", "quote": "Where a single fossula occurs, we are usually told that it is a symptom of “bilaterality”; and this is in turn interpreted as an indication of a higher grade of organisation than is implied in the purely “radial symmetry” of the commoner types of coral. The mathematical aspect of the case gives no warrant for this interpretation.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. VIII: The Forms of Tissues, or Cell-Aggregates (continued)", "kind": "historical-inference", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.533, "truth": 0.26, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.28 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.24 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.57, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAUrFSD4oRjam98m4cwe4iFAdyAncAFKgTKHnKD_iJnAs", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch08-13", "key": "1b0281ceae798b7f", "label": "Stomata lie in rows on oblong-celled leaves and scattered on polygonal-celled ones", "statement": "Because the stomatal mother cell is cut off by a minimal partition whose form depends on epidermal cell shape, stomata are arranged in regular rows where epidermal cells are oblong (as in hyacinth) and irregularly where they are polygonal (as in Sedum).", "quote": "It is obvious that in the case of the oblong cells of the epidermis in the hyacinth the stomata will be found arranged in regular rows, while they will be irregularly distributed over the surface of the leaf in such a case as we have depicted in Sedum.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. VIII: The Forms of Tissues, or Cell-Aggregates (continued)", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.68, "truth": 0.625, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.68 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.57 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.685, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RArzw9xfqdU9wia91RpjxVSUHUjk9js63OtcFgD9Y40MQ", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch08-14", "key": "cc7a3c4d84a8dcf3", "label": "Pollen-grain shape depends on whether walls harden before the tetrad separates", "statement": "Pollen grains and spores formed as tetrahedral tetrads keep the plane facets and sharp angles of the tetrad if their walls solidify before the grains separate, but become spherical if they separate while still soft.", "quote": "the pollen-grains afterwards fall apart, and their individual form will depend upon whether or no their walls have solidified before this liberation takes place.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. VIII: The Forms of Tissues, or Cell-Aggregates (continued)", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.629, "truth": 0.82, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.88 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.76 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.665, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAeZ-1DdiCQwfCC1Scwsu-_ntHgbsbUIMSo4hhmSaVA4w", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch08-15", "key": "482eb564160959e6", "label": "Outgrowths tend to arise from triangular rather than quadrangular cells", "statement": "Because quadrangular cells subdivide by periclinal walls that strengthen the boundary while triangular cells divide by oblique anticlines, outward growth is greater over triangular cells, so buds and outgrowths tend to arise from triangular rather than quadrangular cells, as is widely seen in cryptogams.", "quote": "As a direct and immediate consequence of this we might expect a tendency for special outgrowths, or “buds,” to arise from the triangular rather than from the quadrangular cells; and this turns out to be not merely a tendency towards which theoretical considerations point, but a widespread and important factor in the morphology of the cryptogams.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. VIII: The Forms of Tissues, or Cell-Aggregates (continued)", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.549, "truth": 0.37, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.32 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.42 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.59, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA0djbjj0ICqvSWiIk41kWl_O254CUngr0rp_i8pRuw8U", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch08-16", "key": "cac32c240ce9e8c6", "label": "Division plane depends on the ratio of growth rate to division frequency", "statement": "A growing cell divides according to the shape it has reached, set by the ratio of its growth rate to its division frequency: if markedly oblong it divides transversely, if a little more than a hemisphere obliquely, and if less than a hemisphere by a vertical wall along its axis.", "quote": "the manner in which this latter cell divides will simply depend upon the form it has assumed before each successive act of division takes place, that is to say upon the ratio between its rate of growth and the frequency of its successive divisions.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. VIII: The Forms of Tissues, or Cell-Aggregates (continued)", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.623, "truth": 0.495, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.39 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.6 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.645, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAW30RXAtC_e7bikyQqPyPWcU4txb12NswNXGx4sHja2M", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch08-17", "key": "d9ea3bc82015ec43", "label": "Cell division pattern is the result, not the cause, of the form of the growing mass", "statement": "The form of a growing organism regulates the form and number of the cells that compose it: the cell network is the result, not the cause, of the overall configuration, which is caused by whatever processes make growth faster in one direction than another.", "quote": "The complex cell-network is not the cause but the result of the general configuration, which latter has its essential cause in whatsoever physical and chemical processes have led to a varying velocity of growth in one direction as compared with another.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. VIII: The Forms of Tissues, or Cell-Aggregates (continued)", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.493, "truth": 0.285, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.22 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.35 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.65, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAfx84FKl2MtzGfjcXqrEeiUhhFrbf4WqKHbcceffwHQ0", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch09-01", "key": "2580b23e16d89b7c", "label": "Skeletal salts precipitate in dead or inactive matrix, not living protoplasm", "statement": "Calcareous and other skeletal deposits are, as a rule, precipitated not within actively living protoplasm but in dead or inactive formed material, such as the intercellular matrix or the cell-wall, so their form is not directly shaped by the living cells.", "quote": "for the actual _precipitation_ takes place, as a rule, not in actively living, but in dead or at least inactive tissue: that is to say in the “formed material” or matrix which (as for instance in cartilage) accumulates round the living cells", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. IX: On Concretions, Spicules, and Spicular Skeletons", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.533, "truth": 0.435, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.57 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.3 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.66, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAsyh4VcGUndhltuqdyhYgpbvneIsCsbbS_QoUnhaNBdc", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch09-02", "key": "d661f08fdad8800d", "label": "Sea-urchin larvae reared without lime develop healthily but lack skeletal rods and arms", "statement": "Sea-urchin eggs reared in lime-free sea-water develop into apparently healthy larvae that lack the calcareous skeletal rods, and the long larval arms normally supported by those rods are suppressed; the organism can live without the material of its skeleton.", "quote": "the eggs of sea-urchins reared in lime-free water develop in apparent health, into larvae entirely destitute of the usual skeleton of calcareous rods, and in which, accordingly, the long arms of the Pluteus larva, which the rods support and distend, are entirely suppressed.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. IX: On Concretions, Spicules, and Spicular Skeletons", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.623, "truth": 0.815, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.78 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.85 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.68, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA5C59wqo8pYGtjTo0eCiZhcOX33vooPhpYnwAXRwfK98", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch09-03", "key": "4cb869b4bb4b4b8b", "label": "Biological molecular asymmetry may originate from circularly polarised sunlight", "statement": "The one-handed molecular asymmetry of organic products need not be a prerogative of life; it may have started from a non-vital asymmetric force, such as sunlight circularly polarised by reflection from the sea, which acts unequally on right- and left-handed molecules.", "quote": "an example limited but yet crucial (_if confirmed_), of an asymmetric force, non-vital in its origin, which might conceivably be the starting-point of that asymmetry which is characteristic of so many organic products.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. IX: On Concretions, Spicules, and Spicular Skeletons", "kind": "historical-inference", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.332, "truth": 0.29, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.14 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.44 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.635, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAeOQf4tAcKbLEGXWrqjCqA5voqBwKuYiATSXHgJkMP0Q", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch09-04", "key": "abe54d96ffccdc0f", "label": "Pearls and bony-fish otoliths share the structure of artificial calcospherites", "statement": "The concentrically zoned, radiate structure of pearls and of the otoliths of molluscs and bony fishes is essentially the same as that of the calcospherites formed artificially when calcium carbonate is precipitated in albumin, implying the same physico-chemical mode of formation.", "quote": "The typical structure of a calcospherite is no other than that of a pearl, nor does it differ essentially from that of the otolith of a mollusc or of a bony fish.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. IX: On Concretions, Spicules, and Spicular Skeletons", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [ { "id": "thompson1917-t1917-023", "relation": "tests", "note": "The audit compares the radiate-concentric structure of Harting's calcospherites with natural analogues, including plaice otoliths, which this claim says share that structure.", "label": "Thompson (1917) T1917-023 — calcospherites grow by radial deposition about a centre (Harting 1872 artificial CaCO3 concretions in egg albumen) faithfully reproduces Harting calcospherites (CaCO3 in egg albumen); natural analogues: plaice otoliths (Fig. 209), Jurassic ooids, silver-chromate Liesegang rings morphology", "organism": "Harting calcospherites (CaCO3 in egg albumen)", "verdict": "faithful", "score": 86, "thompson_verdict": "supported", "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAV6dN6NoIpHL50qlPh2orQIH4JXmpVr7q4X0boS0BBZc", "registry": "test", "report": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/morphoeval/kg/2026-10-28-t1917-023-on-concretions-spicules-and-sp-audit-v2/REPORT.md" } ], "thumbnail": { "file": "docs/thumbs/thompson1917-t1917-023.jpg", "morpholib": "thompson1917-t1917-023", "source": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/docs/media/t1917_023_on_concretions_spicules_and_sp_growth.gif" }, "testability": 0.514, "truth": 0.39, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.4 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.38 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.635, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAliSlpwyEDFxtTME__B3bx37GsDapZJp85H5Ykil8pzM", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch09-05", "key": "23dbae373eac57dd", "label": "Concentric growth rings need not record periodic external conditions such as seasons", "statement": "Because rhythmic Liesegang precipitation arises from diffusion within the system itself, concentric zones in fish scales, otoliths, bones and starch grains cannot be assumed to record periodic external conditions such as seasons or day and night.", "quote": "it is at least obvious, with the Liesegang phenomenon in view, that we have no right to _assume_ that an appearance of rhythm and periodicity in structure and growth is necessarily bound up with, and indubitably brought about by, a periodic recurrence of particular _external_ conditions.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. IX: On Concretions, Spicules, and Spicular Skeletons", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.608, "truth": 0.61, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.96 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.26 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.68, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAnH1I1NOqjUIA-p8i18YW3_5VnizUInJcuelHO8rx5LM", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch09-06", "key": "0722e3a5728c360e", "label": "Calcium salts precipitate when the albumins holding them in solution break down", "statement": "Albumin increases the solubility of calcium carbonate and phosphate, whereas its breakdown products dissolve them much less; hence skeletal calcium salts are thrown down when proteins are broken down in metabolism, not by direct action of carbonic acid on a more soluble salt.", "quote": "The probability is, therefore, that the actual precipitation of the calcium salts is not due to the direct action of carbonic acid, etc. on a more soluble salt (as was at one time believed); but to catabolic changes in the proteids of the organism, which tend to throw down the salts already formed, which had remained hitherto in albuminous solution.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. IX: On Concretions, Spicules, and Spicular Skeletons", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.404, "truth": 0.135, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.12 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.15 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.635, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA7aGkwvEbZDQZp2zfHUa0LOMmQ289t2r-6K5dDmaJO0s", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch09-07", "key": "fbc64a3ca73d6768", "label": "Cell-sized skeletal elements are shaped by molecular forces, large ones by mechanics", "statement": "Skeletal elements comparable in size to a single cell (sponge spicules, radiolarian and foraminiferal skeletons) are shaped by molecular forces such as surface tension, whereas massive skeletons such as vertebrate bones are shaped by gravity, muscle action and mechanical loads, so scale produces essential differences in their controlling forces and forms.", "quote": "The effect of _scale_, then, of which we had so much to say in our introductory chapter on Magnitude, is bound to be apparent in the study of skeletal fabrics, and to lead to essential differences between the big and the little, the massive and the minute, in regard to their controlling forces and their resultant forms.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. IX: On Concretions, Spicules, and Spicular Skeletons", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.489, "truth": 0.65, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.56 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.74 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.61, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RABshVICqD55XuPf3DX2-ur2JNrdwYnt_2uQS1C7fC7dI", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch09-08", "key": "9bc4f8d4e75b9fd6", "label": "A straight-growing spicule confined to a cell surface grows along a geodetic", "statement": "A spicule tending to grow in a straight line but confined within or against a cell wall grows along a geodetic of the cell surface, so in a spherical or ellipsoidal cell it becomes a circular arc, an elliptic arc or, most often, a portion of a spiral in space, as in C- and S-shaped sponge spicules.", "quote": "let us suppose that it is confined either within a cell-wall or in adhesion thereto; it at once follows that its line of growth will be simply a geodetic to the surface of the cell.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. IX: On Concretions, Spicules, and Spicular Skeletons", "kind": "mathematical-law", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": true, "theorem": false, "notation": "spicule follows a geodesic of the cell surface: \\kappa_g = 0", "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.509, "truth": 0.295, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.25 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.34 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.65, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAhuZhJrHy6cZDE-qZI00HF326xuBKyMHBLN2EZ4Cmp3s", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch09-09", "key": "d9ebaf3efc9afd39", "label": "Like spicules in silica and calcite show form is set by external forces, not chemistry", "statement": "Holothurian spicules of calcium carbonate reproduce, often indistinguishably, the forms of siliceous sponge spicules, which shows that such spicule forms are determined by the external forces acting during growth (cell confinement), not by the chemical nature or molecular structure of the material.", "quote": "the Holothurian spicules are composed of calcium carbonate while those which we have just described in the case of sponges are usually, if not always, siliceous: this being just another proof of the fact that in such cases the form of the spicule is not due to its chemical nature or molecular structure, but to the external forces", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. IX: On Concretions, Spicules, and Spicular Skeletons", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.508, "truth": 0.29, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.24 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.34 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.64, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAQnydBpJ9MWmdZFKA_E8HvzTpjp9BbiO0KKWPvBtDks8", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch09-10", "key": "9c2825ed4894bd74", "label": "Triradiate spicules form at three-cell junctions with rays at 120°, four-rayed at ~109°", "statement": "Skeletal material deposited between cells or within their partitions takes the shape of the cell junctions: in a layer of equal cells, where partitions meet in threes at 120°, it forms triradiate spicules with rays at 120°, and in a solid aggregate of four cells it forms tetrahedral four-rayed spicules with rays at about 109°; unequal cells give unequal angles and curved rays.", "quote": "It is plain, accordingly, that in any flattened or stratified assemblage of such cells, a solidified skeletal deposit which originates or accumulates either between the cells or within the thickness of their mutual partitions, will tend to take the form of triradiate bodies, whose rays (in a typical case) will be set at equal angles of 120°", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. IX: On Concretions, Spicules, and Spicular Skeletons", "kind": "mathematical-law", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": true, "theorem": false, "notation": "three equal cells \\Rightarrow triradiate spicule, rays at 120^\\circ; four cells \\Rightarrow tetraradiate, rays at \\approx 109^\\circ 28'", "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [ { "id": "thompson1917-t1917-024", "relation": "tests", "note": "Ray angles of Grantia triradiate spicules measured on SEM plates are checked against the 120-degree and unequal-tension cell-junction geometry this claim predicts.", "label": "Thompson (1917) spicule rays as Plateau borders of the secreting cell field vs Grantia ray angles (Pass 2: null control, sweep closure, ablations, three samples) faithfully reproduces Grantia aff. indica Dendy, 1913 (SEM plate, ZMA Por. 11556b); Grantia sp. (spread); Haeckel/Thompson Fig. 214 drawings morphology", "organism": "Grantia aff. indica Dendy, 1913 (SEM plate, ZMA Por. 11556b)", "verdict": "mostly faithful", "score": 75.9, "thompson_verdict": "mixed", "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAoeKi0gWAK9D0Tz__lDKzZNxDfLvAi2DpGegBaDLioLU", "registry": "test", "report": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/morphoeval/kg/2026-10-28-t1917-024-on-concretions-spicules-and-sp-audit-v2/REPORT.md" } ], "thumbnail": { "file": "docs/thumbs/thompson1917-t1917-024.jpg", "morpholib": "thompson1917-t1917-024", "source": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/docs/media/t1917_024_on_concretions_spicules_and_sp_growth.gif" }, "testability": 0.604, "truth": 0.465, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.41 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.52 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.675, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAVfCkm139NPF70kshntD7xayP6EVrN0kNr2QtrfUKyG4", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch09-11", "key": "c02683473edf48cc", "label": "Six-rayed hexactinellid spicules reflect cubic, not closest, packing of vesicles", "statement": "The six-rayed spicules of hexactinellid sponges form because the vesicles that mould them are arranged in linear series (cubic packing) rather than closest packing, so the spicules follow the angles and edges of a system of cubes instead of hexagons or dodecahedra.", "quote": "the cells or vesicles by which they are conformed are not arranged in what is known as “closest packing,” but in linear series; so that in their arrangement, and by their mutual compression, we tend to get a pattern, not of hexagons, but of squares: or, looking to the solid, not of dodecahedra but of cubes or parallelopipeda.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. IX: On Concretions, Spicules, and Spicular Skeletons", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.472, "truth": 0.17, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.16 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.18 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.645, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAD1BOJ9MaSd9ghmT6uZXxHk0Rs52Yx7EvdVJnwWV2f_Q", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch09-12", "key": "f82878263142ca19", "label": "Radiolarian species lack definite geographic ranges and many co-occur locally", "statement": "Radiolarian species show vague distributions in space and time: many occur worldwide without specific geographic limits, families and genera appear unchanged since the Cambrian, and a small sample of sediment typically contains scores or hundreds of forms with no local predominance of one species.", "quote": "the distribution of species in space is curious and vague; many species are found all over the world, or at least every here and there, with no evidence of specific limitations of geographical habitat", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. IX: On Concretions, Spicules, and Spicular Skeletons", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.738, "truth": 0.195, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.19 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.2 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.78, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RALwXiKJeDdZdV0t9WCULwZFQqC41yGlTUAjnHH1WZYtg", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch09-13", "key": "acc02004f9457788", "label": "Agglutinated protist shells form by surface energy, not choice or skill", "statement": "The building of agglutinated shells from sand-grains, spicules or diatom frustules by rhizopods such as Difflugia is a purely physical consequence of foreign particles being trapped in the surface film by surface energy, with selectivity explained by specific surface-energies rather than volition.", "quote": "The formation of an “agglutinated” shell is thus seen to be a purely physical phenomenon, and indeed a special case of a more general physical phenomenon which has many other important consequences in biology.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. IX: On Concretions, Spicules, and Spicular Skeletons", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.424, "truth": 0.235, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.2 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.27 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.615, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAHtlK7VK4XwVvVC26RAxEc6B-C7qmV3Q2BnmUhCeY-EA", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch09-14", "key": "4b88695b8ded52c4", "label": "Hexagonal lattice shells form as silica collects in grooves between surface vesicles", "statement": "When the outer surface of a radiolarian is covered by a layer of nearly equal froth-like vesicles, silica secreted or adsorbed at the surface collects in the grooves between them, producing a spherical shell of rods in a regular hexagonal network; less regular vesicles give less regular meshes, and repeated layers give concentric shells.", "quote": "it will at once follow that they will show a tendency to aggregate in the grooves which separate the vesicles, and the result will be the development of a most delicate sphere composed of tiny rods arranged in a regular hexagonal network", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. IX: On Concretions, Spicules, and Spicular Skeletons", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [ { "id": "sumper-diatom-frustule-phase-sep", "relation": "models", "note": "Sumper phase separation deposits silica in the interstices between close-packed droplets to give hexagonal pore lattices, a direct formalisation of Thompson mechanism of silica collecting in grooves between packed surface vesicles (though for diatoms rather than radiolarians).", "label": "Sumper (2002) & Lenoci-Camp (2008) hierarchical Cahn-Hilliard diatom biosilica phase separation (Pass 3: centrifugal precipitation front + 3-stage single-domain quench) faithfully reproduces Coscinodiscus wailesii (Centric marine diatom frustule valve pores: foramen, cribrum, cribrella; radial costae) morphology", "organism": "Coscinodiscus wailesii (Centric marine diatom frustule valve pores: foramen, cribrum, cribrella", "verdict": "faithful", "score": 89, "thompson_verdict": null, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAJXjmZGhFdf6atKPNu4I3OH8rG9PQlni2KpMpJCrNxkg", "registry": "production", "report": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/morphoeval/kg/2026-10-19-diatom-frustule-phase-sep-audit-v3/REPORT.md" } ], "thumbnail": { "file": "docs/thumbs/sumper-diatom-frustule-phase-sep.jpg", "morpholib": "sumper-diatom-frustule-phase-sep", "source": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/docs/media/diatom_frustule_phase_sep_growth.gif" }, "testability": 0.518, "truth": 0.28, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.26 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.3 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.665, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAJGhL0PK22Ii2wqslRDQimOPA0Z7YjbNjlL7fmhpuDcQ", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch09-15", "key": "3ed553c7756faa4c", "label": "Lattice-shell form is independent of the material, being moulded on vesicles", "statement": "Spherical hexagonal lattice shells are equally regular whether made of silica (oceanic Radiolaria), strontium sulphate (Acantharia) or an organic chitin-like substance (Clathrulina), showing that their form comes from moulding on an underlying vesicular structure, not from the material.", "quote": "This is only another proof (if proof be needed) that the peculiar conformation of these little skeletons is not due to the material of which they are composed, but to the moulding of that material upon an underlying vesicular structure.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. IX: On Concretions, Spicules, and Spicular Skeletons", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.522, "truth": 0.285, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.29 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.28 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.62, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAB5bRbLw-gM-t0ddOvc-COiGmbSo9G0EDmDSeXbEW2sU", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch09-16", "key": "40dd7410bf8c1a53", "label": "Callimitra's skeleton is formed on the interfaces of a tetrahedral group of four cells", "statement": "The skeleton of the nassellarian Callimitra reproduces the interfacial film system of four soap-bubbles in tetrahedral contact (six plane interfaces meeting in threes at 120°, edges meeting near 109°), so it must have been formed at the interfaces of a tetrahedral group of cells.", "quote": "It is obvious at a glance that this is such a skeleton as may have been formed (I think we may go so far as to say _must_ have been formed) at the interfaces of a little tetrahedral group of cells", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. IX: On Concretions, Spicules, and Spicular Skeletons", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": true, "theorem": false, "notation": "six plane interfaces meeting in threes at 120^\\circ; edges meeting at \\approx 109^\\circ 28'", "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.525, "truth": 0.225, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.12 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.33 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.66, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAZy2belN0vKTYMYAhRc9GBPo6Eu4vL0Dep8-u6AF3_rA", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch09-17", "key": "e07ecd4faaf0f79d", "label": "Regular dodecahedral radiolarian shells cannot arise by crystal-like space partitioning", "statement": "Radiolaria show all five regular polyhedra, including the regular dodecahedron and icosahedron which cannot occur in crystals; therefore the regular radiolarian dodecahedron is not produced by the space-partitioning principles that govern crystallisation.", "quote": "If we may safely judge from Haeckel’s figures, the pentagonal dodecahedron of the Radiolarian is perfectly regular, and we must presume, accordingly, that it is not brought about by principles of space-partitioning similar to those which manifest themselves in the phenomenon of crystallisation.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. IX: On Concretions, Spicules, and Spicular Skeletons", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.546, "truth": 0.565, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.53 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.6 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.675, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA0kUq9QEUUjxOl5gVNHqY44zYSAk18ztbiYzmRQIPh-0", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch09-18", "key": "4e0f3e7ad4009b40", "label": "Twenty-spined Radiolaria have hexagonal symmetry, not Müller's arrangement", "statement": "In twenty-spined Radiolaria the spines pass through the facets of a modified hexagonal prism, giving a true hexagonal symmetry of two polar spines, six equatorial spines and two whorls of six intermediate spines; Müller's law of five four-spined circles with no polar spine does not properly apply to any case.", "quote": "The true symmetry of this figure, then, is hexagonal, with a polar axis, produced into two polar spicules; with six equatorial spicules, or rays; and with two sets of six spicular rays, interposed between the polar axis and the equatorial rays, and alternating in position with the latter.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. IX: On Concretions, Spicules, and Spicular Skeletons", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.663, "truth": 0.125, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.12 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.13 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.685, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RArPRbSlGj4aPF4fAjKFNTH91k5lzKZ5BTWe5Tbre7X0Q", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch09-19", "key": "72ac2a92f1d4ebfb", "label": "Radiolarian axial polarity arises in the central protoplasm, unexplained by mechanics", "statement": "The polar symmetry of the radial spines in Radiolaria cannot be explained by any obvious mechanical forces of the peripheral froth; it arises in the central living protoplasm, and may reflect obscure but still physical directive forces analogous to Lehmann's 'Gestaltungskraft' in fluid crystals.", "quote": "But there are no obvious mechanical forces by which we can so explain this peculiar polarity. This at least is evident, that it arises in the central mass of protoplasm, which is the essential living portion of the organism", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. IX: On Concretions, Spicules, and Spicular Skeletons", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.259, "truth": 0.67, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.7 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.64 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.675, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA9CKrS_3NFYIRU0IOYlSXl0PaO2byEQVZ0mqibV14U6Q", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch10-01", "key": "e57f79904bf5a287", "label": "Annular, longitudinal and spiral wall thickenings of plant cells are cylinder geodetics", "statement": "The three kinds of geodetic on a cylinder (parallel rings, straight longitudinal lines and helical spirals) are all realised in the local wall thickenings of cylindrical plant cells and vessels, and the helical geodetic in the spiral coils of insect tracheae and tracheids.", "quote": "These three systems are all of frequent occurrence, and are all illustrated in the local thickenings of the wall of the cylindrical cells or vessels of plants.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. X: A Parenthetic Note on Geodetics", "kind": "mathematical-law", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": true, "theorem": false, "notation": "geodesics on a cylinder of radius r: circles z = c, lines \\theta = c, helices z = a\\theta", "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.609, "truth": 0.74, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.64 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.84 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.685, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAj8CDAeLs4yiJ6wIfdXYb8CkSPaDBMZ3Z5XkUVIqPEVU", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch10-02", "key": "11e7e40f8c807ce8", "label": "The suture of a turreted shell is a conical geodetic with coils closing toward the apex", "statement": "On a right cone the spiral geodetic coils more and more closely as the cone narrows, and the sutural line and parallel striations of a turreted spiral shell such as Turritella are geodetics of this kind.", "quote": "In a right cone, the spiral geodetic falls into closer and closer coils as the diameter of the cone narrows; and a very beautiful geodetic of this kind is exemplified in the sutural line of a spiral shell, such as Turritella", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. X: A Parenthetic Note on Geodetics", "kind": "mathematical-law", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": true, "theorem": false, "notation": "spiral geodesic on a right cone (\\kappa_g = 0) coils more closely as the cone narrows", "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "refutes", "evidence_kind": "biological", "data_test": { "verdict": "refutes", "confidence": 0.85, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "biological", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/thompson-growth-form/thompson1917-ch10-02/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered. From published per-specimen measurements of Turritellidae giving both the apical angle alpha and the total whorl number N_obs (Pandita et al. 2013, Int. J. Geosciences 4:777-784, Tables 2-6, 50 specimens of 5 species), compute N_geo = 1/(2 sin(alpha/2)) and the ratio R = N_obs / N_geo for every specimen with both values. SUPPORTS if at least 90% of specimens have R <= 1 (whorl count within the geodesic bound).", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered. REFUTES if at least 90% of specimens have R > 1, i.e. the suture coils more times than any geodesic of the enveloping cone can, so the sutural line cannot be a conical geodesic. Between 10% and 90% is 'mixed'. If the tables cannot be retrieved or parsed, inconclusive with reason data-unavailable. The claim's first part (coils tighten toward the apex) is shared by a geodesic and by the logarithmic helico-spiral and is not discriminating; the verdict rests on the identification of the suture with a geodesic.", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: pandita-2013-west-java-turritellidae-biometrics", "inference_method": "fetch.py downloads the article PDF, records its SHA-256 and transcribes Tables 2-6 with pdfplumber into derived/pandita2013_turritellidae.csv (49 rows; all published ratio columns Wang:L and Wsut:L were recomputed from the transcribed measurements and agree, confirming the transcription). analysis.py computes for each of the 34 specimens with both apical angle and whorl number the maximum number of turns of a geodesic on a right cone of that apical angle, N_geo = 1/(2 sin(alpha/2)), the ratio R = whorls/N_geo, the same ratio after subtracting two whorls (allowance for the protoconch/early whorls), and the apical angle that would have been needed for the observed whorl count to fit a geodesic.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": { "verdict": "faithful-with-narrower-scope", "assessors": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "verdict": "faithful-with-narrower-scope", "confidence": 0.94, "file": "test-data/claim-tests/thompson-growth-form/thompson1917-ch10-02/faithfulness.json" } ], "status": "agreed" } }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.749, "truth": 0.24, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.2 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.28 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.765, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAzLwBt8f2USNg14Vcnd5J8OspEuaAunB3GASF2jSCLT8", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch10-03", "key": "3bc86672f0d36329", "label": "Two crossing systems of geodetic spirals are a common source of reticulated patterns", "statement": "In organic structures two opposite systems of geodetic spirals often coexist and interfere, forming a criss-cross arrangement, and this is a very common source of reticulated patterns.", "quote": "and it is also common to find the two systems interfering with one another, and forming a criss-cross, or reticulated arrangement. This is a very common source of reticulated patterns.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. X: A Parenthetic Note on Geodetics", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.455, "truth": 0.515, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.56 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.47 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.58, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAFungkJl_E8DTD-7j3LjB0xMDEUbCNnqDbZ82s2bZehg", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch10-04", "key": "5f42f0fa31dd03fc", "label": "Muscle fibres on hollow organs arrange themselves along geodesic curves", "statement": "A contractile fibre fixed at both ends on a curved surface first pulls itself into the shortest path on that surface before it can constrict the organ, so the muscle fibres of hollow organs such as the heart, stomach, arteries and intestine automatically lie along geodesics (annular and longitudinal in a simple tube).", "quote": "Thus the muscular fibres, as they wind over the curved surface of an organ, arrange themselves automatically in geodesic curves: in precisely the same manner as we also automatically construct complex systems of geodesics whenever we wind a ball of wool or a spindle of tow", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. X: A Parenthetic Note on Geodetics", "kind": "mathematical-law", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": true, "theorem": false, "notation": "fibre fixed at both ends on a curved surface takes the shortest path: \\kappa_g = 0", "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.597, "truth": 0.36, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.18 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.54 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.68, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RArHd1T-bHYY0o1l58UDjUmko_g0VT1qHmAJjC0i66bOo", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch10-05", "key": "3eb46f7839217b98", "label": "Heart and stomach fibres stay geodetic after the twisting of the primitive tube", "statement": "The heart and stomach develop from simple tubes by dilatation and twisting; their originally circular and longitudinal fibres remain geodetic on the distorted surface, new geodetic systems (such as the oblique stomach fibres) appear on new pouches, and the heart contracts effectively only because its fibres run the shortest course.", "quote": "these systems of muscular fibres, geodetic to begin with, remain geodetic (in the sense in which we are using the word) after all the twisting to which the primitive cylindrical tube or tubes have been subjected.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. X: A Parenthetic Note on Geodetics", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.469, "truth": 0.19, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.12 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.26 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.63, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAgcKgVY-Jsfr0EIqzhMuCGthMZhiV-s0vrZ0-4TWmxwM", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch10-06", "key": "6de22f41cbf51fa2", "label": "Small swimmers rotate about their axis, turning a constant swerve into a helical path", "statement": "Small ciliated and flagellated organisms cannot steer, but by rotating about their long axis while swimming they convert a constant body-fixed swerve into a continually changing direction in space, so they travel along a helix around a nearly straight axis rather than in a circle.", "quote": "And this axial rotation, just as in the case of a rifle-bullet, causes their natural swerve, which is always in the same direction as regards their own bodies, to be in a continually changing direction as regards space: in short, to make a spiral course around, and more or less approximate to, a straight axial line.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. X: A Parenthetic Note on Geodetics", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.705, "truth": 0.73, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.86 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.6 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.71, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RABSnB7kkg3G6A9SEoTr4vgcSLaCY5bSKMUICp06I5cOY", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch11-01", "key": "69292c16f5e9e559", "label": "Horns, molluscan shells, foraminifera and sunflower florets follow the logarithmic spiral", "statement": "The permanent spiral forms found in organisms, such as the horns of ruminants, molluscan and foraminiferal shells and the arrangement of florets in the sunflower, are all logarithmic spirals; the outline of a cordate leaf is the one spiral-like organic outline that is not.", "quote": "Of the spiral forms which we have now mentioned, every one (with the single exception of the outline of the cordate leaf) is an example of the remarkable curve known as the Logarithmic Spiral.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XI: The Logarithmic Spiral", "kind": "mathematical-law", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": true, "theorem": false, "notation": "r = a e^{\\theta \\cot\\alpha}", "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "mixed", "evidence_kind": "biological", "data_test": { "verdict": "mixed", "confidence": 0.6, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "biological", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/thompson-growth-form/thompson1917-ch11-01/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered. Only the molluscan-shell class can be tested with public data located (see interpretation). For every gastropod specimen in Collins et al. 2021 with >= 5 digitised successive half-whorl apertures, take the square root of aperture area as the linear whorl size at angles 0, pi, 2 pi, ...; for every ammonoid species in Korn & Walton 2018 with >= 5 half-whorl diameters, take conch diameter at each half whorl. Fit the three two-parameter models by least squares in the size domain and compare root-mean-square residuals. The claim (for molluscan shells) is supported if the logarithmic model has the lowest RMSE in >= 80% of gastropod specimens and in >= 80% of ammonoid species, and the median ratio RMSE(Archimedean) / RMSE(logarithmic) exceeds 1.5 in both groups. Because horns, foraminifera and sunflower capitula remain untested, the confidence attached to a supporting verdict is capped at 0.5.", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered. The claim is refuted (for molluscan shells, and hence as a universal) if the logarithmic model is best in fewer than 50% of specimens in either group, or if the median RMSE ratio Archimedean / logarithmic is below 1.0 in either group. Intermediate results are 'mixed'.", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: dryad-p5hqbzknw-collins-2021-helicospiral-gastropods, dryad-c17p8-korn-walton-2018-ammonoid-ontogenetic-conch-parameters", "inference_method": "For 145 gastropod specimens (>= 5 apertures) the series sqrt(aperture area in mm^2) versus angle (0, pi, 2pi, ...) and for 179 ammonoid species the series conch diameter versus whorl angle were each fitted by nonlinear least squares with a logarithmic spiral a e^(b theta), an Archimedean spiral a + b theta and a Fermat spiral a sqrt(theta + theta0); the model with the lowest RMSE was recorded per series and the median RMSE ratios Archimedean/logarithmic and Fermat/logarithmic computed per group. Pre-registered thresholds were then applied.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [ { "id": "thompson1917-t1917-027", "relation": "tests", "note": "The audit fits logarithmic against Archimedean and power spirals to segmented Nautilus and Conus shells, checking that molluscan shell spirals are logarithmic.", "label": "Thompson (1917) T1917-027 — logarithmic spiral claim validation (Pass 2) faithfully reproduces Mollusc shell (Nautilus pompilius; Conus textile secondary) morphology", "organism": "Mollusc shell (Nautilus pompilius", "verdict": "mostly faithful", "score": 77.6, "thompson_verdict": "supported", "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAjGZ3pnHH_yU91QAzGAuTSGG4k9dXxLm84Ka0-pStqyQ", "registry": "test", "report": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/morphoeval/kg/2026-10-28-t1917-027-the-logarithmic-spiral-audit-v2/REPORT.md" } ], "thumbnail": { "file": "docs/thumbs/thompson1917-t1917-027.jpg", "morpholib": "thompson1917-t1917-027", "source": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/docs/media/t1917_027_the_logarithmic_spiral_growth.gif" }, "testability": 0.762, "truth": 0.235, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.13 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.34 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.79, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAg_RgukWJgujiV1REZTibu-GC3fr2kcFDe8mPW3L3sIA", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch11-02", "key": "4c9936b8ea12ba6d", "label": "A spiral needs a deflecting force carried by the growing body, not an external one", "statement": "A deflecting force of constant direction acting from outside, such as wind or gravity, can only bend a growing structure towards a limiting direction and never into a spiral; a spiral arises only when the deflecting force is intrinsic to the growing body and turns with the direction of growth, as the columellar muscle does in the snail-shell.", "quote": "the growing curve will tend to wind round and round its point of origin. In the typical case of the snail-shell, such an intrinsic force is manifestly present in the action of the columellar muscle.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XI: The Logarithmic Spiral", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.404, "truth": 0.19, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.06 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.32 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.635, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAK7VJZzUrH_IEqFSquoZSfccscALErjX7Z_L232pASFQ", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch11-03", "key": "42a4c834522c4e3c", "label": "A constant ratio of longitudinal to transverse growth rates yields a logarithmic spiral", "statement": "In a tubular structure whose growth is unequal on its two sides, a constant ratio between the rates of growth in the longitudinal and transverse directions generally produces a logarithmic spiral, the value of the ratio fixing the spiral's constant angle, with the circle and the straight line as limiting cases.", "quote": "In other words, in such a structure as we have presupposed, the existence or maintenance of a constant ratio between the rates of extension or growth in the vertical and transverse directions will lead, in general, to the development of a logarithmic spiral; the magnitude of that ratio will determine the character (that is to say, the constant angle) of the spiral;", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XI: The Logarithmic Spiral", "kind": "mathematical-law", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": true, "theorem": false, "notation": "constant ratio of longitudinal to transverse growth rates \\Rightarrow r = a e^{\\theta\\cot\\alpha}, the ratio fixing \\alpha; \\alpha = 90^\\circ circle, \\alpha \\to 0 straight line", "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.724, "truth": 0.8, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.68 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.92 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.76, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAlzsox3cnXU3eUykP0o0pkEVghStOMz-LL3omYHLfRMk", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch11-04", "key": "2f4c1e63f5c4c0ef", "label": "The scorpioid cyme traces a true logarithmic spiral", "statement": "In a scorpioid cyme, where each shoot arises from the last on the same side at an equal angle and successive shoots diminish in length in a constant ratio, the shoots are tangents to a true logarithmic spiral; in the helicoid cyme the same spiral is present but hidden by a superimposed twist.", "quote": "The result is that the successive shoots, or successive increments of growth, are tangents to a curve, and this curve is a true logarithmic spiral.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XI: The Logarithmic Spiral", "kind": "mathematical-law", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": true, "theorem": false, "notation": "successive shoots l_{n+1} = q\\,l_n at equal angles are tangents to r = a e^{\\theta\\cot\\alpha}", "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.672, "truth": 0.82, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.88 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.76 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.69, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAwu2feER-YipPs5zDUb9skYGxx1HBXV3Bg6DujPQtTk4", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch11-05", "key": "d907d7288f7a7385", "label": "The shell grows in size without changing its shape", "statement": "A spiral shell, like the animal within it, increases in size without changing its shape, even though it grows at one end only; this constant similarity of form under terminal growth is the defining property of the logarithmic spiral and of no other curve.", "quote": "The shell, like the creature within it, grows in size _but does not change its shape_; and the existence of this constant relativity of growth, or constant similarity of form, is of the essence, and may be made the basis of a definition, of the logarithmic spiral.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XI: The Logarithmic Spiral", "kind": "mathematical-law", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": true, "theorem": false, "notation": "r(\\theta + \\phi) = e^{\\phi\\cot\\alpha}\\,r(\\theta): rotation by \\phi equals scaling, so shape is invariant under terminal growth", "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "refutes", "evidence_kind": "biological", "data_test": { "verdict": "refutes", "confidence": 0.8, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "biological", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/thompson-growth-form/thompson1917-ch11-05/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered. For each species with measurements at >= 4 growth stages (diameters), fit ordinary least squares of log(ww), log(wh) and log(uw) on log(dm) across its stages. The claim is supported if (a) the across-species median exponent for each of the three dimensions lies in [0.90, 1.10], and (b) at least two thirds of species have all three exponents in [0.90, 1.10] (shape changes by less than ~25% over a ten-fold size range). The same test on Nautilus pompilius (Thompson's showcase) is reported separately and must also meet (a) for the species-level exponents from individual trajectories.", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered. The claim is refuted if the across-species median exponent for any of ww, wh or uw lies outside [0.80, 1.20], or if fewer than half of the species have all three exponents in [0.90, 1.10]. Results between pass and fail thresholds are 'mixed'.", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: dryad-c17p8-korn-walton-2018-ammonoid-ontogenetic-conch-parameters, dryad-4cb86-tajika-2017-nautilus-pompilius-3d-morphometry", "inference_method": "For each of 179 ammonoid species, ww = CWI x dm, uw = UWI x dm and ah = dm(1 - WER^-1/2) were computed at every half whorl with data, and the OLS slope of log(dimension) on log(dm) was fitted across all stages (median 16 stages per species, dm from ~0.5 to ~30 mm). Isometry predicts slope 1. The across-species median and the fraction of species with all three slopes in [0.9, 1.1] were compared with the pre-registered thresholds, and repeated using only stages with dm >= 2 mm. For Nautilus pompilius, the same slopes were fitted per specimen and pooled across all 1408 stage observations of the 6 specimens.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": { "verdict": "faithful-with-narrower-scope", "assessors": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "verdict": "faithful-with-narrower-scope", "confidence": 0.93, "file": "test-data/claim-tests/thompson-growth-form/thompson1917-ch11-05/faithfulness.json" } ], "status": "agreed" } }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.785, "truth": 0.51, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.31 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.71 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.82, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAXYjzuIHqUCP_TKCzzm0f7GuOuHPT40Ix5wk_0BcOEZk", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch11-06", "key": "a4c2b29705d21afe", "label": "Each increment of a spirally grown structure is a gnomon to the whole before it", "statement": "In horns, shells and all other organic forms showing a logarithmic spiral, the existing structure is partly old and partly new, and each successive increment of growth is a gnomon to the whole pre-existing structure, that is, an addition that leaves the enlarged whole similar to what it was before.", "quote": "(2) it is characteristic of the growth of the horn, of the shell, and of all other organic forms in which a logarithmic spiral can be recognised, that _each successive increment of growth is a gnomon to the entire pre-existing structure_.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XI: The Logarithmic Spiral", "kind": "mathematical-law", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": true, "theorem": false, "notation": "each increment G is a gnomon: F \\cup G \\sim F", "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "refutes", "evidence_kind": "biological", "data_test": { "verdict": "refutes", "confidence": 0.65, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "biological", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/thompson-growth-form/thompson1917-ch11-06/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered. Data: Walton & Korn (2018) ontogenetic conch-parameter series for 177 Devonian-Jurassic ammonoid species (Dryad 10.5061/dryad.c17p8), measured on median cross-sections at successive diameters dm. For each species keep the post-embryonic points (dm >= 2 mm) and require at least 4 points spanning at least a fourfold range of dm. For each retained index compute the log-range D = max ln(index) - min ln(index) over the series. A species is 'gnomonic' if D <= ln(1.25) (at most 25% change) for CWI, UWI and WER alike; 'allometric' if D >= ln(1.5) (at least 50% change) for at least one index; otherwise intermediate. SUPPORTS if at least two thirds of the qualifying species are gnomonic. As a secondary descriptor, the fraction of species whose indices show a monotonic trend with ln dm (|Spearman rho| >= 0.7, p < 0.05, for at least one index) is reported; it does not enter the verdict.", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered. REFUTES if at least two thirds of the qualifying species are allometric (at least one shape index changes by 50% or more over post-embryonic growth, so successive increments are not gnomons of the pre-existing conch). Otherwise 'mixed'. Fewer than 30 qualifying species: inconclusive (underpowered). File unobtainable: inconclusive, data-unavailable.", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: dryad-c17p8-walton-korn-2018-ammonoid-conch-ontogeny", "inference_method": "fetch.py downloads the Dryad version zip and records its SHA-256. analysis.py reshapes the four parameter sheets to one long table (species, half-whorl, dm, CWI, UWI, WER), keeps post-embryonic points (dm >= 2 mm) and the 179 series with >= 4 points spanning >= 4x in diameter, and for each index computes the log-range over the series (percent change), a Spearman correlation with ln dm, and classifies each series as gnomonic (all three indices change <= 25%), allometric (any index changes >= 50%) or intermediate. Sensitivity runs use dm >= 5 mm and drop UWI.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": { "verdict": "faithful-with-narrower-scope", "assessors": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "verdict": "faithful-with-narrower-scope", "confidence": 0.94, "file": "test-data/claim-tests/thompson-growth-form/thompson1917-ch11-06/faithfulness.json" } ], "status": "agreed" } }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.735, "truth": 0.845, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.86 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.83 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.75, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAN8dvSJq5IbwFIn9FjKS6Lc2gcmjpP8Q8b2293_EsH5o", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch11-07", "key": "46b274ef01da2827", "label": "Logarithmic spirals occur in accreted hard parts, not in simultaneously formed soft parts", "statement": "The logarithmic spiral should not be found in structures whose parts are produced simultaneously, such as the margin of a leaf or the contour of a fish, but in hard parts built of successive, permanently retained increments, such as shell, tusk, horn and claw, where it is usually accompanied by lines of growth.", "quote": "For it follows as a simple corollary to this theorem of gnomons that we must not expect to find the logarithmic spiral manifested in a structure whose parts are simultaneously produced, as for instance in the margin of a leaf, or among the many curves that make the contour of a fish.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XI: The Logarithmic Spiral", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.728, "truth": 0.51, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.34 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.68 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.765, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAVvOeCv5j8tPt42PYDo6rKaD8b7P8bhClXkRPz0NfUh8", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch11-08", "key": "6bfa84959e1e11b8", "label": "Whorl breadths of nautiloid, ammonitoid and gastropod shells form a geometric progression", "statement": "Careful measurement shows that the breadths of successive whorls along a radius of the Nautilus shell, and of spiral ammonitoid and gastropod shells generally, are in geometric progression, so that these shells are logarithmic spirals (for Nautilus each whorl is about three times as broad as the one before).", "quote": "It was by observing, with the help of very careful measurement, this continued proportionality, that Moseley was enabled to verify his first assumption, based on the general appearance of the shell, that the shell of Nautilus was actually a logarithmic spiral, and this demonstration he was immediately afterwards in a position to generalise by extending it to all the spiral Ammonitoid and Gastropod mollusca", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XI: The Logarithmic Spiral", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": true, "theorem": false, "notation": "whorl breadths b_{n+1}/b_n = \\text{const} = e^{2\\pi\\cot\\alpha}; Nautilus \\approx 3", "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "mixed", "evidence_kind": "biological", "data_test": { "verdict": "mixed", "confidence": 0.75, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "biological", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/thompson-growth-form/thompson1917-ch11-08/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered. For every specimen with at least four successive half-whorl conch-diameter measurements (ammonoids: stages with diameter >= 5 mm, excluding the embryonic ammonitella; Nautilus: all measured post-embryonic stages): (1) fit log(dm) against half-whorl index by least squares; the median R^2 across specimens must be >= 0.99, and the exponential (geometric) model must have lower residual sum of squares on the dm scale than a straight-line (arithmetic) model in at least 75% of specimens; (2) strict constancy: the median across specimens of the within-specimen relative range of WER, (max - min)/median over post-embryonic stages, must be <= 0.20, and no systematic ontogenetic drift (median within-specimen Spearman correlation of WER with stage between -0.5 and 0.5); (3) the median Nautilus WER (per-revolution diameter ratio) must lie in [2.6, 3.5]. 'supports' requires (1), (2) and (3).", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered. 'refutes' if the geometric model beats the arithmetic model in fewer than 50% of specimens, or the median R^2 < 0.95, or the median Nautilus WER is outside [2.2, 4.0]. 'mixed' if the geometric progression holds approximately ((1) and (3) pass) but the strict constancy test (2) fails, i.e. WER drifts systematically during growth. Gastropods are included only if a public dataset gives successive whorl measurements per specimen; otherwise the gastropod part is reported as data-unavailable and the verdict rests on nautiloids and ammonoids with a caveat.", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: tajika-2018-nautilus-pompilius-dryad-4cb86, walton-korn-2018-ammonoid-ontogeny-dryad-c17p8, collins-2021-helicospiral-gastropods-dryad-p5hqbzknw", "inference_method": "fetch.py obtains the files and writes derived station tables (committed; identical to those in thompson1917-ch11-10). analysis.py fits, per specimen, log(size) ~ station index (geometric) and size ~ station index (arithmetic) by least squares, compares their residual sums of squares on the size scale, and computes the per-revolution ratio r at each station (lag 8 for Nautilus 45-degree stations, lag 2 for half-whorl ammonoid and 180-degree gastropod stations), its within-specimen relative range (max-min)/median, and the Spearman correlation of r with station (drift). Group summaries are medians across specimens; ammonoid stations with dm < 5 mm are excluded as pre-registered.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [ { "id": "raup-shell-coiling", "relation": "models", "note": "The logarithmic helicospiral generator builds whorl breadths in geometric progression via W, but does not measure real Nautilus or ammonite whorls.", "label": "Raup shell coiling morphospace faithfully reproduces Coiled molluscs in general; the six panels are labelled cf. Nautilus, Turritella, an ammonite, Conus, Cerithium, Helix (resemblance, not specimens) morphology", "organism": "Coiled molluscs in general", "verdict": "mostly faithful", "score": 64.1, "thompson_verdict": null, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA-CE9Qut4D5nyFV8zSUKYzAr6MT0gYPTsqlg_5eZwNTw", "registry": "unconfirmed", "report": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/morphoeval/kg/2026-10-17-raup-audit/REPORT.md" }, { "id": "thompson1917-t1917-027", "relation": "tests", "note": "A log-spiral fit to the Nautilus whorl profile is equivalent to checking that successive whorl breadths form a geometric progression.", "label": "Thompson (1917) T1917-027 — logarithmic spiral claim validation (Pass 2) faithfully reproduces Mollusc shell (Nautilus pompilius; Conus textile secondary) morphology", "organism": "Mollusc shell (Nautilus pompilius", "verdict": "mostly faithful", "score": 77.6, "thompson_verdict": "supported", "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAjGZ3pnHH_yU91QAzGAuTSGG4k9dXxLm84Ka0-pStqyQ", "registry": "test", "report": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/morphoeval/kg/2026-10-28-t1917-027-the-logarithmic-spiral-audit-v2/REPORT.md" }, { "id": "thompson1917-t1917-028", "relation": "tests", "note": "Radial segmentation of a sectioned Nautilus shell measures whorl expansion along radii (W_median) and compares log-spiral with Archimedean fits, testing geometric progression of whorl breadths.", "label": "Thompson (1917) T1917-028 — Nautilus log-spiral & septal wall geometry (remediated) faithfully reproduces Nautilus pompilius (Wikimedia section, CC BY-SA 4.0) morphology", "organism": "Nautilus pompilius (Wikimedia section, CC BY-SA 4.0)", "verdict": "mostly faithful", "score": 71.1, "thompson_verdict": "mixed", "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAgbCGg_tXUvbt9e_Am6rxB_wI6aUKtRNDpUlNFK89kKE", "registry": "test", "report": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/morphoeval/kg/2026-10-28-t1917-028-the-logarithmic-spiral-audit-v2/REPORT.md" } ], "thumbnail": { "file": "docs/thumbs/thompson1917-t1917-027.jpg", "morpholib": "thompson1917-t1917-027", "source": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/docs/media/t1917_027_the_logarithmic_spiral_growth.gif" }, "testability": 0.819, "truth": 0.495, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.22 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.77 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.85, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAE5rbXV8SbTkqUppmfCgoE65vt2J0sZ6HtAbENKUHHp8", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch11-09", "key": "a78aaa4a2c9f0a56", "label": "All differences of form between shells are differences of degree in a few growth ratios", "statement": "The form of any turbinate shell is fixed by a small set of factors (shape of the generating curve, its rate of growth, its rate of rotation about the pole, its rate of translation along the axis, and its inclination), and all differences of form between one shell and another are differences of degree in the relative magnitudes of these factors.", "quote": "In short it is obvious that _all_ the differences of form which we observe between one shell and another are referable to matters of _degree_, depending, one and all, upon the relative magnitudes of the various factors in the complex equation to the curve.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XI: The Logarithmic Spiral", "kind": "mathematical-law", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": true, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [ { "id": "raup-shell-coiling", "relation": "models", "note": "Raup's parameters (expansion, distance from axis, translation, aperture shape) are a direct formalisation of Thompson's few growth factors fixing every turbinate shell form.", "label": "Raup shell coiling morphospace faithfully reproduces Coiled molluscs in general; the six panels are labelled cf. Nautilus, Turritella, an ammonite, Conus, Cerithium, Helix (resemblance, not specimens) morphology", "organism": "Coiled molluscs in general", "verdict": "mostly faithful", "score": 64.1, "thompson_verdict": null, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA-CE9Qut4D5nyFV8zSUKYzAr6MT0gYPTsqlg_5eZwNTw", "registry": "unconfirmed", "report": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/morphoeval/kg/2026-10-17-raup-audit/REPORT.md" } ], "thumbnail": { "file": "docs/thumbs/raup-shell-coiling.jpg", "morpholib": "raup-shell-coiling", "source": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/docs/media/raup_shell_coiling.gif" }, "testability": 0.655, "truth": 0.74, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.74 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.74 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.66, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAYv-Yt_d-TCj8Z0nN2vEn1kfxaGbtx78cY9O1CPXsTsc", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch11-10", "key": "796fcbbb3141f771", "label": "The constant angle of nautiloid, ammonitoid and gastropod spirals is about 80°–85°", "statement": "The constant angle of the logarithmic spiral is about 80° in Nautilus, where each whorl is about three times as broad as its predecessor, and in ordinary ammonitoid and typical spiral gastropod shells is seldom below 80° and usually between 80° and 85°.", "quote": "the constant angle is in the neighbourhood of 80°; and hence also that, in all the ordinary Ammonitoid shells, and in all the typically spiral shells of the Gastropods, the constant angle is also a large one, being very seldom less than 80°, and usually between 80° and 85°.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XI: The Logarithmic Spiral", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": true, "theorem": false, "notation": "\\alpha \\approx 80^\\circ in Nautilus (b_{n+1}/b_n \\approx 3); usually 80^\\circ \\le \\alpha \\le 85^\\circ in ammonitoid and gastropod shells", "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "refutes", "evidence_kind": "biological", "data_test": { "verdict": "refutes", "confidence": 0.6, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "biological", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/thompson-growth-form/thompson1917-ch11-10/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered. (a) Nautilus pompilius: per specimen, the median whorl expansion rate WER (Korn's definition, (dm1/dm2)^2 over half a whorl, which equals the per-revolution diameter ratio r) over all measured post-embryonic stages; the median across specimens, converted to alpha, must lie in [78, 82] deg (r in 2.6-3.5). (b) Ammonoids: per species, the median WER over measured stages with conch diameter >= 5 mm (excluding the embryonic ammonitella), converted to alpha; at least 50% of species must have alpha in [80, 85] deg and at most 10% alpha < 80 deg. (c) Gastropods: per specimen (then averaged per species), the fitted per-revolution whorl expansion rate W from the Collins et al. 2021 helicospiral fits, converted to alpha the same way; at least 50% of species in [80, 85] deg and at most 10% below 80 deg. All three of (a), (b), (c) must hold for 'supports'.", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered. 'refutes' if the Nautilus median alpha is outside [76, 84] deg, or if in either the ammonoid or the gastropod sample fewer than 40% of species fall in [80, 85] deg, or more than 20% fall below 80 deg. Anything between the pass and fail thresholds is 'mixed'. If the gastropod expansion parameter cannot be mapped to a per-revolution ratio from the dataset's documentation, part (c) is reported as not operationalizable and the verdict rests on (a) and (b) with a caveat.", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: tajika-2018-nautilus-pompilius-dryad-4cb86, walton-korn-2018-ammonoid-ontogeny-dryad-c17p8, collins-2021-helicospiral-gastropods-dryad-p5hqbzknw", "inference_method": "fetch.py obtains the files (Dryad downloads sit behind a browser proof-of-work challenge; they were fetched with headless Chrome and checksummed) and writes derived tables (committed). analysis.py computes, per Nautilus specimen, the median of dm[i]/dm[i-8] over the 45-degree stations (one revolution; all stations are post-hatching, first dm 18-27 mm); per ammonoid species, the median of dm[n]/dm[n-1] over half-whorl stations with dm >= 5 mm; per gastropod specimen, the median of r[k+2]/r[k] where r is the perpendicular distance of each digitised aperture's centroid from the coiling axis (apertures 180 deg apart; replicate digitisations pooled), then the median per species. Each r is converted to alpha = arccot(ln r / 2 pi) and the pre-registered band fractions are evaluated.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": { "verdict": "faithful-with-narrower-scope", "assessors": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "verdict": "faithful-with-narrower-scope", "confidence": 0.9, "file": "test-data/claim-tests/thompson-growth-form/thompson1917-ch11-10/faithfulness.json" } ], "status": "agreed" } }, "morpholib": [ { "id": "thompson1917-t1917-027", "relation": "tests", "note": "The fitted spiral constant (k and whorl expansion W) for Nautilus gives the constant angle this claim puts near 80 degrees.", "label": "Thompson (1917) T1917-027 — logarithmic spiral claim validation (Pass 2) faithfully reproduces Mollusc shell (Nautilus pompilius; Conus textile secondary) morphology", "organism": "Mollusc shell (Nautilus pompilius", "verdict": "mostly faithful", "score": 77.6, "thompson_verdict": "supported", "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAjGZ3pnHH_yU91QAzGAuTSGG4k9dXxLm84Ka0-pStqyQ", "registry": "test", "report": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/morphoeval/kg/2026-10-28-t1917-027-the-logarithmic-spiral-audit-v2/REPORT.md" } ], "thumbnail": { "file": "docs/thumbs/thompson1917-t1917-027.jpg", "morpholib": "thompson1917-t1917-027", "source": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/docs/media/t1917_027_the_logarithmic_spiral_growth.gif" }, "testability": 0.819, "truth": 0.485, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.24 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.73 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.835, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAOmdK0ac8kg7ni_c04BAtJzNzFIipzbW-9aQCJXzrCTM", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch11-11", "key": "913e0eb213e43a7d", "label": "Separation or overlap of whorls reflects the growth-rate ratio of outer to inner border", "statement": "Whether the whorls of a spiral shell stand apart, just touch, or overlap (up to complete involution, as in Nautilus pompilius versus N. umbilicatus) depends only on the ratio of the rate of growth of the outer border of the tube to that of its inner border.", "quote": "For the purposes of the morphologist, then, the main result of this last general investigation is to shew that all the various types of “open” and “closed” spirals, all the various degrees of separation or overlap of the successive whorls, are simply the outward expression of a varying ratio in the _rate of growth_ of the outer as compared with the inner border of the tubular shell.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XI: The Logarithmic Spiral", "kind": "mathematical-law", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": true, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [ { "id": "raup-shell-coiling", "relation": "models", "note": "Raup's D parameter and whorl expansion rate govern whether whorls separate, touch or overlap, implementing the growth-ratio explanation without specimen data.", "label": "Raup shell coiling morphospace faithfully reproduces Coiled molluscs in general; the six panels are labelled cf. Nautilus, Turritella, an ammonite, Conus, Cerithium, Helix (resemblance, not specimens) morphology", "organism": "Coiled molluscs in general", "verdict": "mostly faithful", "score": 64.1, "thompson_verdict": null, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA-CE9Qut4D5nyFV8zSUKYzAr6MT0gYPTsqlg_5eZwNTw", "registry": "unconfirmed", "report": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/morphoeval/kg/2026-10-17-raup-audit/REPORT.md" } ], "thumbnail": { "file": "docs/thumbs/raup-shell-coiling.jpg", "morpholib": "raup-shell-coiling", "source": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/docs/media/raup_shell_coiling.gif" }, "testability": 0.681, "truth": 0.54, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.52 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.56 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.695, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAswlEBbYxff7kEJxgCQAn2rpZlI4M_a55p6ETqiaBCac", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch11-12", "key": "f408396ae943c06a", "label": "Spiral constants of shells give no valid evidence of ancestry", "statement": "The constant angle of a shell's spiral, like its size, is no evidence of which form is more primitive or ancestral, nor does an intermediate angle show that a shell is intermediate in time or descent; phylogenetic series built from straight, loosely coiled and closely coiled cephalopod shells are not supported by the mathematical study of shell form.", "quote": "_To such phylogenetic hypotheses the mathematical or dynamical study of the forms of shells lends no valid support._ If we have two shells in which the constant angle of the spire be respectively 80° and 60°, that fact in itself does not at all justify an assertion that the one is more primitive, more ancient, or more “ancestral” than the other.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XI: The Logarithmic Spiral", "kind": "historical-inference", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.6, "truth": 0.875, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.94 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.81 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.65, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAGTqWjiXTwHVxKXjc1c9sMWnsLftBQKpHeoyqPevcxrQ", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch11-13", "key": "aa4d599c3654f693", "label": "Mathematical morphology can reveal orthogenetic series and warn of convergence", "statement": "Progressive change of growth ratios along a series of allied forms (orthogenesis) is real in some lineages, and the mathematical study of form can detect such series where they are not obvious, while also showing that strong resemblances of form may arise independently as numerical coincidences.", "quote": "And to my mind, the mathematical (as distinguished from the purely physical) study of morphology bids fair to help us to recognise this phenomenon of orthogenesis in many cases where it is not at once patent to the eye; and also, on the other hand, to warn us, in many other cases, that even strong and apparently complex resemblances in form may be capable of arising independently,", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XI: The Logarithmic Spiral", "kind": "historical-inference", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.535, "truth": 0.755, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.82 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.69 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.595, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA4O2iifIMbNZTAiz5AyLr8ZA0N76dyjG-w6p5kla8IHY", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch11-14", "key": "b64f48b9c5794d69", "label": "Ontogenetic change in spiral angle explains narrowing-whorled and uncoiling ammonites", "statement": "In some ammonoids the spiral angle changes progressively during growth: where it increases the whorls become narrower (as in Oekotraustes), and where it diminishes towards zero the coil opens out into an almost straight curve (as in Scaphites, Ancyloceras and Lituites).", "quote": "But let us suppose that the spiral angle increases somewhat rapidly; we shall then get a spiral with gradually narrowing whorls, and this condition is characteristic of Oekotraustes, a subgenus of Ammonites. If on the other hand, the angle α gradually diminishes, and even falls away to zero, we shall have the spiral curve opening out, as it does in Scaphites, Ancyloceras and Lituites,", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XI: The Logarithmic Spiral", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.744, "truth": 0.755, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.77 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.74 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.755, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA-yKtgTN8jJxJ99vBXIAZJQqRNq4pu3OsOItBFHQmUPU", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch11-15", "key": "5090e596caba4de7", "label": "Dissimilar turbinate shells share similar spiral angles and differ mainly in apical angle", "statement": "Shells as different in appearance as Cerithium, Solarium, Natica and Planorbis differ very little in their spiral angle (the ratio of radial to tangential growth) and differ in form mainly in the apical angle of the enveloping cone, which is set by the rate of translation along the axis relative to growth.", "quote": "We see from this that shells so different in appearance as Cerithium, Solarium, Natica and Planorbis differ very little indeed in the magnitude of the spiral angle α, that is to say in the relative velocities of radial and tangential growth. It is upon the angle θ that the difference in their form mainly depends:", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XI: The Logarithmic Spiral", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "supports", "evidence_kind": "biological", "data_test": { "verdict": "supports", "confidence": 0.6, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "biological", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/thompson-growth-form/thompson1917-ch11-15/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered. For every specimen with >= 3 digitised successive half-whorl apertures (Collins et al. 2021 helicospiral gastropods) estimate per revolution the linear whorl-breadth ratio R (square root of the aperture-area ratio per 360 degrees, from a log-linear fit of area on angle) and the apical semi-angle theta = atan(d(r_outer)/d(y)) from the outward and axial displacement of the whorl per revolution (theta = 90 degrees for planispiral shells). For the discoid form, which that dataset lacks, use adult whorls of the planispiral ammonoid conchs of Korn & Walton 2018 (R = dm at whorl n+1 / dm at whorl n over the last full whorl, theta = 90 degrees). Compute alpha = arccot(ln R / (2 pi sin theta)) in degrees. Assign specimens to Thompson's four forms by family: pointed turbinate = Turritellidae (Maoricolpus; Thompson lists Turritella with Cerithium), obtuse turbinate / trochiform = Trochoidea (Zethalia, Cookia; Thompson's Solarium / Trochus group), globose = Tonnoidea (Tonna, Semicassis; Thompson's Natica / Dolium group), discoid = planispiral ammonoids. The claim is supported if the range of the four form-mean alphas is <= 10 degrees while the range of form-mean thetas is >= 45 degrees, i.e. alpha range < one quarter of theta range.", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered. The claim is refuted if the range of form-mean alphas is >= 20 degrees, or if it is not smaller than the range of form-mean thetas (the forms differ as much or more in spiral angle as in apical angle). Results between these thresholds are 'mixed'. If any of the four forms has fewer than 2 usable specimens the test is inconclusive (underpowered).", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: dryad-p5hqbzknw-collins-2021-helicospiral-gastropods, dryad-c17p8-korn-walton-2018-ammonoid-ontogenetic-conch-parameters", "inference_method": "The tps file was parsed; for each specimen the aperture polygons were converted to mm with the recorded scale, their areas (shoelace), centroid positions along the coiling axis (y) and outermost distances from the axis (r_outer) computed, and angle assigned as 180 degrees per successive aperture. R = exp(pi * slope of ln(area) on angle), theta = atan(|d r_outer / d angle| / |d y / d angle|) from linear fits, alpha = arccot(ln R / (2 pi sin theta)). For the 179 ammonoid species R = dm(last whorl) / dm(one whorl earlier), theta = 90 degrees. Specimens were grouped into Thompson's four forms (Turritellidae n=35, Trochoidea n=2, Tonnoidea n=2, planispiral ammonoids n=179); form means of alpha and theta and their ranges were compared with the pre-registered thresholds. The CV of cot(alpha) across form means was computed as the scale-free supplement.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.774, "truth": 0.495, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.51 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.48 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.78, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAIolaj9jtwCn8jhxseFlNqBef33ACXS6jeMg5UVfAVDw", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch11-16", "key": "d127d7861b8596b8", "label": "Bivalve growth lines are coaxial curves set by direction-dependent growth rate", "statement": "The lines of growth on bivalve shells are not concentric but coaxial curves through the umbo, and they arise because the rate of growth varies as a simple function of direction; in the simplest case the lines are coaxial circles (as in Anomia), and with more complex functions they are coaxial ellipses or other figures (as in Lima or Solen).", "quote": "All that we are immediately concerned with is the simple fact that where a velocity, such as our rate of growth, varies with its direction,—varies that is to say as a function of the angular divergence from a certain axis,—then, in a certain simple case, we get lines of growth laid down as a system of coaxial circles,", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XI: The Logarithmic Spiral", "kind": "mathematical-law", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": true, "theorem": false, "notation": "r(\\theta, t) = t\\,f(\\theta) from the umbo; f(\\theta) = \\cos\\theta gives coaxial circles", "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.719, "truth": 0.64, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.63 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.65 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.75, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAL599cG3jnbUmcPnyy_7G9MBhFQ7Ro9FfaQdLa0VjEyE", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch11-17", "key": "4a736ef2358e030f", "label": "Incomplete moulting gives Estheria a mollusc-like spiral shell with growth lines", "statement": "The bivalved carapace of the crustacean Estheria resembles a lamellibranch shell, with lines of growth and a logarithmic spiral of small angle, because its moult is incomplete: each old carapace is retained and the new one grows beneath it and projects beyond its edge.", "quote": "But in Estheria (and one or two other small crustacea) the moult is incomplete: the old carapace is retained, and the new, growing up underneath it, adheres to it like a lining, and projects beyond its edge: so that in course of time the margins of successive old carapaces appear as “lines of growth” upon the surface of the shell.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XI: The Logarithmic Spiral", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.607, "truth": 0.77, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.74 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.8 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.655, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAYa9rcCtzx_BAuFJxxVV7vFKOaPV2Ls2g2loTdCOzRLM", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch11-18", "key": "3dc81831dc979dc5", "label": "Brachiopod spiral arm direction follows shell shape through spatial constraint", "statement": "The form and direction of brachiopod spiral arms (brachidia) are determined by their initial curvature and the space and pressures within the shell, so that long outwardly directed spirals should go with transversely elongated shells such as Spirifer, inwardly directed spirals with rounded shells such as Atrypa, and discoid spirals with strongly flattened shells.", "quote": "It is obvious that the incipient curvature of the arms, and consequently the form and direction of the spirals, will be influenced by the surrounding pressures, and these in turn by the general shape of the shell. We shall expect, accordingly, to find the long outwardly directed spirals associated with shells which are transversely elongated, as Spirifer is; while the more rounded Atrypas will tend to the opposite condition.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XI: The Logarithmic Spiral", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.637, "truth": 0.455, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.47 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.44 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.685, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA7JTA_j3Yw975H3G2mgFgZOPKE1udQSpuwj8YutRQOyg", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch11-19", "key": "4196a1629a730879", "label": "Ammonite shell and aptychus are two parts of a once united split cone", "statement": "The shell and the aptychus of ammonites are probably the ventral and dorsal portions of a once united conical shell split by unequal growth, as in pteropods; other cephalopods retain only one of the two, the ventral one as the shell of Nautilus and the dorsal one as the shell of Sepia or Spirula.", "quote": "In short, I think there is reason to believe, or at least to suspect, that we have in the shell and Aptychus of the Ammonites, two portions of a once united structure; of which other Cephalopods retain not both parts but only one or other, one as the ventrally situated shell of Nautilus, the other as the dorsally placed shell for example of Sepia or of Spirula.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XI: The Logarithmic Spiral", "kind": "historical-inference", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.514, "truth": 0.045, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.02 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.07 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.62, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAd9FOSlLTxtPNRO48xfu0W4CpGdeW9hG-zOQj3DOIpI8", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch11-20", "key": "40d378b97bfb800a", "label": "Cephalopod septa take the form of minimal surfaces like soap films", "statement": "Because a septum is first laid down as an elastic membrane under uniform pressure, it takes the shape of a soap film with the same boundary, a surface of minimal area: spherical in a straight cone with a perpendicular attachment, ellipsoidal with an oblique attachment, and saddle-shaped where the line of attachment is sinuous.", "quote": "In all cases, provided only that the membrane be isotropic, the form assumed will be precisely that of a soap-bubble under similar conditions of attachment: that is to say, it will be (with the usual limitations or conditions) a surface of minimal area.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XI: The Logarithmic Spiral", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.713, "truth": 0.345, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.15 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.54 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.74, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAFStZtC4IlmnAUreuaDpCs40wFNjb5dMl4sLO9Dspj38", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch11-21", "key": "f14ad1a025f2a047", "label": "The fine frilling of ammonite sutures is a surface-tension phenomenon", "statement": "The minutely branched, arborescent outline superposed on the lobes and saddles of some ammonite sutures, with branches ending in rounded arcs, is a surface-tension phenomenon of the same kind as the patterns made by milk on a greasy plate or oil on an alkaline solution.", "quote": "Superposed upon the usual sinuous outline, with its “lobes” and “saddles,” we have here a minutely ramified, or arborescent outline, in which all the branches terminate in wavy, more or less circular arcs,—looking just like the ‘landscape marble’ from the Bristol Rhaetic. We have no difficulty in recognising in this a surface-tension phenomenon.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XI: The Logarithmic Spiral", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.533, "truth": 0.165, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.08 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.25 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.64, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAK9HvZwKUdTyXutwLNc3Icnda79gj77sm1I1D6lOaX2A", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch11-22", "key": "5ea959421f7021ba", "label": "The same spiral shell forms recur across unrelated groups, all ages and all seas", "statement": "Spiral shell forms appear with little relation to the kind of animal producing them, recurring in gastropods, cephalopods, foraminifera and tube worms, and mathematically identical forms recur in every geological period and are found mixed together regardless of climate or local conditions.", "quote": "Again, we find the same forms, or forms which (save for external ornament) are mathematically identical, repeating themselves in all periods of the world’s geological history; and, irrespective of climate or local conditions, we see them mixed up, one with another, in the depths and on the shores of every sea.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XI: The Logarithmic Spiral", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.674, "truth": 0.47, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.33 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.61 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.7, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAtyX6xkdQ5dKQgqosWAoC8NbzGWLEaz-d87IulnQGYJw", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch11-23", "key": "87fa804f6f374ecf", "label": "Natural Selection plays no necessary part in producing spiral shell forms", "statement": "Natural Selection, in any strictly biological sense, has no necessary share in producing the varied forms of spiral shells, which arise from differences in growth rates and ratios.", "quote": "It is hard indeed (to my mind) to see where Natural Selection necessarily enters in, or to admit that it has had any share whatsoever in the production of these varied conformations.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XI: The Logarithmic Spiral", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.371, "truth": 0.295, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.29 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.3 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.695, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAuWlA1UT6ywttjfrghvNP3oQITsB8FLR2OPZYjAi-7p0", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch12-01", "key": "a90657865f1ee864", "label": "Single-chambered foraminiferal shells take the form of fluid drops under surface tension", "statement": "The form of a single-chambered foraminiferal shell is explained by the laws of surface tension: the protoplasm behaves as a fluid drop whose equilibrium shape is fixed when it acquires its solid covering.", "quote": "wherever the shell is but a single unit or single chamber, its form may be explained in general by the laws of surface tension: the assumption being that the little mass of protoplasm which makes the simple shell behaves as a _fluid drop_, the form of which is perpetuated when the protoplasm acquires its solid covering.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XII: The Spiral Shells of the Foraminifera", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.549, "truth": 0.46, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.51 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.41 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.685, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA9IKPG8fin9INaQnkSOM_m2apnlUPafj1sXQtFOnBk4E", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch12-02", "key": "fce32d79511da99c", "label": "Foraminifera are spiral because they grow by permanent increments added outside", "statement": "Foraminiferal shells tend towards a spiral form because they grow by successive increments added to the exterior, each of which becomes a permanent, rigid part of the structure.", "quote": "That the shell in the Foraminifera should tend towards a spiral form need not surprise us; for we have learned that one of the fundamental conditions of the production of a concrete spiral is just precisely what we have here, namely the gradual development of a structure by means of successive increments superadded to its exterior, which then form part, successively, of a permanent and rigid structure.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XII: The Spiral Shells of the Foraminifera", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.536, "truth": 0.54, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.55 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.53 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.65, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAy-vwTfVN4LEpPrXK3ARcHdow3usBV4KZH-Cwkb3_6IA", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch12-03", "key": "067ba2ef21418dff", "label": "Septa are convex outwards in Foraminifera and concave in Nautilus because of pressure side", "statement": "Foraminiferal septa are convex outwards and those of Nautilus concave outwards because the pressure each membrane resisted when it set lay on opposite sides; in both cases the septum tends to a surface of minimal area.", "quote": "The one septum is, speaking generally, the reverse of the other; the organism, so to speak, is outside the one and inside the other; and in both cases alike, the septum tends to assume the form of a surface of minimal area, as permitted, or as defined, by all the circumstances of the case.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XII: The Spiral Shells of the Foraminifera", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.545, "truth": 0.665, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.61 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.72 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.67, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA-FJ-fkVEfDDygfvsyTlsdqAignG7QVRuLBHNYSSGJ10", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch12-04", "key": "895653604dd08acc", "label": "Spiral foraminiferal shells are logarithmic spirals, large shells similar to small ones", "statement": "Spiral foraminiferal shells are logarithmic spirals, recognisable by continued similarity: the large many-chambered shell has the same shape as the smaller, younger shell.", "quote": "The logarithmic spiral is easily recognisable in typical cases (and especially where the spire makes more than one visible revolution about the pole), by its fundamental property of continued similarity: that is to say, by reason of the fact that the big many-chambered shell is of just the same shape as the smaller and younger shell", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XII: The Spiral Shells of the Foraminifera", "kind": "mathematical-law", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": true, "theorem": false, "notation": "r = a e^{\\theta\\cot\\alpha}, recognised by self-similarity of young and old shells", "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [ { "id": "thompson1917-t1917-029", "relation": "tests", "note": "Testing that successive fusulinid whorls stand in constant proportion is a test that spiral foraminiferal shells are logarithmic spirals.", "label": "Thompson (1917) T1917-029: logarithmic-spiral chamber succession with constant ratio vs Shi (2021) fusulinid half-whorl series (Pass 2) faithfully reproduces Fusulinida (Triticites, Pseudoschwagerina, Sphaeroschwagerina, Zellia, Robustoschwagerina); Nummulina antiquior (Fig. 309); Thompson's figured genera via the generative model morphology", "organism": "Fusulinida (Triticites, Pseudoschwagerina, Sphaeroschwagerina, Zellia, Robustoschwagerina)", "verdict": "mostly faithful", "score": 77.4, "thompson_verdict": "mixed", "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAwQbde6MvMmGSlYxbxFyh9ZLagTzutNyCehnUcqCsX78", "registry": "test", "report": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/morphoeval/kg/2026-10-28-t1917-029-the-spiral-shells-of-the-foram-audit-v2/REPORT.md" } ], "thumbnail": { "file": "docs/thumbs/thompson1917-t1917-029.jpg", "morpholib": "thompson1917-t1917-029", "source": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/docs/media/t1917_029_the_spiral_shells_of_the_foram_growth.gif" }, "testability": 0.76, "truth": 0.55, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.4 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.7 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.8, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAYqjaYBlqa6_uTPNQHi7Vz1jPvnKrude8N3cUM0cpX6c", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch12-05", "key": "ffc4921ce0e527b7", "label": "Fusulina whorls increase in ratio 1:1.5, a spiral of constant angle about 86°", "statement": "In Fusulina the breadths of successive whorls stand in the nearly constant ratio 1 : 1.5, which corresponds to a logarithmic spiral with a constant angle of about 86°, like that of ammonites.", "quote": "And this ratio of 1·5 between the breadths of successive whorls corresponds (as we see by our table on p. 534) to a constant angle of about 86°, or just such a spiral as we commonly meet with in the Ammonites", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XII: The Spiral Shells of the Foraminifera", "kind": "mathematical-law", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": true, "theorem": false, "notation": "Fusulina: b_{n+1}/b_n \\approx 1.5 \\Rightarrow \\alpha \\approx 86^\\circ", "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [ { "id": "thompson1917-t1917-029", "relation": "tests", "note": "Shi (2021) fusulinid half-whorl series are checked against Thompson's near-constant 1:1.5 whorl ratio, a spiral of about 86 degrees.", "label": "Thompson (1917) T1917-029: logarithmic-spiral chamber succession with constant ratio vs Shi (2021) fusulinid half-whorl series (Pass 2) faithfully reproduces Fusulinida (Triticites, Pseudoschwagerina, Sphaeroschwagerina, Zellia, Robustoschwagerina); Nummulina antiquior (Fig. 309); Thompson's figured genera via the generative model morphology", "organism": "Fusulinida (Triticites, Pseudoschwagerina, Sphaeroschwagerina, Zellia, Robustoschwagerina)", "verdict": "mostly faithful", "score": 77.4, "thompson_verdict": "mixed", "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAwQbde6MvMmGSlYxbxFyh9ZLagTzutNyCehnUcqCsX78", "registry": "test", "report": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/morphoeval/kg/2026-10-28-t1917-029-the-spiral-shells-of-the-foram-audit-v2/REPORT.md" } ], "thumbnail": { "file": "docs/thumbs/thompson1917-t1917-029.jpg", "morpholib": "thompson1917-t1917-029", "source": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/docs/media/t1917_029_the_spiral_shells_of_the_foram_growth.gif" }, "testability": 0.706, "truth": 0.605, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.57 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.64 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.685, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAlrg8h9BpZ2JKkd3146iHWQE8dgkVTfZ6HIgA0Jyn774", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch12-06", "key": "437e7b87b0ad72d9", "label": "Constant chamber-size ratio follows from growth proportional to existing mass", "statement": "Each foraminiferal chamber bears a constant ratio of size to the next because the rate of increase at each instant is proportional to the whole existing mass of the homogeneous organism.", "quote": "The law of increase by which each chamber bears a constant ratio of magnitude to the next may be looked upon as a simple consequence of the structural uniformity or homogeneity of the organism; we have merely to suppose (as this uniformity would naturally lead us to do) that the rate of increase is at each instant proportional to the whole existing mass.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XII: The Spiral Shells of the Foraminifera", "kind": "mathematical-law", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": true, "theorem": false, "notation": "dM/dt \\propto M \\Rightarrow V_{n+1}/V_n = \\text{const}", "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [ { "id": "thompson1917-t1917-029", "relation": "models", "note": "The script derives the constant chamber ratio from growth proportional to existing mass algebraically, without testing that mechanism on specimens.", "label": "Thompson (1917) T1917-029: logarithmic-spiral chamber succession with constant ratio vs Shi (2021) fusulinid half-whorl series (Pass 2) faithfully reproduces Fusulinida (Triticites, Pseudoschwagerina, Sphaeroschwagerina, Zellia, Robustoschwagerina); Nummulina antiquior (Fig. 309); Thompson's figured genera via the generative model morphology", "organism": "Fusulinida (Triticites, Pseudoschwagerina, Sphaeroschwagerina, Zellia, Robustoschwagerina)", "verdict": "mostly faithful", "score": 77.4, "thompson_verdict": "mixed", "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAwQbde6MvMmGSlYxbxFyh9ZLagTzutNyCehnUcqCsX78", "registry": "test", "report": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/morphoeval/kg/2026-10-28-t1917-029-the-spiral-shells-of-the-foram-audit-v2/REPORT.md" } ], "thumbnail": { "file": "docs/thumbs/thompson1917-t1917-029.jpg", "morpholib": "thompson1917-t1917-029", "source": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/docs/media/t1917_029_the_spiral_shells_of_the_foram_growth.gif" }, "testability": 0.522, "truth": 0.385, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.32 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.45 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.675, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAN-UY_tudb1NIV72R-YEANbj88O7d46uzEvh9sKGwknA", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch12-07", "key": "4548eb34cd11c16b", "label": "Minimum potential energy plus proportional growth yields the logarithmic spiral", "statement": "Each new protoplasmic drop settles in a position of minimum potential energy (including minimal area), which makes each chamber similar to the last; proportional growth of size then gives the series the form of a logarithmic spiral. Rhumbler's specific 'law of the constant angle' of contact is too narrow an explanation.", "quote": "The physical law of minimum potential (including also the law of minimal area) is all that we need in order to explain, _in general terms_, the continued similarity of one chamber to another; and the physiological law of growth, by which a continued proportionality of size tends to run through the series of successive chambers, impresses upon this series of similar increments the form of a logarithmic spiral.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XII: The Spiral Shells of the Foraminifera", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.446, "truth": 0.41, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.35 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.47 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.635, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAvn8-S-4xWMYT4eQV9Y-VWU6Def157SYfCyiRG8Ov8iA", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch12-08", "key": "4e7b8beb6e78e795", "label": "Attached Foraminifera form plane spirals with whorls flattened on the attached side", "statement": "Most spiral Foraminifera are plane (discoid) spirals because some force keeps the chambers in a plane, especially in forms that live attached to rock or seaweed, whose whorls are flattened on the attached surface; freely floating forms such as Globigerina tend towards helicoid spirals.", "quote": "The majority of spiral forms, on the other hand, are plane or discoid spirals, and we may take it that in these cases some force has exercised a controlling influence, so as to keep all the chambers in a plane. This is especially the case in forms like Rotalia or Discorbina (Fig. 316), where the organism lives attached to a rock or a frond of sea-weed", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XII: The Spiral Shells of the Foraminifera", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.651, "truth": 0.475, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.65 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.3 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.705, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RABZE5pvxYP0dy-gB-llIKR-2ygEbHsPZ0d2pOehZAzh0", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch12-09", "key": "170809200714d910", "label": "Many foraminiferal species and genera may be temporary manifestations of variability", "statement": "Because very slight changes in surface energies could turn one foraminiferal form into another, many forms distinguished as separate species and even genera may be no more than temporary manifestations of variability, as in Peneroplis.", "quote": "but for all we know of the life-history of the Foraminifera, it may well be that a great number of the other forms which we distinguish as separate species and even genera are no more than temporary manifestations of the same variability", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XII: The Spiral Shells of the Foraminifera", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.615, "truth": 0.235, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.25 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.22 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.71, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA911g9udQW6Z_Zzdoi4cO0F6OSS9zcOv7BJ1UpDhxcmQ", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch12-10", "key": "bb5bc75497499073", "label": "Foraminiferal forms follow such simple laws that none is fitter than another to survive", "statement": "Foraminiferal shells grow by laws so simple and so in harmony with their material and the forces acting on them that no form is better, fitter or less fit to survive than another, which accounts for the great diversity of types and their persistence since the Cretaceous.", "quote": "It leads one to imagine that these shells have grown according to laws so simple, so much in harmony with their material, with their environment, and with all the forces internal and external to which they are exposed, that none is better than another and none fitter or less fit to survive.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XII: The Spiral Shells of the Foraminifera", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.42, "truth": 0.055, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.03 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.08 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.635, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAJ-YGJdjVHzQNGq_jKz4ELO6Pm65mX75rwtXia5eOOFE", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch12-11", "key": "32cb00bb512c231e", "label": "Identical foraminiferal forms may have arisen independently again and again", "statement": "The possible lines of variation in Foraminifera may be so narrow and determinate that identical forms have arisen independently many times.", "quote": "It invites one also to contemplate the possibility of the lines of possible variation being here so narrow and determinate that identical forms may have come independently into being again and again.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XII: The Spiral Shells of the Foraminifera", "kind": "historical-inference", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.607, "truth": 0.76, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.72 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.8 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.705, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RASkbrAJLlTiwOj-4JHu6Uyhbn4JCs-RUS8hle7pu9l-g", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch12-12", "key": "8bf830f4b2bd0de7", "label": "Increased shell strength is not an advantage driving foraminiferal evolution", "statement": "Against Rhumbler, niceties of shell form have little effect on survival: delicate foraminiferal shells survive unbroken in vast numbers, so breakage is not a constant danger and increased strength is not a selective advantage guiding their evolution.", "quote": "And so I am not inclined to believe that niceties of form affect the case very much: nor in general that foraminiferal life involves a struggle for existence wherein breakage is a constant danger to be averted, and increased strength an advantage to be ensured.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XII: The Spiral Shells of the Foraminifera", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.435, "truth": 0.235, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.15 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.32 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.645, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAkC6BFecPcRnEwOVvi1Qa_DwOl7ds99k81BXCHzPRWgA", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch12-13", "key": "009d5a56bb237bc5", "label": "Foraminifera are absent from coarse gravels because of hydraulic sorting by currents", "statement": "Foraminiferal shells are absent from coarse sands and gravels not because they avoid concussion but because light shells are sorted by currents like any other graded sediment, settling where water is still.", "quote": "The coarseness or fineness of the sediment on the sea-bottom is a measure of the current: where the current is strong the larger stones are washed clean, where there is perfect stillness the finest mud settles down; and the light, fragile shells of the Foraminifera find their appropriate place, like every other graded sediment, in this spontaneous order of lixiviation.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XII: The Spiral Shells of the Foraminifera", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.728, "truth": 0.705, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.65 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.76 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.775, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAuUnlKpnJ2OR7SQRwEbIB5joRX_tIIgSfED2dhyc2tJ4", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch12-14", "key": "519a91cff41c63a9", "label": "Forms set by physical forces undermine inference of kinship from similarity", "statement": "Insofar as forms depend on physical forces and their variations on simple quantitative changes in those forces, similarity of form cannot safely be taken as evidence of consanguinity, and the link between classification and phylogeny must be revised.", "quote": "But in so far as forms can be shewn to depend on the play of physical forces, and the variations of form to be directly due to simple quantitative variations in these, just so far are we thrown back on our guard before the biological conception of consanguinity, and compelled to revise the vague canons which connect classification with phylogeny.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XII: The Spiral Shells of the Foraminifera", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.611, "truth": 0.86, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.9 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.82 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.675, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAZzH8maE8woMyHBpzJwpB81htZFYHlGBXIccBtDev3mQ", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch13-01", "key": "bb54ab6e41910095", "label": "Rhinoceros horn is a plane logarithmic spiral from constant front-to-back growth ratio", "statement": "The rhinoceros horn grows faster anteriorly than posteriorly in a constant ratio, so it curves as a logarithmic spiral; lying in the median plane, it has no lateral twist and forms a plane spiral.", "quote": "Its longitudinal growth proceeds with a maximum velocity anteriorly, and a minimum posteriorly; and the ratio of these velocities being constant, the horn curves into the form of a logarithmic spiral in the manner that we have already studied.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XIII: The Shapes of Horns, and of Teeth or Tusks: with a Note on Torsion", "kind": "mathematical-law", "status": "proved", "proof": "lean", "verification": "lean", "math": true, "theorem": true, "notation": "v_{ant}/v_{post} = \\text{const} \\Rightarrow plane spiral r = a e^{\\theta\\cot\\alpha}", "lean_theorems": [ "ThompsonLaws.HornsLeavesEggs.hornLength_eq_exp" ], "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.597, "truth": 0.48, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.3 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.66 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.67, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAWzdTuzN01K6ijMh6Q_EM0AJgu4fdlAIOrvnIYrS_0W8", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch13-02", "key": "af8cbe49726513da", "label": "Paired horns of ruminants are conjugate, mirror-image spirals", "statement": "The paired horns of hollow-horned ruminants are conjugate spirals, the left horn being the mirror image of the right.", "quote": "But the two horns are in symmetry one with another; they form “conjugate” spirals, one being the “mirror-image” of the other.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XIII: The Shapes of Horns, and of Teeth or Tusks: with a Note on Torsion", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "inconclusive", "evidence_kind": "none", "data_test": { "verdict": "inconclusive", "confidence": null, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "none", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/thompson-growth-form/thompson1917-ch13-02/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered (claim supported). For at least 8 bovid crania from public 3D scans spanning at least 4 genera, extract the midline curve of each horn core from the mesh, fit a helico-spiral (constant curvature and torsion in the Frenet sense, i.e. a conical helix) to each, and compare the pair: in at least 80% of specimens the signs of the torsion of the left and right horn are opposite, and the magnitudes of length, mean curvature and mean torsion agree within 15% (|L - R| / mean of the pair).", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered (claim refuted). In more than 20% of specimens the two horns have torsion of the same sign (both horns coiling the same way, i.e. not conjugate), or the paired magnitudes differ by more than 15% in more than 20% of specimens beyond what the same measurement applied twice to one horn reproduces. If fewer than 8 specimens or fewer than 4 genera can be obtained from public sources without authentication, the verdict is 'inconclusive' with reason 'data-unavailable'.", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: morphosource-bovid-crania, public-3d-specimen-repositories, bovid-horn-measurement-datasets", "inference_method": "fetch.py queries the MorphoSource public API for bovid media (10 taxon and part searches), writes every bovid record with its visibility, file size and use-agreement type to derived/candidate_media.csv, and then tries three download routes for the two largest open crania. The API itself answers normally; every download route fails (HTTP 404 for the API download path, and an Anubis 'Access Denied' page for the web download and media pages, also when retried through a headless Chrome browser). MorphoSource downloads additionally require a logged-in account that accepts the specimen's use agreement, which this run must not create. No mesh was obtained, so there is nothing to analyse and no analysis.py.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.806, "truth": 0.915, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.95 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.88 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.815, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAHIS8aC8SjnMImSK-hQUxM8bYICc5IRIcp0fHBHMcq1s", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch13-03", "key": "bb65daac155a9f7c", "label": "Most horns are logarithmic spirals from constant unequal growth on opposite sides", "statement": "In the great majority of horns the curve is a continuous logarithmic spiral, caused by unequal rates of growth parallel to the axis on opposite sides of the horn, the inequality keeping a constant ratio throughout growth.", "quote": "But in the great majority of horns, we have no difficulty in recognising a continuous logarithmic spiral, nor in referring it, as before, to an unequal rate of growth (parallel to the axis) on two opposite sides of the horn, the inequality maintaining a constant ratio as long as growth proceeds.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XIII: The Shapes of Horns, and of Teeth or Tusks: with a Note on Torsion", "kind": "mathematical-law", "status": "proved", "proof": "lean", "verification": "lean", "math": true, "theorem": true, "notation": "v_1/v_2 = \\text{const} on opposite sides of the axis \\Rightarrow r = a e^{\\theta\\cot\\alpha}", "lean_theorems": [ "ThompsonLaws.HornsLeavesEggs.hornLength_selfSimilar", "ThompsonLaws.HornsLeavesEggs.hornSpiralRate_antitone" ], "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [ { "id": "thompson1917-t1917-031", "relation": "tests", "note": "Log-spiral fits to a real Ovis ammon skull photograph and Thompson's horn figures check that horns are continuous logarithmic spirals.", "label": "Thompson (1917) Ch. XIII — bovid horns as logarithmic spirals wound on a cone (Pass 2) faithfully reproduces Ovis ammon (Argali): real skull photograph + Thompson's Fig. 320; Capra sinaitica: Thompson's Fig. 319 morphology", "organism": "Ovis ammon (Argali): real skull photograph + Thompson's Fig. 320", "verdict": "mostly faithful", "score": 67.6, "thompson_verdict": "mixed", "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAzp7sXxExfMRkPxkpvuG_bneWJkcQQlfL7aKcgWqMu-o", "registry": "test", "report": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/morphoeval/kg/2026-10-28-t1917-031-the-shapes-of-horns-and-of-tee-audit-v2/REPORT.md" } ], "thumbnail": { "file": "docs/thumbs/thompson1917-t1917-031.jpg", "morpholib": "thompson1917-t1917-031", "source": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/docs/media/t1917_031_the_shapes_of_horns_and_of_tee_growth.gif" }, "testability": 0.69, "truth": 0.465, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.35 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.58 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.735, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA_Y-DDsIBAT2_90cELBQP7Nx5GTNHXoyUQFNHwaN3e0o", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch13-04", "key": "405dcbab94c2a491", "label": "Goat and sheep horns form a series of homologous spirals of increasing angle", "statement": "Horns of wild goats and sheep form a series of homologous logarithmic spirals with increasing constant angle: under 40° in Oryx, under 70° in the Scinde wild goat, about 75° in Ovis ammon and a little more in the Highland ram.", "quote": "we may easily arrange a series of forms, such for example as the Siberian ibex, the moufflon, _Ovis Ammon_, etc., and ending with the long-horned Highland ram: in which, as we pass from one to another, we recognise precisely homologous spirals, with an increasing angular constant, the spiral angle being, for instance, about 75° or rather less in _Ovis Ammon_, and in the Highland ram a very little more.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XIII: The Shapes of Horns, and of Teeth or Tusks: with a Note on Torsion", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": true, "theorem": false, "notation": "\\alpha < 40^\\circ (Oryx), < 70^\\circ (Scinde wild goat), \\approx 75^\\circ (Ovis ammon), > 75^\\circ (Highland ram)", "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [ { "id": "thompson1917-t1917-031", "relation": "tests", "note": "The audit measures the spiral angle of Ovis ammon (Thompson: about 75 degrees) and of the Capra figure (under 70 degrees), the values in this claim's series.", "label": "Thompson (1917) Ch. XIII — bovid horns as logarithmic spirals wound on a cone (Pass 2) faithfully reproduces Ovis ammon (Argali): real skull photograph + Thompson's Fig. 320; Capra sinaitica: Thompson's Fig. 319 morphology", "organism": "Ovis ammon (Argali): real skull photograph + Thompson's Fig. 320", "verdict": "mostly faithful", "score": 67.6, "thompson_verdict": "mixed", "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAzp7sXxExfMRkPxkpvuG_bneWJkcQQlfL7aKcgWqMu-o", "registry": "test", "report": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/morphoeval/kg/2026-10-28-t1917-031-the-shapes-of-horns-and-of-tee-audit-v2/REPORT.md" } ], "thumbnail": { "file": "docs/thumbs/thompson1917-t1917-031.jpg", "morpholib": "thompson1917-t1917-031", "source": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/docs/media/t1917_031_the_shapes_of_horns_and_of_tee_growth.gif" }, "testability": 0.71, "truth": 0.43, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.4 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.46 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.695, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAL2ITNcv-_aIel6kK4FVLxabE9ysfJT4OZFvdSI30HPA", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch13-05", "key": "7811d0fe6a5ec242", "label": "Argali horns share a spiral angle but differ in their shearing (helical) component", "statement": "Among closely allied wild sheep (Argali) the constant angle of the horn's logarithmic spiral is nearly the same, and the species differ chiefly in the helical shearing component.", "quote": "In all of these the constant angle of the logarithmic spiral is very much the same, but the shearing component differs greatly.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XIII: The Shapes of Horns, and of Teeth or Tusks: with a Note on Torsion", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.648, "truth": 0.515, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.45 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.58 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.65, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAcjz5IINkxhVzXn0ctjnUA6MmDQ9R6xeK31BopGraPII", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch13-06", "key": "40d9d2fa8127f6a4", "label": "A horn is a plane spiral only if fastest and slowest growth lie diametrically opposite", "statement": "If the maximal and minimal growth rates around the basal growth zone of a horn lie diametrically opposite, the horn is a plane spiral; otherwise it is a spiral in space with a helical component, which is the usual case because the horn's field of force has no such plane of symmetry.", "quote": "If the maximal and minimal velocities of growth be precisely at opposite sides of the zone of growth, the resultant spiral will be a plane spiral; but if they be not precisely or diametrically opposite, then the spiral will be a spiral in space, with a winding or helical component", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XIII: The Shapes of Horns, and of Teeth or Tusks: with a Note on Torsion", "kind": "mathematical-law", "status": "proved", "proof": "lean", "verification": "lean", "math": true, "theorem": true, "notation": "plane spiral iff the maximal and minimal growth rates around the base lie at \\Delta\\phi = 180^\\circ; otherwise helicospiral", "lean_theorems": [ "ThompsonLaws.HornsLeavesEggs.growthDirections_coplanar_iff_opposite" ], "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.482, "truth": 0.675, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.55 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.8 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.645, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAFiCPCiNnBNRyC3eKKRNhUG7-ZqCxEty9Xy7HCmoUbNk", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch13-07", "key": "7a58c5d97b86604e", "label": "Uneven adhesion of the horn sheath to its bony core can itself produce the spiral", "statement": "Unequal retardation of the growing horn sheath by its adhesion to the bony core can produce the same spiral as unequal growth, and is probably a very important and sometimes the chief factor in horn curvature.", "quote": "had its elongation more retarded on one side than the other (prior to its complete solidification) by varying degrees of adhesion or membranous attachment to the bone core within, then the net result would be a spiral curve precisely such as would have arisen from initial inequalities in the rate of growth itself. It seems highly probable that this is a very important factor", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XIII: The Shapes of Horns, and of Teeth or Tusks: with a Note on Torsion", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.345, "truth": 0.275, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.25 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.3 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.7, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAHad3kqUj6-FuAGcIv4CCkpmSFeP1MrSUVgJOIfgDBrM", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch13-08", "key": "57c1d401fd1c8cb9", "label": "The thicker the horn, the greater its spiral curvature", "statement": "On the whole, thicker horns are more strongly spirally curved than slender ones, because a larger cross-section allows greater differences in growth or retardation between opposite sides.", "quote": "I think it may be said that, on the whole, the thicker the horn, the greater is its spiral curvature.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XIII: The Shapes of Horns, and of Teeth or Tusks: with a Note on Torsion", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.717, "truth": 0.32, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.3 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.34 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.75, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA2FeLV9WsCopr-u-B0Yv7g1IiEl4QJFood2A2jh64g0k", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch13-09", "key": "0636cf350d748183", "label": "Sinuous growth lines on non-cylindrical horns result from torsional strain", "statement": "Horns that grow as curves of double curvature undergo torsional strain, because the sheath is attached to the core, and this strain warps the rings into the sinuous growth lines predicted by St Venant for a twisted non-circular prism; such lines are absent from cylindrical ox horns.", "quote": "But there is yet another and a very remarkable phenomenon which we may discern in the growth of a horn, when it takes the form of a curve of double curvature, namely, an effect of torsional strain; and this it is which gives rise to the sinuous “lines of growth,” or sinuous boundaries of the separate horny rings, of which we have already spoken.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XIII: The Shapes of Horns, and of Teeth or Tusks: with a Note on Torsion", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.519, "truth": 0.305, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.25 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.36 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.64, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAXgVYV1Cv1Q10UrGSjCMARBUXVR0BQ7t-uwni4vIdz9g", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch13-10", "key": "b07fdd3f9137e0fb", "label": "Twining of climbing stems results from unequal growth on different sides", "statement": "The revolving nutation of twining plants, like the helicoid growth of an antelope horn, is caused by unequal rates of growth on different sides of the stem, the difference being that in the stem growth occurs along its whole length.", "quote": "This tendency to revolution—“circumvolution,” as Darwin calls it, “revolving nutation,” as Sachs puts it—is very closely comparable to the process by which an antelope’s horn (such as the koodoo’s) grows into its spiral or rather helicoid form; and it is simply due, in like manner, to inequalities in the rate of growth on different sides of the growing stem.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XIII: The Shapes of Horns, and of Teeth or Tusks: with a Note on Torsion", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.55, "truth": 0.665, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.65 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.68 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.655, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAFo7ND_8J7DHdgE9VCjEW5MFCgbBAPovByyKAzsX9u6Y", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch13-11", "key": "1aa8b517d338b0d3", "label": "Stem torsion on rough supports is a mechanical couple from adhesion, not an adaptation", "statement": "Twining stems become twisted on rough supports but not on smooth ones because adhesion to the rough support sets up a mechanical couple, so Darwin's adaptive explanation (gaining rigidity) is unnecessary.", "quote": "In the case of the roughened support, there is a temporary adhesion or “clinging” between it and the growing stem which twines around it; and a system of forces is thus set up, producing a “couple,” just as it was in the case of the ram’s or antelope’s horn through direct adhesion of the bony core to the surrounding sheath.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XIII: The Shapes of Horns, and of Teeth or Tusks: with a Note on Torsion", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.472, "truth": 0.495, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.55 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.44 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.69, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAnJ25CVstVZ02Ws-6A5DWrKPXVYqCi--Uhmsdj8MEROw", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch13-12", "key": "8899859d682306d3", "label": "A pair of antlers is confined to a single smooth spheroidal surface", "statement": "The branches of a pair of deer antlers are confined to a single, more or less spheroidal or ellipsoidal curved surface, the two antlers forming one mirror-symmetric surface whose tine tips lie on a continuous curve; the antler is essentially a surface, whereas a horn is an axial rod.", "quote": "The surface to which the branches of the antler tend to be confined is a more or less spheroidal, or occasionally an ellipsoidal one; and furthermore, when we inspect any well-developed pair of antlers, such as those of a red deer, a sambur or a wapiti, we have no difficulty in seeing that the two antlers make up between them _a single surface_", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XIII: The Shapes of Horns, and of Teeth or Tusks: with a Note on Torsion", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.738, "truth": 0.27, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.2 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.34 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.755, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA-V4uRARzzlnkjIka-jpdNltrQkCylW9u4LwvhqT3gDU", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch13-13", "key": "30296315aebf566d", "label": "Claws, beaks and teeth grown by unequal permanent accretion are logarithmic spirals", "statement": "Wherever a structure grows by permanent increments with unequal longitudinal growth about its axis, as in nails, claws, beaks and teeth, it always tends to the form of a logarithmic spiral, which becomes conspicuous only when the structure is long.", "quote": "The logarithmic spiral _always_ tends to manifest itself in such structures as these, though it usually only attracts our attention in elongated structures, where (that is to say) the radius vector has described a considerable angle.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XIII: The Shapes of Horns, and of Teeth or Tusks: with a Note on Torsion", "kind": "mathematical-law", "status": "proved", "proof": "lean", "verification": "lean", "math": true, "theorem": true, "notation": "unequal longitudinal growth by permanent increments \\Rightarrow r = a e^{\\theta\\cot\\alpha}", "lean_theorems": [ "ThompsonLaws.HornsLeavesEggs.accretionTurning_eq_log" ], "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [ { "id": "thompson1917-t1917-032", "relation": "tests", "note": "A log-spiral fit to a real mammoth tusk checks that teeth grown by unequal permanent accretion take logarithmic-spiral form.", "label": "Thompson (1917) T1917-032 — teeth & tusks: differential-accretion log spiral + St Venant torsion faithfully reproduces Mammuthus primigenius tusk (Museum Wiesbaden); Monodon monoceros tusk (torsion analogue) morphology", "organism": "Mammuthus primigenius tusk (Museum Wiesbaden)", "verdict": "faithful", "score": 86, "thompson_verdict": "mixed", "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA9Yw_2ZzS_bOOgTKU9ukamnja23MU5VqHInKQQ7oB124", "registry": "test", "report": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/morphoeval/kg/2026-10-28-t1917-032-the-shapes-of-horns-and-of-tee-audit-v2/REPORT.md" } ], "thumbnail": { "file": "docs/thumbs/thompson1917-t1917-032.jpg", "morpholib": "thompson1917-t1917-032", "source": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/docs/media/t1917_032_the_shapes_of_horns_and_of_tee_growth.gif" }, "testability": 0.721, "truth": 0.495, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.25 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.74 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.765, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RApXceLXpY1jbxcrOeCJptnTVRs4zbkBsyFkCo4ah96Xs", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch13-14", "key": "9f42b3c06c31084e", "label": "Elephant and American mastodon tusks are the same spiral as the mammoth's, only shorter", "statement": "The tusks of living elephants and American mastodons follow essentially the same logarithmic spiral as the mammoth's great spiral tusks and differ only in size, so that if they grew long enough they would become equally spiral.", "quote": "but the American mastodons and the existing species of elephant have tusks which do not differ appreciably, except in size, from the great spiral tusks of the mammoth, though from their comparative shortness the spiral is little developed and only appears to the eye as a gentle curve.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XIII: The Shapes of Horns, and of Teeth or Tusks: with a Note on Torsion", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.712, "truth": 0.24, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.2 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.28 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.71, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAFb5Ai97fAUvnHTmnRltZfJvgeOhg72_o9zH3yih-WSs", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch14-01", "key": "c47b1d52ec974fdd", "label": "Spirals of sunflower, thistle and cone are deformations of helices on a stem", "statement": "The logarithmic spirals of flat or convex inflorescences and the helices on elongated stems are one phenomenon: the fir-cone, teasel, thistle and sunflower heads are successive geometric deformations of a long, nearly cylindrical stem, on which the same arrangement appears as helices.", "quote": "the semi-ellipsoidal capitulum of the teasel, the more or less hemispherical one of the thistle, and the flattened but still convex one of the sunflower, are all beautiful and successive deformations of what is typically a long, conical, and all but cylindrical stem.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XIV: On Leaf-Arrangement, or Phyllotaxis", "kind": "mathematical-law", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": true, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.647, "truth": 0.805, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.75 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.86 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.71, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAVKbgUHNIQakS4gZuTVbXKSXPmbnI1Ocpi1WS_vl0wYs", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch14-02", "key": "a62ee8a99265489e", "label": "Sunflower spirals intersect isogonally, rarely orthogonally", "statement": "Against Church, the spirals in a sunflower disc intersect isogonally (at a constant angle), and orthogonal intersection is only a particular and probably infrequent case.", "quote": "The spirals intersect isogonally, but orthogonal intersection would be only one particular case, and in all probability a very infrequent one, in the intersection of logarithmic spirals developed about a common pole.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XIV: On Leaf-Arrangement, or Phyllotaxis", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.853, "truth": 0.635, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.45 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.82 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.87, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAkkURMpnS5o2-WLvR2TrdE4ysdcCLs7MCrmbsgXWU-CQ", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch14-03", "key": "8383a42ca22d3118", "label": "Phyllotactic spirals follow inevitably from similar parts produced at regular intervals", "statement": "There is no subtle mystery in phyllotaxis: the steady production of similar parts, similarly placed, at similar successive intervals of time necessarily produces symmetrical patterns (helices on a cylinder, logarithmic spirals on a surface containing the pole), which are a secondary mathematical result rather than a primary phenomenon.", "quote": "I, for my part, see no subtle mystery in the matter, other than what lies in the steady production of similar growing parts, similarly situated, at similar successive intervals of time.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XIV: On Leaf-Arrangement, or Phyllotaxis", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.51, "truth": 0.415, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.35 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.48 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.635, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAVfZbNrDntl2eTrvwLAIVNOfCM52X_LfsYaAp5pZ1GRw", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch14-04", "key": "0f72d89c863ee104", "label": "Parastichy counts on fir-cones are nearly constant within a species", "statement": "The numbers of conspicuous parastichies on fir-cones are on the whole very constant within a species, e.g. 5 and 3 in the Norway spruce and 8 and 5 in the common larch.", "quote": "and among fir-cones, we can easily count these, and we find them to be on the whole very constant in number, according to the species.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XIV: On Leaf-Arrangement, or Phyllotaxis", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.728, "truth": 0.585, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.75 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.42 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.735, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAdavUmZ5eiNC596QDC9kYArQHHxMswDaMGTHEeB5Ox2o", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch14-05", "key": "f65b69c212b747f1", "label": "Parastichy numbers change when the structure varies greatly in size", "statement": "Phyllotactic parastichy numbers vary with the size of the whole structure, as in sunflower discs where one species may show 34/55, 55/89 or even 89/144 rows.", "quote": "The arrangement, as we have seen, is apt to vary when the entire structure varies greatly in size, as in the disc of the sunflower.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XIV: On Leaf-Arrangement, or Phyllotaxis", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "supports", "evidence_kind": "biological", "data_test": { "verdict": "supports", "confidence": 0.9, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "biological", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/thompson-growth-form/thompson1917-ch14-05/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered. In the Turing's Sunflowers data (Helianthus annuus), restrict to heads with a recorded head (seedhead) diameter and with both parastichy counts forming an adjacent pair of a Fibonacci-type sequence (Fibonacci, Lucas, double Fibonacci or F4, as defined by Swinton et al. 2016). The Spearman rank correlation between head diameter and the larger parastichy number must be positive with rho >= 0.30 and P < 0.01, and the median head diameter must increase monotonically across successive pair classes of the main Fibonacci sequence that each have n >= 10 heads.", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered. rho <= 0.10, or P >= 0.05, or an inversion of median diameter between adjacent main-sequence pair classes each with n >= 10 (larger pair at smaller heads). 0.10 < rho < 0.30 with P < 0.05 and no inversion is 'mixed'. If the data file carries no head-size measurement, the verdict is 'inconclusive' with reason 'data-unavailable'; if fewer than 50 heads have both diameter and a resolved pair, 'inconclusive' with reason 'underpowered'.", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: turings-sunflowers-dryad-f9k77", "inference_method": "fetch.py obtains the two spreadsheets (Dryad serves downloads behind a browser proof-of-work challenge; files were fetched with headless Chrome, checksummed, and a 49 KB derived table committed under derived/). analysis.py keeps heads with a reported head diameter and an adjacent Fibonacci-type pair (photoreviewed counts first, submitter counts otherwise), computes the Spearman correlation between diameter and the larger parastichy number, and compares median diameters across the main-sequence pair classes 21/34, 34/55, 55/89 and 89/144 (Kruskal-Wallis as a supplementary test).", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [ { "id": "thompson1917-t1917-033", "relation": "tests", "note": "The audit detects a rising (21,34) to (34,55) parastichy cascade in a real sunflower head, the size-dependent change in parastichy numbers this claim describes.", "label": "Thompson (1917) T1917-033 golden divergence & Fibonacci parastichies faithfully reproduces Helianthus annuus morphology", "organism": "Helianthus annuus", "verdict": "faithful", "score": 81.4, "thompson_verdict": "supported", "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA-Ke4oTkQfGnKMKa2Y855ZSOpEn_GfDFXSUad1VN8MgY", "registry": "test", "report": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/morphoeval/kg/2026-10-28-t1917-033-on-leaf-arrangement-or-phyllot-audit-v2/REPORT.md" } ], "thumbnail": { "file": "docs/thumbs/thompson1917-t1917-033.jpg", "morpholib": "thompson1917-t1917-033", "source": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/docs/media/t1917_033_on_leaf_arrangement_or_phyllot_growth.gif" }, "testability": 0.813, "truth": 0.91, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.9 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.92 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.83, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAs51dVAZ1h69Btx5gp1gc0N6IxqytXu9UehbfT8FdEeU", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch14-06", "key": "4987d1731fc50150", "label": "Right- and left-handed parastichy directions occur about equally often", "statement": "Within a species, cones with a given parastichy arrangement are nearly equally divided between right-handed and left-handed spiral directions (e.g. 224 versus 243 among 467 Norway spruce cones).", "quote": "In each case they were nearly equally divided as regards direction; for instance of the 467 cones shewing the five-eight arrangement, the five-series ran in right-handed spirals in 224 cases, and in left-handed spirals in 243.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XIV: On Leaf-Arrangement, or Phyllotaxis", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "supports", "evidence_kind": "biological", "data_test": { "verdict": "supports", "confidence": 0.85, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "biological", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/thompson-growth-form/thompson1917-ch14-06/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered. In the Turing's Sunflowers data (Helianthus annuus), restrict to heads with both a clockwise and an anticlockwise parastichy count that together form an adjacent pair of one Fibonacci-type sequence (Fibonacci, Lucas, double Fibonacci or F4, as defined by Swinton et al. 2016). Define a head as right-handed when its larger family is clockwise. Pooled over all such heads, the proportion p of right-handed heads must satisfy |p - 0.5| <= 0.10 and a two-sided exact binomial test against 0.5 must give P >= 0.05. In addition, in each pair class with n >= 20 heads, |p - 0.5| <= 0.15 or the binomial P >= 0.05. Primary counts are the photoreviewed counts (author's annotation file); the submitter counts are a secondary replication.", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered. Pooled |p - 0.5| > 0.10 with two-sided exact binomial P < 0.01 (a substantial and significant excess of one chirality), or the same pattern in the two most frequent pair classes. Any other outcome is 'mixed' (e.g. a small but significant bias with |p - 0.5| <= 0.10) or 'inconclusive' (fewer than 100 usable heads: underpowered).", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: turings-sunflowers-dryad-f9k77", "inference_method": "fetch.py downloads the two spreadsheets (Dryad serves them behind a browser proof-of-work challenge; the files were obtained with headless Chrome, checksummed, and a 49 KB derived table committed under derived/). analysis.py parses the photoreviewed counts (best estimate before any parenthesised range), keeps heads whose two counts are adjacent members of the Fibonacci, Lucas, double-Fibonacci or F4 sequence, and scores a head right-handed if the larger family is clockwise. The proportion right-handed is tested against 0.5 with a two-sided exact binomial test, pooled and within each pair class; the submitter counts are analysed the same way as a replication.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.828, "truth": 0.89, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.95 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.83 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.82, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA4s15E6u_BRcdDQu8ZHupBOiuDVf8kSZfhGwptOGrG-I", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch14-07", "key": "e30e06b17d5271f0", "label": "One Fibonacci parastichy pair necessarily entails all the lower pairs", "statement": "Following Tait, if a single genetic spiral exists and one pair of parastichy numbers from the series 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13… is present, all the lower pairs of the series are necessarily present in the same system.", "quote": "These are the very series which we have found to be common, or normal; and so far as our investigation has yet gone, it has proved to us that, if one of these exists, it entails, _ipso facto_, the presence of the rest.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XIV: On Leaf-Arrangement, or Phyllotaxis", "kind": "mathematical-law", "status": "proved", "proof": "lean", "verification": "lean", "math": true, "theorem": true, "notation": "F_{n+1} = F_n + F_{n-1} (1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, \\dots); pair (F_n, F_{n+1}) present \\Rightarrow all lower pairs present", "lean_theorems": [ "ThompsonLaws.HornsLeavesEggs.taitStep_fib", "ThompsonLaws.HornsLeavesEggs.taitStep_iterate_fib", "ThompsonLaws.HornsLeavesEggs.taitStep_reaches_one_one" ], "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.519, "truth": 0.89, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.9 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.88 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.79, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAZ0zJNzB7qcgJWyaFv3Sghz970CW3KTDW2bDQO-LGFcI", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch14-08", "key": "28554a2e566d7e3b", "label": "Most phyllotaxis has between two and three leaves per turn of the genetic spiral", "statement": "The prevalence of Fibonacci parastichy numbers arises because in the great majority of fir-cones and other phyllotactic systems there are more than two but fewer than three leaves in one turn of the genetic spiral (t = 2); other observed series correspond to t = 3, 4, 5.", "quote": "And, determined in this manner, it is found in the great majority of cases, in fir-cones and a host of other examples of phyllotaxis, that _t_ = 2.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XIV: On Leaf-Arrangement, or Phyllotaxis", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "proved", "proof": "lean", "verification": "lean", "math": true, "theorem": true, "notation": "t = 2 (more than two, fewer than three leaves per turn of the genetic spiral) \\Rightarrow parastichy pairs from 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, \\dots; t = 3, 4, 5 give other series", "lean_theorems": [ "ThompsonLaws.HornsLeavesEggs.phyllotaxisSeries_two", "ThompsonLaws.HornsLeavesEggs.phyllotaxisSeries_three_not_fib" ], "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.657, "truth": 0.725, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.85 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.6 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.685, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA8SDH7cphGuToMxDfVpksBmDhF3CBA7RleDailEmY34c", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch14-09", "key": "cb1999bcd8c98657", "label": "Which parastichies are conspicuous depends on leaf proportions, not on divergence", "statement": "Which of the implicit spiral families is conspicuous does not depend on the angle of divergence but on the proportions of the leaves or scales, strictly on the ratio of the diagonals of the rhomboid circumscribing each leaf-area.", "quote": "the conspicuousness of one set or another does not depend upon angular divergence. It depends on the relative proportions in length and breadth of the leaves themselves; or, more strictly speaking, on the ratio of the diagonals of the rhomboidal figure by which each leaf-area is circumscribed.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XIV: On Leaf-Arrangement, or Phyllotaxis", "kind": "mathematical-law", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": true, "theorem": false, "notation": "conspicuous parastichies set by the ratio of the diagonals of the rhomboid circumscribing each leaf-area, not by the divergence angle", "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.615, "truth": 0.325, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.35 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.3 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.67, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAcN9qWJKhOKLIlNacJ5T0iZxiO8Gobkc7nNcFPYf6MOc", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch14-10", "key": "fca58ec7d369365e", "label": "Convergence of phyllotactic ratios to the golden mean has no biological significance", "statement": "That the phyllotactic fractions 1/2, 2/3, 3/5… converge to 0.618…, the golden mean, is a mathematical coincidence without biological significance; the precise divergence angle and orthostichies are likewise unimportant.", "quote": "And lastly, the fact that the successional numbers, expressed as fractions, 1/2, 2/3, 3/5, represent a convergent series, whose final term is equal to 0·61803..., the _sectio aurea_ or “golden mean” of unity, is seen to be a mathematical coincidence, devoid of biological significance", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XIV: On Leaf-Arrangement, or Phyllotaxis", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "proved", "proof": "lean", "verification": "lean", "math": true, "theorem": true, "notation": "\\tfrac{1}{2}, \\tfrac{2}{3}, \\tfrac{3}{5}, \\tfrac{5}{8}, \\dots \\to (\\sqrt{5} - 1)/2 \\approx 0.618", "lean_theorems": [ "ThompsonLaws.HornsLeavesEggs.phyllotacticFraction_tendsto_goldenMean" ], "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.369, "truth": 0.085, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.05 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.12 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.73, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA0u0vxNyidnHzGFBc9x14aZgtFbFRFyD17sDFO8ATfTU", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch14-11", "key": "28342e7f7137c99f", "label": "Close approximations to the golden mean are rare; poor ones like 2/3 are common", "statement": "Against the 'ideal angle' theory, phyllotactic arrangements that closely approximate the golden mean (8/13, 13/21, 34/55 and higher) are comparatively rare, while poorer approximations such as 3/5, 2/3 and 1/2 are extremely common.", "quote": "the arrangements by which a better approximation is got, such as 8/13, 13/21, and the very close approximations such as 34/55, 55/89, 89/144, etc., are comparatively rare, while the much less close approximations of 3/5 or 2/3, or even 1/2, are extremely common.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XIV: On Leaf-Arrangement, or Phyllotaxis", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.689, "truth": 0.56, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.8 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.32 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.72, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAsn7S-tFE38XsyodxJLUtUolMmS7pPDARQxP_De-5efM", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch14-12", "key": "fc253b61bf8b0f8b", "label": "Leaf exposure is changed far more by internode length than by divergence angle", "statement": "If leaves benefit from being spread apart for exposure to air, lengthening the axis to separate them vertically has a far greater effect than any adjustment of the divergence angle, so the azimuthal 'ideal angle' cannot be the plant's means of optimising exposure.", "quote": "then it is surely manifest that the simple way to do so is to elongate the axis, and to set the leaves further apart, lengthways on the stem. This has at once a far more potent effect than any nice manipulation of the “angle of divergence.”", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XIV: On Leaf-Arrangement, or Phyllotaxis", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.58, "truth": 0.445, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.45 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.44 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.66, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAu68I-v_AF3pSr3cQPv5U3E5pj0YH8dTigBMAKj7TLn0", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch14-13", "key": "758bf2b86f55bcfa", "label": "The Fibonacci series has no adaptive role introduced by natural selection", "statement": "The Fibonacci series in phyllotaxis, its supposed usefulness, and the hypothesis that natural selection introduced it into plant structure have no place in the study of botanical phenomena.", "quote": "We come then, without more ado, to the conclusion that the “Fibonacci series,” and its supposed usefulness, and the hypothesis of its introduction into plant-structure through natural selection, are all matters which deserve no place in the plain study of botanical phenomena.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XIV: On Leaf-Arrangement, or Phyllotaxis", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [ { "id": "douady-magnetic-drop-phyllotaxis", "relation": "models", "note": "The magnetic-drop simulation produces Fibonacci parastichy pairs purely from physical repulsion and the plastochron ratio, formalising the Thompson view that Fibonacci phyllotaxis needs no selective explanation.", "label": "Douady & Couder (1992, 1996) self-organized magnetic-drop phyllotaxis & imperfect pitchfork cascade faithfully reproduces Pinus sp. conifer seed cone & botanical shoot apical meristem (SAM) morphology", "organism": "Pinus sp. conifer seed cone & botanical shoot apical meristem (SAM)", "verdict": "faithful", "score": 90.2, "thompson_verdict": null, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAf6Qw7oGrYc9Gdb7YwdInM-rDxcKMCxstfBwNyqAx6mc", "registry": "production", "report": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/morphoeval/kg/2026-10-19-magnetic-drop-phyllotaxis-audit-v3/REPORT.md" } ], "thumbnail": { "file": "docs/thumbs/douady-magnetic-drop-phyllotaxis.jpg", "morpholib": "douady-magnetic-drop-phyllotaxis", "source": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/docs/media/magnetic_drop_phyllotaxis_growth.gif" }, "testability": 0.347, "truth": 0.075, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.08 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.07 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.74, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RACSMqBWYyihYpq2yRVNpEFUBe83H6BQTo7ndJnY2U0G4", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch15-01", "key": "a28668a7b87ae9d5", "label": "Eggs are prolate spheroids, never oblate", "statement": "Hard-shelled eggs, while often pointed, are never flattened or discoidal: they are prolate, never oblate, solids of revolution.", "quote": "It is an obvious but by no means negligible fact that the egg, while often pointed, is never flattened or discoidal; it is a prolate, but never an oblate, spheroid.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XV: On the Shapes of Eggs, and of Certain Other Hollow Structures", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "supports", "evidence_kind": "biological", "data_test": { "verdict": "supports", "confidence": 0.6, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "biological", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/thompson-growth-form/thompson1917-ch15-01/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered. For each species with a mean egg length L (pole-to-pole) and breadth B (maximum equatorial diameter) in the Deeming & Ruta 2014 amniote egg compilation (Dryad doi:10.5061/dryad.s9227) and the 955-species bird egg-shape compilation (Dryad doi:10.5061/dryad.sj3tx9648), compute the elongation L/B. Groups: birds, Testudines, Crocodylia (hard-shelled, in scope); Squamata reported separately as out of scope (mostly parchment-shelled). Supports if, in every in-scope group, zero species have L/B < 1.00, and the fraction of species within 5% of a sphere (L/B < 1.05) is reported together with the minimum L/B per group.", "disconfirming_observation": "Refutes if any in-scope species has a mean L/B < 0.98 (polar axis robustly shorter than equatorial diameter, beyond ~2% measurement error) in either compilation. Mixed if the smallest in-scope L/B lies in [0.98, 1.00), i.e. a species indistinguishable from oblate within measurement error.", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: dryad-s9227-deeming-ruta-2014-amniote-eggs, dryad-sj3tx9648-bird-egg-shape-955spp", "inference_method": "Downloaded the Amniote Life-History Database CSV (21,322 rows), kept rows with both egg_length_mm and egg_width_mm recorded (594 species), and computed elongation L/B per species. Species were grouped as Aves (167), Testudines (16), Crocodilia (9) in scope and Squamata (402) out of scope. For each group the count of species with L/B < 1.00 (oblate as recorded), L/B < 0.98 (robustly oblate) and L/B < 1.05 (near-spherical) was tabulated with the minimum and quantiles of L/B.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [ { "id": "thompson1917-t1917-034", "relation": "tests", "note": "The audit fits the Preston ovoid family to measured profiles of real bird eggs (1389 auk/penguin eggs, 181 species), checking that eggs are prolate solids of revolution, never oblate.", "label": "Thompson (1917) Ch. XV: eggs as solids of revolution of a definite, species-varying family of ovoid meridian curves (Preston 1953 family on Biggins et al. 2018 / Deeming 2018 data) faithfully reproduces Aves egg shells: Uria aalge (Common Guillemot), Vanellus vanellus (Northern Lapwing), Strix aluco (Tawny Owl), Podiceps cristatus (Great Crested Grebe); 30 auk + penguin species (1389 eggs); 181 species / 30 orders morphology", "organism": "Aves egg shells: Uria aalge (Common Guillemot), Vanellus vanellus (Northern Lapwing), Strix aluco (Tawny Owl), Podiceps cristatus (Great Crested Grebe)", "verdict": "faithful", "score": 90.1, "thompson_verdict": "supported", "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAdQi5oU7RbDrR7pNQpuWOi0f6oYOTg_qoyMp4QRvUBFM", "registry": "test", "report": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/morphoeval/kg/2026-10-28-t1917-034-on-the-shapes-of-eggs-and-of-c-audit-v2/REPORT.md" } ], "thumbnail": { "file": "docs/thumbs/thompson1917-t1917-034.jpg", "morpholib": "thompson1917-t1917-034", "source": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/docs/media/t1917_034_on_the_shapes_of_eggs_and_of_c_growth.gif" }, "testability": 0.895, "truth": 0.805, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.75 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.86 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.9, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAo_OtoKz09Xj4xX2NMWlY7ar3c16r0JOzCoN7ZoBv_44", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch15-02", "key": "1dc45d480552b82a", "label": "The most pointed eggs are those largest relative to the parent bird", "statement": "As a very common rule, the most asymmetrical, posteriorly tapered eggs are those that are large relative to the parent bird (guillemot, curlews, sandpipers, terns), because they are under the greatest pressure in the oviduct; relatively large but symmetrical eggs (apteryx) imply a relatively large oviduct.", "quote": "It can be shown, at least as a very common rule, that those eggs which are most unsymmetrical, or most tapered off posteriorly, are also eggs of a large size relatively to the parent bird.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XV: On the Shapes of Eggs, and of Certain Other Hollow Structures", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.724, "truth": 0.375, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.35 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.4 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.775, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAPM8i52uonqzWhJzTQQS_QSwRMJh8tAZMntKh3omm7V8", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch15-03", "key": "805a4850f26c8d61", "label": "A pullet's first eggs are smaller and rounder than its later ones", "statement": "In the domestic fowl egg size and shape are directly related: a young pullet's first eggs are smaller and more nearly spherical than later ones, and breeds laying relatively smaller eggs lay rounder eggs.", "quote": "In the case of the common fowl we can trace a direct relation between the size and shape of the egg, for the first eggs laid by a young pullet are usually smaller, and at the same time are much more nearly spherical than the later ones", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XV: On the Shapes of Eggs, and of Certain Other Hollow Structures", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.643, "truth": 0.565, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.55 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.58 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.625, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAHc1v3CGm-s9kPc3kzsC3awofNp_X2GgmBQGiZ564HJ8", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch15-04", "key": "b1f0c71ecc4e0737", "label": "Peristaltic pressure behind the egg's middle makes the front blunt and rear pointed", "statement": "Peristaltic contraction of the oviduct applies greatest pressure behind the middle of the forming egg, making the anterior end broader and the posterior narrower; the resulting tapered form also favours movement down the oviduct blunt end first.", "quote": "from the nature and direction of motion of the peristaltic wave the pressure will be greatest somewhere behind the middle of the egg; in other words, the tube is converted for the time being into a more conical form, and the simple result follows that the anterior end of the egg becomes the broader and the posterior end the narrower.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XV: On the Shapes of Eggs, and of Certain Other Hollow Structures", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.408, "truth": 0.45, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.4 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.5 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.73, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RALozZymvg6HfWGuvUY-QX9a2i2aAjmb0p9-nDtSE2M9E", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch15-05", "key": "d5e9f1b23ac24a9e", "label": "Egg shape is caused by radial pressure of the oviduct before the shell hardens", "statement": "The essential cause of the form and variation of form of an egg is the regularly varying, largely radial pressure applied by successive rings of the oviduct before the shell solidifies, not adaptation to nesting circumstances.", "quote": "this factor, the unknown but regularly varying, largely radial, pressure applied by successive annuli of the oviduct, is the essential cause of the form, and variations of form, of the egg.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XV: On the Shapes of Eggs, and of Certain Other Hollow Structures", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.511, "truth": 0.46, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.25 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.67 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.75, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAROQjmpZK67RBQeayqu5rIeRbawmNZIoqbGnrUwcipkk", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch15-06", "key": "a5469cc4cce79db9", "label": "Egg form obeys p_n + T(1/r + 1/r′) = P, the equation of all eggs", "statement": "The shape of an egg, as an extensible membrane filled with incompressible fluid under external pressure, obeys p_n + T(1/r + 1/r′) = P (external normal pressure plus membrane tension times total curvature equals internal pressure), which Thompson calls the equation of all eggs.", "quote": "In fact, in so far as the postulates correspond near enough to actualities, the above equation is the equation of _all eggs_ in the universe.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XV: On the Shapes of Eggs, and of Certain Other Hollow Structures", "kind": "mathematical-law", "status": "proved", "proof": "lean", "verification": "lean", "math": true, "theorem": true, "notation": "p_n + T/r + T'/r' = P; with equal tensions p_n + T(1/r + 1/r') = P", "lean_theorems": [ "ThompsonLaws.HornsLeavesEggs.eggEquation_equalTensions", "ThompsonLaws.HornsLeavesEggs.egg_flatter_where_pressed", "ThompsonLaws.HornsLeavesEggs.egg_uniformPressure_constCurvature" ], "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [ { "id": "thompson1917-t1917-034", "relation": "models", "note": "The audit checks the internal consistency of Thompson's membrane equation p_n + T(1/r + 1/r') = P but not the oviduct-pressure cause.", "label": "Thompson (1917) Ch. XV: eggs as solids of revolution of a definite, species-varying family of ovoid meridian curves (Preston 1953 family on Biggins et al. 2018 / Deeming 2018 data) faithfully reproduces Aves egg shells: Uria aalge (Common Guillemot), Vanellus vanellus (Northern Lapwing), Strix aluco (Tawny Owl), Podiceps cristatus (Great Crested Grebe); 30 auk + penguin species (1389 eggs); 181 species / 30 orders morphology", "organism": "Aves egg shells: Uria aalge (Common Guillemot), Vanellus vanellus (Northern Lapwing), Strix aluco (Tawny Owl), Podiceps cristatus (Great Crested Grebe)", "verdict": "faithful", "score": 90.1, "thompson_verdict": "supported", "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAdQi5oU7RbDrR7pNQpuWOi0f6oYOTg_qoyMp4QRvUBFM", "registry": "test", "report": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/morphoeval/kg/2026-10-28-t1917-034-on-the-shapes-of-eggs-and-of-c-audit-v2/REPORT.md" } ], "thumbnail": { "file": "docs/thumbs/thompson1917-t1917-034.jpg", "morpholib": "thompson1917-t1917-034", "source": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/docs/media/t1917_034_on_the_shapes_of_eggs_and_of_c_growth.gif" }, "testability": 0.499, "truth": 0.64, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.7 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.58 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.7, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAXKwRCLCa3R5UIF5iKBcWmfn-opUz39GZER3DipH9dJY", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch15-07", "key": "d36bf8d4ac7e866c", "label": "Membrane tension peaks at the small end, where abnormal eggs are irregular", "statement": "In conical eggs with spherical ends, the tension of the envelope is greatest at and near the small end, so that is where eggs are most likely to be distorted or to burst and where abnormal eggs most often show irregularities.", "quote": "further, that the tension _T_ is greatest at and near the small end of the egg. It is here, in short, that the egg is most likely to be irregularly distorted or even to burst, and it is here that we most commonly find irregularities of shape in abnormal eggs.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XV: On the Shapes of Eggs, and of Certain Other Hollow Structures", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.531, "truth": 0.28, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.3 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.26 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.635, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RARL38s9n1zf7MHx6-uxlk_Ee1-IUUTQeA1uGpQx-UbUc", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch15-08", "key": "699c7591c5c0ac83", "label": "Lateral spine of Schistosoma eggs is moulded in the ootype, not a species mark", "statement": "Following Looss, the lateral spine of some Schistosoma eggs is moulded mechanically in a funnel-shaped part of the uterus, so lateral- and terminal-spined eggs are mechanical variants of one thing and do not show the existence of a separate species, S. mansoni.", "quote": "It ascribes to a mechanical cause a curious peculiarity of form; it shews, by reference to this mechanical principle, that two conditions which were very different to the systematic naturalist’s eye, were really only two simple mechanical modifications of the same thing; and it destroys the chief evidence for the existence of a supposed new species of worm", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XV: On the Shapes of Eggs, and of Certain Other Hollow Structures", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "refutes", "evidence_kind": "biological", "data_test": { "verdict": "refutes", "confidence": 0.97, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "biological", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/thompson-growth-form/thompson1917-ch15-08/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered (claim supported). Using GenBank cox1 sequences (up to 40 per nominal species, chosen by a fixed random seed from all records >= 400 bp, hybrids excluded by title), pairwise uncorrected p-distances computed on pairwise alignments over >= 300 overlapping sites: the mean S. mansoni vs S. haematobium distance is <= 0.03, or the distributions overlap (minimum between-group distance smaller than the maximum within-group distance of either species, i.e. no barcode gap).", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered (claim refuted). The minimum S. mansoni vs S. haematobium distance exceeds the maximum within-species distance of both S. mansoni and S. haematobium (complete barcode gap), the mean between-group distance is >= 0.10, and that mean is at least as large as the mean distance between each of two universally recognised distinct species pairs measured the same way (S. haematobium vs S. bovis; S. mansoni vs S. rodhaini). Any other combination is 'mixed'. If fewer than 10 usable sequences per focal species can be retrieved the verdict is 'inconclusive' (data-unavailable).", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: ncbi-genbank-schistosoma-cox1", "inference_method": "fetch.py queries NCBI E-utilities for cox1 records of each nominal species, subsamples them with a fixed seed, and writes the FASTA (committed, 128 KB) and an accession list. analysis.py aligns every pair of sequences locally (Biopython PairwiseAligner, both orientations), computes the uncorrected p-distance over aligned A/C/G/T columns (pairs with < 300 such columns discarded; 9354 of 10440 pairs retained), and summarises distances within S. mansoni, within S. haematobium, between them, and between recognised species pairs (S. haematobium vs S. bovis, S. mansoni vs S. rodhaini, and others) for calibration.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": { "verdict": "not-representative", "assessors": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "verdict": "not-representative", "confidence": 0.98, "file": "test-data/claim-tests/thompson-growth-form/thompson1917-ch15-08/faithfulness.json" }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "verdict": "not-representative", "confidence": 0.9, "file": "test-data/claim-tests/thompson-growth-form/thompson1917-ch15-08/faithfulness.grok.json" } ], "status": "agreed" } }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.814, "truth": 0.025, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.01 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.04 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.86, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAmjIcDrmQEt1VesWGvMC74hyKgpwmOarjpLivnEWmC44", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch15-09", "key": "759d038e26dac8f5", "label": "Sea-urchin shell outlines match liquid drops flattened by gravity", "statement": "The vertical outlines of regular sea-urchin shells are the forms of liquid drops depressed by gravity (with the pull of the tube-feet), their degree of flattening varying with the tension or strength of the shell: strong shells (Palaeechinus) stay nearly spherical, soft flexible ones (Phormosoma) are most flattened.", "quote": "but we have no difficulty in seeing that the various forms represented in a series of sea-urchin shells are no other than those which we may easily and perfectly imitate in drops.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XV: On the Shapes of Eggs, and of Certain Other Hollow Structures", "kind": "mathematical-law", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": true, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.621, "truth": 0.19, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.1 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.28 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.67, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA91V6506n1Z7O7VgLx4MwBX0NnCNv0G4ubU4dBo_jpSw", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch15-10", "key": "d3711b8be71b0ab5", "label": "Vessel wall thickness tracks radius in large arteries but falls off in small ones", "statement": "Under constant pressure the wall thickness of a blood-vessel should vary as its radius (P = T/R); because pressure falls with friction from large to small arteries, wall thickness is proportional to vessel size in larger vessels but becomes disproportionately thin in small arteries and capillaries.", "quote": "and accordingly we find that while, for a time, the cross-sections of the larger and smaller vessels are symmetrical figures, with the wall-thickness proportional to the size of the tube, this proportion is gradually lost, and the walls of the small arteries, and still more of the capillaries, become exceedingly thin, and more so than in strict proportion to the narrowing of the tube.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XV: On the Shapes of Eggs, and of Certain Other Hollow Structures", "kind": "mathematical-law", "status": "proved", "proof": "lean", "verification": "lean", "math": true, "theorem": true, "notation": "P = T/R; at constant P, wall thickness t \\propto R", "lean_theorems": [ "ThompsonLaws.HornsLeavesEggs.vesselWall_eq", "ThompsonLaws.HornsLeavesEggs.vesselWall_relThinner" ], "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.62, "truth": 0.495, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.65 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.34 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.665, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA73-nW1a9UEeO5kJmUybySiViimrtDdYzPs8W_S9SOPU", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch15-11", "key": "265b3fb42431557e", "label": "Heart wall thickness varies inversely with the mean curvature of the chamber", "statement": "Within each cavity of the heart, where pressure is uniform, wall thickness t varies inversely as the mean curvature, t(1/r + 1/r′) = C, so the highly curved apex of the left ventricle is thinnest.", "quote": "that is to say, that the thickness (_t_) of the wall varies inversely as the mean curvature.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XV: On the Shapes of Eggs, and of Certain Other Hollow Structures", "kind": "mathematical-law", "status": "proved", "proof": "lean", "verification": "lean", "math": true, "theorem": true, "notation": "t(1/r + 1/r') = C within each cavity of the heart", "lean_theorems": [ "ThompsonLaws.HornsLeavesEggs.heartWall_mul_curvature", "ThompsonLaws.HornsLeavesEggs.heartWall_thinner_where_curved" ], "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.703, "truth": 0.605, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.55 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.66 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.73, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RADaVaE07-gB7w6iYoISoZ64RH-IGDCxLsG5AW_fB2CP4", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch15-12", "key": "56997987b5120e39", "label": "Left ventricle wall is 6–7 times right's, matching the pressure ratio", "statement": "The left ventricle requires six to seven times the dilating pressure of the right, and its wall thickness is greater in the same proportion.", "quote": "we find (1) that we have had to use a pressure in the left ventricle from six to seven times as great as in the right ventricle, and (2) that the thickness of the walls is just in the same proportion.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XV: On the Shapes of Eggs, and of Certain Other Hollow Structures", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "proved", "proof": "lean", "verification": "lean", "math": true, "theorem": true, "notation": "P_L/P_R \\approx 6\\text{--}7 \\approx t_L/t_R", "lean_theorems": [ "ThompsonLaws.HornsLeavesEggs.ventricleThickness_ratio" ], "formalization": null, "evidence": "refutes", "evidence_kind": "biological", "data_test": { "verdict": "refutes", "confidence": 0.8, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "biological", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/thompson-growth-form/thompson1917-ch15-12/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "LV/RV free-wall thickness ratio of about 6-7 in normal hearts, and LV/RV systolic pressure ratio of about 6-7, with the two ratios within a third of each other.", "disconfirming_observation": "LV/RV free-wall thickness ratio well below 6 (< 4.5) or well above 7 (> 9.5) in normal hearts, or a thickness ratio that differs from the pressure ratio by more than ~1.67-fold.", "admissible_datasets": "Measured wall thickness of both ventricles in morphologically normal mammalian hearts (autopsy or imaging), with sample sizes reported; measured systemic and pulmonary/RV systolic pressures in healthy individuals of the same species; sources independent of Thompson; publicly accessible.", "inference_method": "Ratios of published per-sex means (thickness) and of measured population medians / published normal ranges (pressure), compared with the pre-registered intervals around 6-7.", "explicit": true }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": { "verdict": "faithful-with-narrower-scope", "assessors": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "verdict": "faithful-with-narrower-scope", "confidence": 0.84, "file": "test-data/claim-tests/thompson-growth-form/thompson1917-ch15-12/faithfulness.json" } ], "status": "agreed" } }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.765, "truth": 0.225, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.15 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.3 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.775, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAUuMafP2GfuMNKMdg6S7dKjytFzfxu0Ac45hBIoagLuA", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch15-13", "key": "bb3c081f306e01fb", "label": "Blood-vessels are arranged for minimum effort and minimum wall-surface", "statement": "The form and arrangement of blood-vessels are such that circulation proceeds with a minimum of effort and a minimum of wall-surface (and hence of friction).", "quote": "The general principle is that the form and arrangement of the blood-vessels is such that the circulation proceeds with a minimum of effort, and with a minimum of wall-surface, the latter condition leading to a minimum of friction and being therefore included in the first.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XV: On the Shapes of Eggs, and of Certain Other Hollow Structures", "kind": "mathematical-law", "status": "proved", "proof": "lean", "verification": "lean", "math": true, "theorem": true, "notation": "r^3 \\propto Q, \\quad r_0^3 = r_1^3 + r_2^3", "lean_theorems": [ "ThompsonLaws.MurrayCubic.poiseuilleCost_lt_of_stationary", "ThompsonLaws.MurrayCubic.murray_cube_prop", "ThompsonLaws.MurrayCubic.murray_junction", "ThompsonLaws.MurrayCubic.vesselCost_lt", "ThompsonLaws.MurrayCubic.eq_optimalRadius_of_isMin", "ThompsonLaws.MurrayCubic.optimalRadius_rpow_junctionExponent", "ThompsonLaws.MurrayCubic.junction_law", "ThompsonLaws.MurrayCubic.junctionExponent_poiseuille", "ThompsonLaws.MurrayCubic.junctionExponent_wallSurface", "ThompsonLaws.MurrayCubic.junctionExponent_eq_seven_thirds_iff", "ThompsonLaws.MurrayCubic.seven_thirds_not_unique", "ThompsonLaws.MurrayCubic.seven_thirds_nat", "ThompsonLaws.MurrayCubic.darcyPower_eq", "ThompsonLaws.MurrayCubic.junctionExponent_laminar", "ThompsonLaws.MurrayCubic.junctionExponent_blasius", "ThompsonLaws.MurrayCubic.junctionExponent_friction_seven_thirds_iff" ], "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [ { "id": "murray-vascular-cube-law-branching", "relation": "models", "note": "Murray's minimum-work principle (Poiseuille pumping power plus vessel-volume cost) is the formalisation of Thompson's claim that vessels are arranged for minimum effort and minimum wall surface.", "label": "Murray (1926a, 1926b), Zamir (1976) & Sherman (1981) minimum-work vascular cube law & arterial branching angles faithfully reproduces Homo sapiens (human retinal arterial and microvascular bifurcation network) morphology", "organism": "Homo sapiens (human retinal arterial and microvascular bifurcation network)", "verdict": "faithful", "score": 89.2, "thompson_verdict": null, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAwiPMFhnaGQ2rOOvptsjVpvICmutT4p3M4HDfVVr87No", "registry": "production", "report": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/morphoeval/kg/2026-10-19-vascular-cube-law-branching-audit-v3/REPORT.md" } ], "thumbnail": { "file": "docs/thumbs/murray-vascular-cube-law-branching.jpg", "morpholib": "murray-vascular-cube-law-branching", "source": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/docs/media/vascular_cube_law_branching_growth.gif" }, "testability": 0.573, "truth": 0.59, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.55 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.63 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.635, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA8oJHYL8HPgEq_UHJw1rUZMaaQ3vvTf84B3E1BsjidsY", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch15-14", "key": "6d361d58780b3318", "label": "Small arterial branches leave at large angles, large branches at small angles", "statement": "Small arterial branches come off the main stem at large angles (about 70°–90° for the smallest) and large branches at small angles, with equal branches diverging at equal angles, as Roux's rules state.", "quote": "In other words, it would seem that for small branches a large angle of bifurcation, and for large branches a small one, is always the better.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XV: On the Shapes of Eggs, and of Certain Other Hollow Structures", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [ { "id": "murray-vascular-cube-law-branching", "relation": "models", "note": "The minimum-work angle law implemented for retinal bifurcations predicts Roux's rules that small branches leave at near-right angles and large branches at small angles.", "label": "Murray (1926a, 1926b), Zamir (1976) & Sherman (1981) minimum-work vascular cube law & arterial branching angles faithfully reproduces Homo sapiens (human retinal arterial and microvascular bifurcation network) morphology", "organism": "Homo sapiens (human retinal arterial and microvascular bifurcation network)", "verdict": "faithful", "score": 89.2, "thompson_verdict": null, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAwiPMFhnaGQ2rOOvptsjVpvICmutT4p3M4HDfVVr87No", "registry": "production", "report": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/morphoeval/kg/2026-10-19-vascular-cube-law-branching-audit-v3/REPORT.md" } ], "thumbnail": { "file": "docs/thumbs/murray-vascular-cube-law-branching.jpg", "morpholib": "murray-vascular-cube-law-branching", "source": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/docs/media/vascular_cube_law_branching_growth.gif" }, "testability": 0.746, "truth": 0.77, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.8 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.74 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.77, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAm-ZNSxT6U_m-KPezmmsYJrgYgwXhGs8P2EETWTPpFJ8", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch15-15", "key": "14578299a6411437", "label": "Optimal branching angle has cosine equal to ratio of energy loss in trunk and branch", "statement": "The most favourable angle at which an arterial branch leaves its trunk is that whose cosine equals the ratio of energy loss per unit length in the main vessel to that in the branch (cos x = L/L′).", "quote": "That is to say, the most favourable angle of branching will be such that the cosine of the angle is equal to the ratio of the loss of energy which the blood undergoes, per unit of length, in the main vessel, as compared with that which it undergoes in the branch.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XV: On the Shapes of Eggs, and of Certain Other Hollow Structures", "kind": "mathematical-law", "status": "proved", "proof": "lean", "verification": "lean", "math": true, "theorem": true, "notation": "\\cos x = L/L', L and L' the energy loss per unit length in trunk and branch", "lean_theorems": [ "ThompsonLaws.HornsLeavesEggs.branchEnergyLoss_hasDerivAt", "ThompsonLaws.HornsLeavesEggs.branchEnergyLoss_stationary_iff" ], "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [ { "id": "murray-vascular-cube-law-branching", "relation": "models", "note": "Murray's (1926b) minimum-work branching-angle optimum is the cos x = L/L' energy-loss-ratio angle rule the claim states.", "label": "Murray (1926a, 1926b), Zamir (1976) & Sherman (1981) minimum-work vascular cube law & arterial branching angles faithfully reproduces Homo sapiens (human retinal arterial and microvascular bifurcation network) morphology", "organism": "Homo sapiens (human retinal arterial and microvascular bifurcation network)", "verdict": "faithful", "score": 89.2, "thompson_verdict": null, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAwiPMFhnaGQ2rOOvptsjVpvICmutT4p3M4HDfVVr87No", "registry": "production", "report": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/morphoeval/kg/2026-10-19-vascular-cube-law-branching-audit-v3/REPORT.md" } ], "thumbnail": { "file": "docs/thumbs/murray-vascular-cube-law-branching.jpg", "morpholib": "murray-vascular-cube-law-branching", "source": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/docs/media/vascular_cube_law_branching_growth.gif" }, "testability": 0.555, "truth": 0.555, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.75 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.36 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.655, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA-SJb2Jq4E9J4HCgt9aR7hoCkkWo5vDDSqitI58T55JY", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch16-01", "key": "29a21408e87639ab", "label": "Mechanical adaptations of form are demonstrable, unlike colour adaptations", "statement": "Unlike explanations of colouration as cryptic, warning or mimetic, which cannot be demonstrated, the fitness of organic form for mechanical functions such as swimming or flight can be analysed and established in detail by statics and dynamics.", "quote": "But of a very different order from all such “adaptations” as these, are those very perfect adaptations of form which, for instance, fit a fish for swimming or a bird for flight. Here we are far above the region of mere hypothesis, for we have to deal with questions of mechanical efficiency where statical and dynamical considerations can be applied and established in detail.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XVI: On Form and Mechanical Efficiency", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.297, "truth": 0.24, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.2 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.28 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.68, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA9H7TT5WcneAlvZFzLrqb51NvT4T_DnRrhWSABA0NwDI", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch16-02", "key": "95e065861d1b29bb", "label": "Bone is nearly as strong in tension as in compression", "statement": "Fresh bone resists tearing almost as well as it resists crushing (tensile strength about 9–12 and crushing strength about 13–16 kg per sq. mm), which makes it an economical structural material that can serve equally as tie or strut.", "quote": "At first sight, bone seems weak indeed; but it has the great and unusual advantage that it is very nearly as good for a tie as for a strut, nearly as strong to withstand rupture, or tearing asunder, as to resist crushing.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XVI: On Form and Mechanical Efficiency", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.657, "truth": 0.775, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.85 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.7 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.71, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RALHvHGfD7oN2AOlOUiAltom2nBzmGg7mEsopbl1CsgAE", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch16-03", "key": "36b39f3217949c30", "label": "Structures that must resist bending are built as hollow tubes", "statement": "Where stiffness against bending in all directions is required, organisms use a hollow cylindrical construction with little or no material in the core, as in the thin-walled, almost empty wing bones of long-winged birds such as the albatross, quills, and hollow stems of reeds and straw.", "quote": "it is appropriate in every case where _stiffness_ is required, where bending has to be resisted. The long bone of a bird’s wing has little or no weight to carry, but it has to withstand powerful bending moments; and in the arm-bone of a long-winged bird, such as an albatross, we see the tubular construction manifested in its perfection", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XVI: On Form and Mechanical Efficiency", "kind": "mathematical-law", "status": "proved", "proof": "lean", "verification": "lean", "math": true, "theorem": true, "notation": "A = \\sqrt{4\\pi I}\\,\\sqrt{\\tfrac{1-k^2}{1+k^2}} \\text{ strictly decreasing in } k; \\quad \\mu'(k) = 0 \\iff k^2 = 1 - q, \\; 0 < q < 1", "lean_theorems": [ "ThompsonLaws.HollowTube.tubeArea_fixedStiffness", "ThompsonLaws.HollowTube.gasCoreAreaFactor_strictAntiOn", "ThompsonLaws.HollowTube.tubeArea_lt_of_sameStiffness", "ThompsonLaws.HollowTube.gasCore_no_interior_min", "ThompsonLaws.HollowTube.tubeMass_fixedStiffness", "ThompsonLaws.HollowTube.massFactor_zero", "ThompsonLaws.HollowTube.massFactor_hasDerivAt", "ThompsonLaws.HollowTube.massFactor_deriv_eq_zero_iff", "ThompsonLaws.HollowTube.interior_critical_exists_iff", "ThompsonLaws.HollowTube.massFactor_at_optimum", "ThompsonLaws.HollowTube.massFactor_lt_of_ne_optimum", "ThompsonLaws.HollowTube.massFactor_solid_optimal", "ThompsonLaws.HollowTube.massFactor_strictAntiOn", "ThompsonLaws.HollowTube.constrained_optimum", "ThompsonLaws.HollowTube.gasCore_constrained_optimum" ], "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.633, "truth": 0.91, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.9 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.92 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.68, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA0if5_NNPx73SyykanB4qb44JvfGpI69hTYlE8iesVYI", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch16-04", "key": "77309400c0a941f9", "label": "Femoral wall thickness follows the bending-moment distribution along the shaft", "statement": "Because bending strain is greatest at mid-length of a bent column, the walls of a long bone such as the femur are thickest in the middle of the shaft and thin gradually towards the ends, so that wall thickness forms a graph of the bending moments along the bone.", "quote": "Hence, if our cylindrical column be exposed to strong bending stresses, it will be prudent and economical to make its walls thickest in the middle and thinning off gradually towards the ends; and if we look at a longitudinal section of a thigh-bone, we shall see that this is just what nature has done.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XVI: On Form and Mechanical Efficiency", "kind": "mathematical-law", "status": "proved", "proof": "lean", "verification": "lean", "math": true, "theorem": true, "notation": "wall thickness t(x) \\propto bending moment M(x), maximal at mid-shaft", "lean_theorems": [ "ThompsonLaws.Mechanics.uniformStressThickness_stress", "ThompsonLaws.Mechanics.uniformStressThickness_prop", "ThompsonLaws.Mechanics.uniformStressThickness_max_mid" ], "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.722, "truth": 0.695, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.75 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.64 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.75, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAVhkTXKPR8s-aCpI64kp4Q6n-sLtVvBcrFpmxooEGT4M", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch16-05", "key": "21356a107b7e562e", "label": "Trabeculae of cancellous bone follow the lines of compressive and tensile stress", "statement": "The trabeculae of cancellous bone, as in the head of the femur, are arranged along the principal lines of compressive and tensile stress of the loaded bone, crossing one another at right angles, exactly as in the engineer's stress diagram of a comparable structure such as a crane-head.", "quote": "and we have no difficulty in seeing that the anatomical arrangement of the trabeculae follows precisely the mechanical distribution of compressive and tensile stress or, in other words, accords perfectly with the theoretical stress-diagram of the crane.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XVI: On Form and Mechanical Efficiency", "kind": "mathematical-law", "status": "proved", "proof": "lean", "verification": "lean", "math": true, "theorem": true, "notation": "trabeculae lie along the principal stress trajectories \\sigma_1, \\sigma_2, crossing at 90^\\circ", "lean_theorems": [ "ThompsonLaws.Mechanics.principalDirections_orthogonal" ], "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.63, "truth": 0.665, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.55 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.78 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.7, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAYpvB56WM_YiCiUIllVoYsbBKaHFKRPHZqAqNjSnpxxQ", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch16-06", "key": "32ca88ca4d4219c5", "label": "Shear removes obliquely laid trabeculae, leaving those aligned with stress lines", "statement": "Trabecular alignment arises because a trabecula laid down along a pressure or tension line is undisturbed, since there is no shear along those lines, whereas one lying obliquely is acted on by shearing force and displaced until it comes into line with the stress.", "quote": "If it lie in the direction of one of the pressure-lines, for instance, it will be in a position of comparative equilibrium, or minimal disturbance; but if it be inclined obliquely to the pressure-lines, the shearing force will at once tend to act upon it and move it away.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XVI: On Form and Mechanical Efficiency", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.363, "truth": 0.185, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.15 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.22 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.645, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAEQGWeH4qIjqb9XqQRURRCPE1qeu27tIzJp3dRiFmGk4", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch16-07", "key": "0aa432e6c0a1a015", "label": "Trabecular architecture remodels to new force patterns after malunited fracture", "statement": "Trabecular arrangement is produced by the forces acting on the bone, not by heredity: when a fracture heals with the parts displaced so that the stress lines are redistributed, the trabecular system is entirely remodelled within weeks to align with the new forces, even at a distance from the injury.", "quote": "If a bone be broken and so repaired that its parts lie somewhat out of their former place, so that the pressure-and tension-lines have now a new distribution, before many weeks are over the trabecular system will be found to have been entirely remodelled, so as to fall into line with the new system of forces.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XVI: On Form and Mechanical Efficiency", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.502, "truth": 0.615, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.65 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.58 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.69, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA58_2pERUV2r8cC3Ql-_AYDPXGJ9OiCvQlkKIF8A-024", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch16-08", "key": "7718f70347f2985a", "label": "Mechanical strain directly stimulates growth", "statement": "A state of strain produced by stress is a direct stimulus to growth, so that tissues under increased load grow stronger or thicker, as when the fibula of a puppy whose tibia was excised grew as thick as or thicker than the normal tibia.", "quote": "a condition of _strain_, the result of a _stress_, is a direct stimulus to growth itself. This indeed is no less than one of the cardinal facts of theoretical biology.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XVI: On Form and Mechanical Efficiency", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [ { "id": "bailleul-allometric-cranial-sutures", "relation": "models", "note": "Couples masticatory strain to osteogenic front growth so that suture interdigitation collapses under mechanical unloading, implementing strain as a direct growth stimulus.", "label": "Miura et al. (2009) & Jaslow (1990) cranial suture fractal interdigitation, Kuramoto-Sivashinsky osteogenic instability, quasi-3D plate layering and reduced-order masticatory strain coupling faithfully reproduces Homo sapiens and Mus musculus coronal, sagittal and lambdoid calvarial skull sutures morphology", "organism": "Homo sapiens and Mus musculus coronal, sagittal and lambdoid calvarial skull sutures", "verdict": "faithful", "score": 86.5, "thompson_verdict": null, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAPcVNWmIf1vZzFxVkB2KCvGZgUVNtqPIx51UJzmpUaHs", "registry": "production", "report": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/morphoeval/kg/2026-10-19-allometric-cranial-sutures-audit-v3/REPORT.md" } ], "thumbnail": { "file": "docs/thumbs/bailleul-allometric-cranial-sutures.jpg", "morpholib": "bailleul-allometric-cranial-sutures", "source": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/docs/media/allometric_cranial_sutures_growth.gif" }, "testability": 0.506, "truth": 0.815, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.85 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.78 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.61, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RApK3NLwbNFhKdk38PPmKVwZfPxJyrplNm3NFg_jbhNT0", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch16-09", "key": "9dc4eddb4d600490", "label": "The quadruped backbone is a double-armed cantilever girder, not an arch", "statement": "Because the jointed legs cannot resist the horizontal thrust of an arch and there is no tie between its ends, the backbone of a standing quadruped is not an arch, tied arch or bowstring girder but is mechanically comparable to the main girder of a double-armed cantilever bridge.", "quote": "The structure is not an arch, nor a tied arch, nor a bowstring girder: but it is strictly and beautifully comparable to the main girder of a double-armed cantilever bridge.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XVI: On Form and Mechanical Efficiency", "kind": "mathematical-law", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": true, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.546, "truth": 0.425, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.25 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.6 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.625, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAo6SC-smIwq9IkSw2lKUJf5rk423deiOt9L3gswBHaNY", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch16-10", "key": "0a899f4f6cba30c9", "label": "Height of vertebral spines is proportional to the local bending moment", "statement": "In the vertebral girder, ligaments form the upper tension member, vertebral bodies the lower compression member and the spines the web, and the height of the vertebral spines at each point along the back is proportional to the bending moment at that point.", "quote": "secondly we observe that the depth of the web, or distance apart of the principal members,—that is to say the height of the vertebral spines,—must be proportional to the bending-moment at each point along the length of the girder.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XVI: On Form and Mechanical Efficiency", "kind": "mathematical-law", "status": "proved", "proof": "lean", "verification": "lean", "math": true, "theorem": true, "notation": "height of vertebral spine h(x) \\propto bending moment M(x)", "lean_theorems": [ "ThompsonLaws.Mechanics.spineHeight_balances", "ThompsonLaws.Mechanics.spineHeight_ratio" ], "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.617, "truth": 0.45, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.25 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.65 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.675, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAG7XRR8ur5onxEKMZja1jveLJsHNQERombLHS9Q7K2jI", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch16-11", "key": "459f7f4a184b29d4", "label": "Quadrupeds carry more of their weight on the fore-legs than on the hind-legs", "statement": "In large quadrupeds the fore-legs carry considerably more of the body weight than the hind-legs (about 55–58% in horses and elephants and about two-thirds in camels and llamas).", "quote": "It will be observed that in all these animals the load upon the fore-feet preponderates considerably over that upon the hind, the preponderance being rather greater in the elephant than in the horse, and markedly greater in the camel and the llama than in the other two.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XVI: On Form and Mechanical Efficiency", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.694, "truth": 0.69, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.8 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.58 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.73, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA3ftJ8Lh-vo1DG3HNc14bjPE-yARwKkU11kD9r0TCSTw", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch16-12", "key": "3e7bfe64b290c255", "label": "Heavy heads give tall withers spines; heavy tails give tall lumbar-sacral spines", "statement": "Animals whose head and neck form a large fraction of body weight have large bending moments over the fore-legs and correspondingly tall spines over the withers, whereas animals with light heads and heavy tails (anteaters, Diplodocus) or that are bipedal (kangaroo, Iguanodon) have their tallest spines over the loins and haunches.", "quote": "Wherever we have a heavily loaded anterior cantilever arm, that is to say whenever the head and neck represent a considerable fraction of the whole weight of the body, we tend to have large bending-moments over the fore-legs, and correspondingly high spines over the vertebrae of the withers.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XVI: On Form and Mechanical Efficiency", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.654, "truth": 0.69, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.6 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.78 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.69, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RABFPJ1qM0P1XsDqAfiDbC_aT87BKfHLEyu3FOv42qVEs", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch16-13", "key": "7c2ea8aa8811aacb", "label": "Aquatic mammals lack the tall withers and haunch spines of land quadrupeds", "statement": "Because buoyancy neutralises gravity so that there are no piers or cantilevers, all aquatic mammals (whales, seals, sea-cows) have lost the high arched vertebral spines over the withers and haunches, and aquatic birds have a weak, straight pelvis compared with terrestrial birds.", "quote": "For here the effect of gravity is neutralised; we have neither piers nor cantilevers; and we find accordingly in all aquatic mammals of whatsoever group—whales, seals or sea-cows—that the high arched vertebral spines over the withers, or corresponding structures over the hind-limbs, have both entirely disappeared.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XVI: On Form and Mechanical Efficiency", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "supports", "evidence_kind": "biological", "data_test": { "verdict": "supports", "confidence": 0.7, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "biological", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/thompson-growth-form/thompson1917-ch16-13/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered. Per vertebra, relative spine height h = (neural spine apex to centrum reference distance) / cranial centrum height. Per species: W = mean h over T1-T4 ('withers'); P = mean h over the posterior thoracics T10-T13 (terrestrial trough region); WI = W/P ('withers index'); HI = mean h over the last three lumbars / P ('haunch index'). Test A (Carnivora landmark data, Figueirido et al. 2021): SUPPORTS-component if every pinniped species has W below the 25th percentile of terrestrial carnivoran W and one-sided Mann-Whitney U tests give p < 0.05 for pinnipeds < terrestrial on both W and WI. Test B (cetacean linear data, Gillet et al. 2019, h = Lnp/Hc; W over the first three thoracics, P over the last three thoracics, WI = W/P): SUPPORTS-component if the median cetacean WI <= 1 and at least 80% of cetacean species have WI below the minimum WI of the terrestrial carnivorans from Test A. Overall verdict 'supports' only if both components support.", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered. Because the claim says the spines have 'entirely disappeared' in 'all aquatic mammals', a single aquatic group retaining a terrestrial-grade withers refutes it. REFUTES if (A) any pinniped species has W >= the terrestrial carnivoran median W, or (B) at least 20% of cetacean species have WI >= the terrestrial carnivoran median WI (an anterior-thoracic peak of terrestrial proportions). If neither the supports nor the refutes conditions are met, the verdict is 'mixed'. If a required measurement (spine landmarks, Lnp or Hc) is missing from the files, that component is 'inconclusive / data-unavailable'.", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: dryad-3j9kd51ft-figueirido-2021-carnivoran-vertebrae, dryad-7dj6850-gillet-2019-cetacean-vertebrae", "inference_method": "fetch.py downloads both Dryad version zips and records their SHA-256. analysis.py parses the IDAV landmark files, computes for each thoracic and lumbar vertebra the distance from the most distal spinous-process landmark to the centroid of the cranial centrum-face landmarks divided by the largest diameter of that face (h), averages h over T1-T4 (W), T10-T13 (P) and the last three lumbars, and forms WI = W/P and HI per specimen and then per species. Pinnipeds (n = 2 species) are compared with the 40 terrestrial carnivorans (otters and mink excluded from the reference set; sensitivity run includes them) by exact one-sided Mann-Whitney U tests and by position relative to the terrestrial quantiles. For the cetaceans, h = Lnp/Hc is computed for all 8722 measured vertebrae, WI = mean h of the first three thoracics / mean h of the last three thoracics per specimen, averaged per species, and compared with the terrestrial carnivoran WI distribution.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": { "verdict": "faithful-with-narrower-scope", "assessors": [ { "assessor": "gpt-5-2025-08-07", "verdict": "faithful-with-narrower-scope", "confidence": null, "file": "test-data/claim-tests/thompson-growth-form/thompson1917-ch16-13/faithfulness.json" } ], "status": "agreed" } }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.757, "truth": 0.445, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.25 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.64 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.76, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAwoONqGRrVgXEYHt3OSvxYTEtsz1WHvF1G5MK_b46fSA", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch16-14", "key": "6d6274ec92555e0a", "label": "Fish vertebral processes are set at about 120° to one another for uniform stiffness", "statement": "In ordinary fishes such as cod and haddock (and partly in whales), the backbone is stiffened by three series of ligament-connected processes, dorsal and two transverse, arranged at nearly equal angles of 120°, which gives the greatest and most uniform strength possible for such a system.", "quote": "And here we see (as we see partly also among the whales), that these three series of processes, or struts, tend to be arranged well-nigh at equal angles, of 120°, with one another, giving the greatest and most uniform strength of which such a system is capable.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XVI: On Form and Mechanical Efficiency", "kind": "mathematical-law", "status": "proved", "proof": "lean", "verification": "lean", "math": true, "theorem": true, "notation": "three series of processes at \\approx 120^\\circ to one another", "lean_theorems": [ "ThompsonLaws.Mechanics.threeStrutStiffness_isotropic", "ThompsonLaws.Mechanics.threeStrutStiffness_uniform" ], "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.703, "truth": 0.34, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.2 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.48 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.71, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAJioOZHOnJlL5BsLVbOGScKbUfUXat7s_5OD6-WhXBCI", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch16-15", "key": "db65d0c1fa9b71d0", "label": "Backbone girders are shallower than engineers would build because flexibility is needed", "statement": "The vertebral girder of large animals such as Diplodocus or Stegosaurus is shallower than an engineer's cantilever of comparable load, because a deeper girder would increase rigidity, and an animal's backbone must combine strength with flexibility.", "quote": "If we adopt a much greater depth (or ratio of depth to length) as in the modern cantilever, we shall greatly increase the _strength_ of the structure; but at the same time we should greatly increase its _rigidity_, and this is precisely what, in the circumstances of the case, it would seem that nature is bound to avoid.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XVI: On Form and Mechanical Efficiency", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.473, "truth": 0.615, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.6 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.63 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.56, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAmM6wuwPXxZLsrw1e3PVw06sC8I60CO6hfVVmdlGwYwM", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch16-16", "key": "39735b6ece6def84", "label": "Skeletal form is largely a diagram of mechanical stress", "statement": "Skeletal form, as produced by growth, is to a very large extent determined by mechanical stress: material is laid down along the lines of stress so as to avoid shear, from the trabeculae within each bone to the arrangement of the bones in the whole skeleton.", "quote": "Let us not press either argument or hypothesis too far: but be content to see that skeletal form, as brought about by growth, is to a very large extent determined by mechanical considerations, and tends to manifest itself as a diagram, or reflected image, of mechanical stress.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XVI: On Form and Mechanical Efficiency", "kind": "mathematical-law", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": true, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.479, "truth": 0.595, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.75 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.44 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.585, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAwIL802wc373FANVMRzwgrBHkP9puV3j-2L_9YJivsws", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch16-17", "key": "b6752fc0509b184a", "label": "Mechanically shaped single bones are unreliable guides to phylogenetic affinity", "statement": "Because the form of bones such as the scapula or vertebrae reflects the mechanical stresses of an animal's mode of life, resemblance or difference in a single such bone is no reliable evidence for or against blood-relationship, as in comparing Zeuglodon with whales.", "quote": "That the Zeuglodon has a scapula like that of a whale is to my mind no necessary argument that he is akin by blood-relationship to a whale: that his dorsal vertebrae are very different from a whale’s is no conclusive argument that such blood-relationship is lacking.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XVI: On Form and Mechanical Efficiency", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.71, "truth": 0.525, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.35 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.7 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.725, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAoJ-IGAZ4bJF-yPgL-uvpi16Q7YmaGvFLozKwkFYfMyA", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch16-18", "key": "3c229822ce856672", "label": "New mechanical forces modify many correlated parts together, not isolated bones", "statement": "When altered environment and habits introduce new forces, the resulting modifications of form appear not as isolated changes in single parts but as slow, general, graded modifications spread over many correlated parts or the whole body.", "quote": "And if this be really so, it will further imply that modifications of form will tend to manifest themselves, not so much in small and _isolated_ phenomena, in this part of the fabric or in that, in a scapula for instance or a humerus: but rather in some slow, _general_, and more or less uniform or graded modification, spread over a number of correlated parts", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XVI: On Form and Mechanical Efficiency", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.571, "truth": 0.555, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.65 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.46 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.6, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA6jKjK7Q0afk_6WFyl4y_Nxrixu8qTA9rEz-xZwJm5f4", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch17-01", "key": "d9b64300b9c55a1b", "label": "Organic forms depart from mathematical ideals only as inanimate forms do", "statement": "There is no essential difference between organic and inorganic form: living forms depart from ideal mathematical figures only because secondary forces act alongside the main one, just as no chain hangs as a perfect catenary and no raindrop is a perfect sphere.", "quote": "There is no such essential difference between these phenomena of organic form and those which are manifested in portions of inanimate matter. No chain hangs in a perfect catenary and no raindrop is a perfect sphere: and this for the simple reason that forces and resistances other than the main one are inevitably at work.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XVII: On the Theory of Transformations, or the Comparison of Related Forms", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.226, "truth": 0.215, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.25 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.18 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.74, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA1fyE5pyBozsadMIF1JlVbQkg8DAs5XKp4tOUGGKRVS4", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch17-02", "key": "10c9bf681b739278", "label": "Specific differences in form are mainly differences of relative magnitude", "statement": "The essential differences in form between species of the same group are differences of proportion or relative magnitude (Aristotle's 'excess and defect'), and these are the main cause of specific differences.", "quote": "It is precisely this difference of relative magnitudes, this Aristotelian “excess and defect” in the case of form, which our co-ordinate method is especially adapted to analyse, and to reveal and demonstrate as the main cause of what (again in the Aristotelian sense) we term “specific” differences.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XVII: On the Theory of Transformations, or the Comparison of Related Forms", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.63, "truth": 0.485, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.45 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.52 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.645, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAPjPqoXQ4eNKS-ASRQNSAY7b7Yqk0qK0lrUacJHkZMuM", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch17-03", "key": "ca1f8ff05e8ea608", "label": "Evolution varies the whole body in correlation, not character by character", "statement": "Because dissimilar related fishes can be referred as wholes to the same figure in different coordinate systems, variation has proceeded on definite and orderly lines under a comprehensive law of growth affecting the whole structure, rather than by independent variation of separate parts as the usual conception of natural selection assumes.", "quote": "But if, on the other hand, diverse and dissimilar fishes can be referred as a whole to identical functions of very different co-ordinate systems, this fact will of itself constitute a proof that variation has proceeded on definite and orderly lines, that a comprehensive “law of growth” has pervaded the whole structure in its integrity", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XVII: On the Theory of Transformations, or the Comparison of Related Forms", "kind": "historical-inference", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.546, "truth": 0.21, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.06 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.36 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.585, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RActQ761hnH69Lt3LA4eeQ3JFThBznbwS_xNnAFxZLb74", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch17-04", "key": "7d8820aeaf60d243", "label": "Related organisms differ by simple, symmetrical Cartesian transformations", "statement": "The forms of related organisms can, as a general rule, be mapped onto one another by a simple and symmetrical deformation of a Cartesian coordinate grid, such as would result from a slight and simple change in the system of forces acting on the growing organism.", "quote": "We are dealing in this chapter with the forms of related organisms, in order to shew that the differences between them are as a general rule simple and symmetrical, and just such as might have been brought about by a slight and simple change in the system of forces to which the living and growing organism was exposed.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XVII: On the Theory of Transformations, or the Comparison of Related Forms", "kind": "mathematical-law", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": true, "theorem": false, "notation": "F_2 = \\phi(F_1), \\phi : (x, y) \\mapsto (x', y') a simple, symmetrical deformation of Cartesian coordinates", "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [ { "id": "thompson1917-t1917-051", "relation": "tests", "note": "The crocodilian skull mappings are a direct instance of the general claim that related forms map onto one another by simple Cartesian deformations.", "label": "Thompson (1917) Fig. 383 crocodylian skull coordinate transformations (Pass 2) faithfully reproduces Crocodylus porosus, C. acutus, Alligator mississippiensis; Notosuchus not in Dryad morphology", "organism": "Crocodylus porosus, C. acutus, Alligator mississippiensis", "verdict": "mostly faithful", "score": 73, "thompson_verdict": "mixed", "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAQDRaggevFzq_Rf2q-wZTNJXjJbiXkjR9syr50gZ1aOU", "registry": "test", "report": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/morphoeval/kg/2026-10-28-t1917-051-on-the-theory-of-transformatio-audit-v2/REPORT.md" }, { "id": "thompson1917-t1917-054", "relation": "tests", "note": "Fitting a grid deformation from the Archaeopteryx pelvis to the Apatornis pelvis tests whether a simple Cartesian transformation relates the two forms.", "label": "Thompson (1917) Figs. 388-393: Archaeopteryx -> Apatornis pelvis by equidistant coordinate-grid interpolation faithfully reproduces Archaeopteryx lithographica and Apatornis celer (pelvis, left lateral; Heilmann restorations after Marsh 1880) morphology", "organism": "Archaeopteryx lithographica and Apatornis celer (pelvis, left lateral", "verdict": "faithful", "score": 83.1, "thompson_verdict": "mixed", "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA1DeCCcvWQqaQeF_bki5FuAThg3ApxaM0HMwgZLe2mnY", "registry": "test", "report": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/morphoeval/kg/2026-10-28-t1917-054-on-the-theory-of-transformatio-audit-v2/REPORT.md" }, { "id": "thompson1917-t1917-055", "relation": "tests", "note": "Affine and thin-plate-spline grid fits between the Hyrachyus and Aceratherium skull diagrams (and allies) test whether a simple coordinate deformation relates related skulls.", "label": "Thompson (1917) Figs. 394-400: rhinoceros and allied skulls by coordinate-grid transformation (Osborn) faithfully reproduces Hyrachyus agrarius, Aceratherium tridactylum, Titanotherium, tapir, horse, rabbit (diagrammatic skulls after Osborn; Thompson pp. 760-764) morphology", "organism": "Hyrachyus agrarius, Aceratherium tridactylum, Titanotherium, tapir, horse, rabbit (diagrammatic skulls after Osborn", "verdict": "faithful", "score": 82.1, "thompson_verdict": "mixed", "nanopub": null, "registry": "unpublished", "report": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/morphoeval/kg/2026-10-28-t1917-055-on-the-theory-of-transformatio-audit-v2/REPORT.md" }, { "id": "thompson1917-t1917-058", "relation": "tests", "note": "The human-to-ape-and-dog skull net fits are an instance of the general claim that related forms differ by simple Cartesian transformations.", "label": "Thompson (1917) Cartesian transformation of the human skull into chimpanzee, baboon and dog (Figs. 404-408) faithfully reproduces Homo sapiens, Pan troglodytes, Papio ursinus, Canis lupus familiaris (lateral skull) morphology", "organism": "Homo sapiens, Pan troglodytes, Papio ursinus, Canis lupus familiaris (lateral skull)", "verdict": "mostly faithful", "score": 72.6, "thompson_verdict": "supported", "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RALXS4-f24oeUtmuEUJzRzFnLvyXEaz3TSOHnwUgzeDV4", "registry": "test", "report": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/morphoeval/kg/2026-10-28-t1917-058-on-the-theory-of-transformatio-audit-v2/REPORT.md" } ], "thumbnail": { "file": "docs/thumbs/thompson1917-t1917-051.jpg", "morpholib": "thompson1917-t1917-051", "source": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/docs/media/t1917_051_on_the_theory_of_transformatio_growth.gif" }, "testability": 0.699, "truth": 0.445, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.35 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.54 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.7, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAJwoYuu2skKL-0TVnSHExnmpXkd5BoC9kSCxxSmsv6hM", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch17-05", "key": "1a00f423a27843dc", "label": "Shear-deformed fossils are often mistaken for distinct species", "statement": "Fossils in folded and inclined strata are often symmetrically deformed, usually by simple shear, so that they have been described as distinct species and occasionally even as new genera.", "quote": "the contained fossils are apt to be so curiously and yet so symmetrically deformed (usually by a simple shear) that they may easily be interpreted as so many distinct and separate “species.”", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XVII: On the Theory of Transformations, or the Comparison of Related Forms", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.565, "truth": 0.84, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.8 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.88 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.61, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAD3npmYPBibfGxqmlf1Rqyx_9eCg5vjufj8hydpo4zJY", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch17-06", "key": "fc221ddaae935c4c", "label": "Cannon-bones of ox, sheep and giraffe differ by a simple one-axis stretch", "statement": "The cannon-bones of the ox, sheep and giraffe differ essentially only in relative length and breadth: at equal length, the sheep's bone is about two-thirds and the giraffe's about one-third as broad as the ox's.", "quote": "In other words, the main (and perhaps the only) difference between the two bones is simply that that of the sheep is elongated, along the vertical axis, as compared with that of the ox in the relation of 3/2.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XVII: On the Theory of Transformations, or the Comparison of Related Forms", "kind": "mathematical-law", "status": "proved", "proof": "lean", "verification": "lean", "math": true, "theorem": true, "notation": "(x, y) \\mapsto (x, cy): at equal length c \\approx 2/3 (sheep), c \\approx 1/3 (giraffe) relative to ox", "lean_theorems": [ "ThompsonLaws.Mechanics.lengthStretch_equalLength", "ThompsonLaws.Mechanics.lengthStretch_sheep_giraffe" ], "formalization": null, "evidence": "inconclusive", "evidence_kind": "none", "data_test": { "verdict": "inconclusive", "confidence": null, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "none", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/thompson-growth-form/thompson1917-ch17-06/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered (claim supported). Using public osteometric measurements of adult metacarpals (greatest length GL and distal breadth Bd, or the same pair of dimensions however the source names them), with at least 10 specimens for ox (Bos taurus) and sheep (Ovis aries) and at least 3 for giraffe (Giraffa): the species median of Bd/GL, expressed relative to the ox, is 0.67 +/- 0.10 for sheep and 0.33 +/- 0.10 for giraffe. If 3D surface meshes rather than tables are used, GL is the maximum caliper length and Bd the maximum extent perpendicular to the long axis within the distal 15% of the bone, both computed from the mesh.", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered (claim refuted). Either relative breadth ratio falls outside its stated window, or (where a second breadth, e.g. mid-shaft, is available) the two breadth ratios for the same species differ by more than 0.15, which would mean a single transverse scaling does not describe the difference. If the measurements for any of the three species cannot be obtained from public sources without authentication, the verdict is 'inconclusive' with reason 'data-unavailable'.", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: morphosource-ungulate-metapodials, zooarchaeological-osteometric-archives, futres-geome-trait-records", "inference_method": "fetch.py runs the pre-registered catalogue searches and records the URL, time, HTTP status, response size, SHA-256 and hit count of each (derived/source_probe.json). Two further sources were probed with a headless Chrome browser because they return bot challenges to plain HTTP clients: the Archaeology Data Service archive page for the Animal Bone Metrical Archive Project (HTTP 403, Cloudflare 'Just a moment...' interstitial) and Open Context (Anubis challenge page, and a dropped connection from a plain client). No measurement file was downloaded, so there is nothing to analyse and no analysis.py.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.808, "truth": 0.665, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.65 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.68 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.79, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RApqRxYgJaFBeJcTSGC2N0PXqlQizEj9pBZEGLGjBph8k", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch17-07", "key": "4c739d8412e13c00", "label": "Ratio of radial to tangential growth about a node yields lanceolate, ovate, cordate leaves", "statement": "Dicotyledon leaf shapes arise from growth radial to and transverse to radii about a node of no growth at the leaf base; increasing the ratio of tangential to radial growth carries the outline successively from lanceolate to ovate to cordate.", "quote": "If we now alter the ratio between the radial and tangential velocities of growth—in other words, if we increase the angles between corresponding radii—we pass successively through the various configurations which the botanist describes as the lanceolate, the ovate, and finally the cordate leaf.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XVII: On the Theory of Transformations, or the Comparison of Related Forms", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [ { "id": "thompson1917-t1917-041", "relation": "tests", "note": "Leaf-outline morphometrics test whether lanceolate, ovate and cordate outlines are polar transforms about the basal node, set by the ratio of radial to tangential growth.", "label": "Thompson (1917) radial-cordate leaf transformation claim T1917-041 (Pass 2) faithfully reproduces Leaf outline morphometrics (lanceolate / ovate / cordate; Begonia instance) morphology", "organism": "Leaf outline morphometrics (lanceolate / ovate / cordate", "verdict": "faithful", "score": 83.4, "thompson_verdict": "mixed", "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA5JcIAewiuESiMB-E5L8QoDNlXJ-O6qfQQ7tR2Bx6NoE", "registry": "test", "report": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/morphoeval/kg/2026-10-28-t1917-041-on-the-theory-of-transformatio-audit-v2/REPORT.md" } ], "thumbnail": { "file": "docs/thumbs/thompson1917-t1917-041.jpg", "morpholib": "thompson1917-t1917-041", "source": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/docs/media/t1917_041_on_the_theory_of_transformatio_growth.gif" }, "testability": 0.488, "truth": 0.35, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.3 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.4 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.625, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA7aDF6MNWXLQe5V1as2eKCAUfPWZYGDHCsPCiBV8_2xI", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch17-08", "key": "b1dd35bf34405cb0", "label": "The lopsided begonia leaf reflects unequal, not asymmetrical, growth", "statement": "The two halves of a begonia leaf, one ovate and the other cordate, are mathematically similar figures produced by unequal growth on either side of the midrib, so that angles to equal radii on the two sides are in constant proportion.", "quote": "the so-called unsymmetrical leaf of a begonia, in which one side of the leaf may be merely ovate while the other has a cordate outline, is seen to be really a case of _unequal_, and not truly asymmetrical, growth on either side of the midrib.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XVII: On the Theory of Transformations, or the Comparison of Related Forms", "kind": "mathematical-law", "status": "proved", "proof": "lean", "verification": "lean", "math": true, "theorem": true, "notation": "\\theta' = k\\theta for angles to equal radii on the two halves of the leaf", "lean_theorems": [ "ThompsonLaws.Mechanics.unequalHalf_equalRadii" ], "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [ { "id": "thompson1917-t1917-041", "relation": "tests", "note": "The Begonia instance checks that the two leaf halves are similar figures in the same radial system, which this claim attributes to unequal growth.", "label": "Thompson (1917) radial-cordate leaf transformation claim T1917-041 (Pass 2) faithfully reproduces Leaf outline morphometrics (lanceolate / ovate / cordate; Begonia instance) morphology", "organism": "Leaf outline morphometrics (lanceolate / ovate / cordate", "verdict": "faithful", "score": 83.4, "thompson_verdict": "mixed", "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA5JcIAewiuESiMB-E5L8QoDNlXJ-O6qfQQ7tR2Bx6NoE", "registry": "test", "report": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/morphoeval/kg/2026-10-28-t1917-041-on-the-theory-of-transformatio-audit-v2/REPORT.md" } ], "thumbnail": { "file": "docs/thumbs/thompson1917-t1917-041.jpg", "morpholib": "thompson1917-t1917-041", "source": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/docs/media/t1917_041_on_the_theory_of_transformatio_growth.gif" }, "testability": 0.736, "truth": 0.455, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.35 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.56 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.74, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAkzFgQ25iyoH54U4xcARPejezvUfp89HdDk_bCLieLIM", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch17-09", "key": "eb287643c0ae0968", "label": "Organisms grow along stream lines definable by a mathematical transformation", "statement": "The law of growth implied by representing related forms as orthogonal coordinate transformations is that the organism grows along stream lines definable by a suitable mathematical transformation; departures from orthogonality reflect the organism not being homogeneous and isotropic.", "quote": "the “law of growth” which our biological analysis by means of orthogonal co-ordinate systems presupposes, or at least foreshadows, is one according to which the organism grows or develops along _stream lines_, which may be defined by a suitable mathematical transformation.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XVII: On the Theory of Transformations, or the Comparison of Related Forms", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.281, "truth": 0.255, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.35 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.16 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.655, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAjiQblMvg3HxUAhqIOC0dnXY9tyG1DhS131frEqv0mz4", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch17-10", "key": "a2d4782faced875b", "label": "Many organic forms arise from uniform expansive growth limited by local constraints", "statement": "Many developmental changes of form are produced by local trammels or lines of constraint acting on otherwise uniform and symmetrical expansive growth, as a ligature turns a gourd into two globes or a muscular band makes the stomach a lopsided bubble.", "quote": "It is clear, I think, that we may account for many ordinary biological processes of development or transformation of form by the existence of trammels or lines of constraint, which limit and determine the action of the expansive forces of growth that would otherwise be uniform and symmetrical.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XVII: On the Theory of Transformations, or the Comparison of Related Forms", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.435, "truth": 0.65, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.88 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.42 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.565, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAxkeRlkkSSKz_Bc_E-ycM3xSAvmSrLs25RP2Sbp_E76g", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch17-11", "key": "9f91a69c91e4b7d1", "label": "One transformation accounts for the differences between porcupine-fish and sunfish", "statement": "Deforming the coordinate grid of Diodon (concentric circles and approximately hyperbolic curves) yields the outline of the sunfish Orthagoriscus, so that a single integral transformation accounts for all their apparently separate external differences while leaving the head region nearly unchanged.", "quote": "And as such it accounts, by one single integral transformation, for all the apparently separate and distinct external differences between the two fishes.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XVII: On the Theory of Transformations, or the Comparison of Related Forms", "kind": "mathematical-law", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": true, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.758, "truth": 0.465, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.38 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.55 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.75, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAcABgEjcglmGXB_-PZ9zRQbSDz20OqblYan6wWSPp5Us", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch17-12", "key": "4ff309566ab844d0", "label": "One harmonious deformation accounts for all skull differences among crocodilians", "statement": "Across most crocodilian genera, the skull contours and even the shapes and sizes of individual bones and vacuities can be derived from one another by a single simple coordinate transformation, so that the skull of Notosuchus can be reconstructed bone for bone from that of Crocodilus.", "quote": "To all intents and purposes, then, this not very complex system, representing one harmonious “deformation,” accounts for _all_ the differences between the two figures, and is sufficient to enable one at any time to reconstruct a detailed drawing, bone for bone, of the skull of _Notosuchus_ from the model furnished by the common crocodile.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XVII: On the Theory of Transformations, or the Comparison of Related Forms", "kind": "mathematical-law", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": true, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [ { "id": "thompson1917-t1917-051", "relation": "tests", "note": "Coordinate transformations fitted between real Crocodylus porosus, C. acutus and Alligator skulls test whether a single harmonious deformation relates crocodilian skulls (Notosuchus is unavailable).", "label": "Thompson (1917) Fig. 383 crocodylian skull coordinate transformations (Pass 2) faithfully reproduces Crocodylus porosus, C. acutus, Alligator mississippiensis; Notosuchus not in Dryad morphology", "organism": "Crocodylus porosus, C. acutus, Alligator mississippiensis", "verdict": "mostly faithful", "score": 73, "thompson_verdict": "mixed", "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAQDRaggevFzq_Rf2q-wZTNJXjJbiXkjR9syr50gZ1aOU", "registry": "test", "report": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/morphoeval/kg/2026-10-28-t1917-051-on-the-theory-of-transformatio-audit-v2/REPORT.md" } ], "thumbnail": { "file": "docs/thumbs/thompson1917-t1917-051.jpg", "morpholib": "thompson1917-t1917-051", "source": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/docs/media/t1917_051_on_the_theory_of_transformatio_growth.gif" }, "testability": 0.736, "truth": 0.24, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.3 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.18 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.74, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAm-MxDnk-ZJOwZ09xEnQKqrOJRHjihBjm2h27PFk7OJM", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch17-13", "key": "f3a9648e6d11d931", "label": "Perissodactyls are more closely related to hares and rabbits than to other ungulates", "statement": "Since the rabbit's skull is derived from that of a primitive rhinoceros by a simple uniform downward flexure, the Perissodactyla are more closely related to the Leporidae than to other ungulates, and the Leporidae more closely to Perissodactyla than to other rodents.", "quote": "For my part, I would go further; for I think there is strong reason to believe that the Perissodactyles are more closely related to the Leporidae than the former are to the other Ungulates, or than the Leporidae are to the rest of the Rodentia.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XVII: On the Theory of Transformations, or the Comparison of Related Forms", "kind": "historical-inference", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "refutes", "evidence_kind": "biological", "data_test": { "verdict": "refutes", "confidence": 0.97, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "biological", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/thompson-growth-form/thompson1917-ch17-13/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered. Take the Open Tree of Life synthetic tree (induced_subtree API, current synth version) over these tips: Perissodactyla = Equus caballus, Ceratotherium simum, Tapirus terrestris; other ungulates = Bos taurus, Sus scrofa, Camelus dromedarius (Artiodactyla), Loxodonta africana (Proboscidea), Procavia capensis (Hyracoidea); Leporidae = Oryctolagus cuniculus, Lepus europaeus, Sylvilagus floridanus; other lagomorph = Ochotona princeps; Rodentia = Mus musculus, Rattus norvegicus, Sciurus carolinensis, Cavia porcellus, Castor canadensis; outgroups = Canis lupus, Homo sapiens, Monodelphis domestica. Let C be the smallest clade containing all perissodactyl and all leporid tips. Sub-claim 1 (perissodactyls closer to leporids than to other ungulates) holds iff C contains no artiodactyl tip; sub-claim 2 (leporids closer to perissodactyls than to other rodents) holds iff C contains no rodent tip. Supports if both hold. Independent check: NCBI Taxonomy lineages (efetch) must place Perissodactyla and Leporidae in a shared named clade below Boreoeutheria that excludes Artiodactyla and Rodentia.", "disconfirming_observation": "Refutes if C contains both artiodactyl and rodent tips, i.e. perissodactyls nest with other ungulates and leporids nest with rodents rather than with each other (and NCBI Taxonomy places Perissodactyla in Laurasiatheria with Artiodactyla and Leporidae in Glires with Rodentia). Mixed if exactly one sub-claim holds.", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: opentree-synth-induced-subtree, ncbi-taxonomy-lineages", "inference_method": "Resolved the 20 pre-registered species to OTT ids with the Open Tree TNRS, requested the induced subtree of the current synthetic tree (synth opentree16.1), parsed the Newick, and found the smallest clade containing all three perissodactyl and all three leporid tips. Sub-claim 1 was scored by whether that clade contains artiodactyl tips, sub-claim 2 by whether it contains rodent tips; the smallest clades for perissodactyls+artiodactyls and leporids+rodents were also extracted. NCBI Taxonomy lineages were fetched by E-utilities and intersected to find named clades shared by Perissodactyla and Leporidae but not by Artiodactyla or Rodentia.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": { "verdict": "faithful", "assessors": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "verdict": "faithful", "confidence": 0.97, "file": "test-data/claim-tests/thompson-growth-form/thompson1917-ch17-13/faithfulness.json" } ], "status": "agreed" } }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.919, "truth": 0.015, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.01 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.02 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.915, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAPfTMPQeuqAw359AtIUw3F-QHQRQfvJ4_ENfbX6BDbAU", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch17-14", "key": "4527632dfbe9c468", "label": "Fossil horse skulls match interpolated stages between Hyracotherium and Equus", "statement": "Skulls interpolated by coordinate transformation between Hyracotherium (Eohippus) and Equus coincide closely with actual fossil skulls of Mesohippus and Protohippus, which therefore lie on the transformation series from Eohippus to the horse.", "quote": "it will be seen that the actual fossil skull coincides in the most perfect fashion with one of the hypothetical forms or stages which our method shews to be implicitly involved in the transition from _Hyracotherium_ to _Equus_.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XVII: On the Theory of Transformations, or the Comparison of Related Forms", "kind": "historical-inference", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.696, "truth": 0.39, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.42 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.36 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.705, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RACzZdm1seg0DajyItkCUqn1tdHbSXOQd18Q30LfBlF-s", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch17-15", "key": "cd0588db5936fcbc", "label": "Parahippus is a divergent offshoot, not on the direct line to Equus", "statement": "Because the skull of Parahippus fits the interpolated transformation series from Eohippus to Equus poorly, Parahippus is not in the direct line of descent but represents a divergent branch of the Equidae.", "quote": "In short, though some writers have placed _Parahippus_ in the direct line of descent between _Equus_ and _Eohippus_, we see at once that there is no place for it there, and that it must, accordingly, represent a somewhat divergent branch or offshoot of the Equidae.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XVII: On the Theory of Transformations, or the Comparison of Related Forms", "kind": "historical-inference", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.728, "truth": 0.3, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.48 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.12 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.745, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAL8FkemdJQyo3SFlTKQ5x2dovA4qtDoK3VyTcziSnWoQ", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch17-16", "key": "94f71c59b1c6104d", "label": "Ape and human skull differences form one continuous, roughly logarithmic transformation", "statement": "The differences between the human skull and the skulls of the chimpanzee and baboon form one continuous integral deformation in which corresponding areas of the grid increase approximately logarithmically downwards and forwards, rather than separate modifications of jaws, braincase and face.", "quote": "In both dimensions, as we pass from above downwards and from behind forwards, the corresponding areas of the network are seen to increase in a gradual and approximately logarithmic order in the lower as compared with the higher type of skull; and, in short, it becomes at once manifest that the modifications of jaws, braincase, and the regions between are all portions of one continuous and integral process.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XVII: On the Theory of Transformations, or the Comparison of Related Forms", "kind": "mathematical-law", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": true, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "supports", "evidence_kind": "biological", "data_test": { "verdict": "supports", "confidence": 0.5, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "biological", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/thompson-growth-form/thompson1917-ch17-16/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered. Primary plan (landmark coordinates available for Homo sapiens and Pan troglodytes): generalised Procrustes superimposition of all specimens; species mean configurations; projection of the means onto the midsagittal plane (midline landmarks as they are, bilateral landmarks averaged across sides) giving a lateral profile with x = antero-posterior and y = supero-inferior axes defined by the Frankfurt-like orientation of the human mean; fit a 2-D thin-plate spline mapping the human mean to the chimpanzee mean and evaluate its Jacobian determinant J (local area ratio chimpanzee/human) at every landmark of the human mean. Define the down-forward coordinate u = (x_forward + y_downward)/sqrt(2) of each landmark. The claim is supported if (a) Spearman rho(u, log J) >= 0.6 with positive sign, (b) the sign of the correlation of log J with x_forward alone and with y_downward alone is positive in both, and (c) an ordinary linear regression of log J on u explains >= 50% of the variance in log J (the 'logarithmic order' of areas, i.e. geometric progression of area ratio with grid position). Secondary plan (only inter-landmark distances available): log of the ratio of chimpanzee to human mean distance, each distance first divided by the geometric mean of all distances in its specimen; assign each distance by the anatomical names of its endpoints to one of three ordered regions (1 neurocranium/vault/occiput, 2 orbit/upper face/nasal, 3 maxilla/palate/mandible/alveolar); supported if Spearman rho(region rank, log ratio) >= 0.6 and region medians increase monotonically 1 < 2 < 3. If the data also contain Gorilla, the same statistics are reported for Gorilla as a replication but do not enter the verdict. Because baboon (Papio) data could not be located, confidence attached to any verdict is capped at 0.6.", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered. Refuted if Spearman rho(u, log J) < 0.3 (primary plan) or rho(region rank, log ratio) < 0.3 (secondary plan), or if the correlation of log J with x_forward and with y_downward have opposite signs (expansion forwards but contraction downwards or vice versa), or if the regression of log J on u explains < 25% of the variance while log J differs between anatomical regions in a non-monotone way (patchwork rather than gradient). Results between the pass and fail thresholds are 'mixed'. If the deposited file contains neither coordinates nor named inter-landmark distances per specimen (e.g. only summary statistics), the verdict is inconclusive with reason data-unavailable.", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: zenodo-4976293-schroeder-voncramontaubadel-2017-hominoid-crania", "inference_method": "The deposit holds per-specimen inter-landmark distances, not coordinates, so the pre-registered secondary plan was run. Each specimen's 39 log distances were centred on their mean (log geometric-mean size correction); species means were taken; the log ratio Pan troglodytes / Homo was formed for each distance. Each of the 21 landmarks was assigned to an ordered region of the human skull from its anatomical name (1 neurocranium/vault/cranial base: BR LD AS OPI BA JP APET EAM SP TS KR; 2 orbit/upper face/nasal/zygomatic arch: NA FM ZS ZYGO NSL; 3 maxilla/palate/alveolar: IS PM PNS MT ZI), and each distance scored by the mean of its endpoint ranks. Spearman rho between score and log ratio, medians by region and a bootstrap over specimens (2000 resamples) were computed; Gorilla and Pan paniscus were run as replications that do not enter the verdict.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [ { "id": "thompson1917-t1917-058", "relation": "tests", "note": "Human skulls are mapped onto chimpanzee and baboon skulls by a fitted net, checking that one continuous deformation, with roughly logarithmic increase of cell areas, relates them.", "label": "Thompson (1917) Cartesian transformation of the human skull into chimpanzee, baboon and dog (Figs. 404-408) faithfully reproduces Homo sapiens, Pan troglodytes, Papio ursinus, Canis lupus familiaris (lateral skull) morphology", "organism": "Homo sapiens, Pan troglodytes, Papio ursinus, Canis lupus familiaris (lateral skull)", "verdict": "mostly faithful", "score": 72.6, "thompson_verdict": "supported", "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RALXS4-f24oeUtmuEUJzRzFnLvyXEaz3TSOHnwUgzeDV4", "registry": "test", "report": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/morphoeval/kg/2026-10-28-t1917-058-on-the-theory-of-transformatio-audit-v2/REPORT.md" } ], "thumbnail": { "file": "docs/thumbs/thompson1917-t1917-058.jpg", "morpholib": "thompson1917-t1917-058", "source": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/docs/media/t1917_058_on_the_theory_of_transformatio_growth.gif" }, "testability": 0.783, "truth": 0.385, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.37 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.4 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.78, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RACHfJZcZ-8VXS3NOcPVDdRmdozXrM0R-FPKu9DEY85DM", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch17-17", "key": "65340fdfbd4b2d30", "label": "Human and anthropoid skulls show divergent rather than linear evolutionary change", "statement": "No continuous transformation series passes through known fossil and living human and anthropoid skulls (Mesopithecus, Pithecanthropus, Neanderthal, modern man), indicating that there is no single straight line of descent and that their variation has been divergent.", "quote": "The failure is not the fault of our method. It merely indicates that no one straight line of descent, or of consecutive transformation, exists; but on the contrary, that among human and anthropoid types, recent and extinct, we have to do with a complex problem of divergent, rather than of continuous, variation.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XVII: On the Theory of Transformations, or the Comparison of Related Forms", "kind": "historical-inference", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.736, "truth": 0.815, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.93 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.7 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.75, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA7OUnRgw0BxDAsrqkVUOYw3ZmhbBQ5GsitgU-cMyaXK8", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-ch17-18", "key": "be642116312d9abf", "label": "Depth expansion and lateral compression vary inversely, conserving fish volume", "statement": "In related fishes, expansion in one transverse dimension tends to be compensated by compression in the other, so that volume at a given length changes less than linear dimensions; the plaice is about twice as deep and half as thick as the haddock and has almost the same length-weight coefficient k = W/L^3.", "quote": "the very fact that the two dimensions tend to vary _inversely_ already assures us that, in the general process of deformation, the _volume_ is less affected than are the _linear dimensions_.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. XVII: On the Theory of Transformations, or the Comparison of Related Forms", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "proved", "proof": "lean", "verification": "lean", "math": true, "theorem": true, "notation": "plaice vs haddock: depth \\times 2, thickness \\times \\tfrac{1}{2}, k = W/L^3 nearly equal", "lean_theorems": [ "ThompsonLaws.Mechanics.lengthWeightCoeff_scale", "ThompsonLaws.Mechanics.lengthWeightCoeff_inverse" ], "formalization": null, "evidence": "refutes", "evidence_kind": "biological", "data_test": { "verdict": "refutes", "confidence": 0.8, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "biological", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/thompson-growth-form/thompson1917-ch17-18/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Within fish families, species that are relatively deeper are relatively narrower (negative family-centred correlation of ln(depth/SL) and ln(width/SL)), and ln(mass/SL^3) varies less than either.", "disconfirming_observation": "Relative depth and width covary positively or not at all within families, and mass/SL^3 varies at least as much as the less variable of the two transverse dimensions.", "admissible_datasets": "Measurements of standard length, maximum body depth, maximum body width and mass taken on the same fish specimens, across many species in many families, by a source independent of Thompson; species identified to FishBase taxonomy; public licence.", "inference_method": "Species means, family-centring for families with >= 5 species, Spearman correlation of centred ln depth ratio vs ln width ratio (one-sided test for negative), and comparison of the SDs of centred ln k vs centred ln depth and width ratios, against the pre-registered thresholds.", "explicit": true }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": { "verdict": "faithful-with-narrower-scope", "assessors": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "verdict": "faithful-with-narrower-scope", "confidence": 0.91, "file": "test-data/claim-tests/thompson-growth-form/thompson1917-ch17-18/faithfulness.json" } ], "status": "agreed" } }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.768, "truth": 0.63, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.74 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.52 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.765, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAxPRa3XLq2xq5QCkeiqIVOxLwSGU7gwlq3F3P0_yEzaY", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-epilogue-01", "key": "db2b34ec02c4a0da", "label": "A mathematical approach is essential to the study of organic form", "statement": "A mathematical aspect of morphology, largely neglected by morphologists, is interwoven with their problems, complementary to description, and essential to the proper understanding of form.", "quote": "My task is finished if I have been able to shew that a certain mathematical aspect of morphology, to which as yet the morphologist gives little heed, is interwoven with his problems, complementary to his descriptive task, and helpful, nay essential, to his proper study and comprehension of Form.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. Epilogue: Epilogue", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.115, "truth": 0.91, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.96 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.86 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.89, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RACkXqFfS3BLp74NlnEzn4N1y8K0k1KzIGcPOV4JipZqo", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-epilogue-02", "key": "e0547b13c10b7fa2", "label": "Mathematical regularity and usefulness coincide in living forms", "statement": "What is most beautiful and regular in natural form, as in the bee's cell, is also found to be most useful and excellent.", "quote": "Moreover the perfection of mathematical beauty is such (as Maclaurin learned of the bee), that whatsoever is most beautiful and regular is also found to be most useful and excellent.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. Epilogue: Epilogue", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.118, "truth": 0.17, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.18 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.16 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.845, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA2fBL0wVY8f8jDa8herJ0MKRr4V6IPYOj0FRXacHNwVc", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "thompson1917-epilogue-03", "key": "225cc720ed001492", "label": "Living and non-living things are bound alike by physical and mathematical law", "statement": "Living and non-living things alike are governed by the same physical and mathematical laws.", "quote": "The living and the dead, things animate and inanimate, we dwellers in the world and this world wherein we dwell,—πάντα γα μὰν τὰ γιγνωσκόμενα,—are bound alike by physical and mathematical law.", "thinker": "D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson", "year": 1917, "work": "On Growth and Form", "chapter": "Ch. Epilogue: Epilogue", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.134, "truth": 0.965, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.98 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.95 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.85, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAfBPdS1vCEDDb4iTgt7a-5KixmxDjAjk6fBaQByWclnQ", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch01-01", "key": "5fb1ec32cee31a0e", "label": "Rules governing nature need not be those of traditional mathematics", "statement": "Although theoretical science requires that the systems it studies follow definite rules, those rules need not be the equation-based rules of traditional mathematics; the more general rules embodied in simple computer programs are equally candidates for describing the natural world.", "quote": "the crucial realization that led me to develop the new kind of science in this book is that there is in fact no reason to think that systems like those we see in nature should follow only such traditional mathematical rules.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 1: The Foundations for a New Kind of Science", "kind": "general-principle", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.195, "truth": 0.905, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.97 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.84 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.74, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA4d-bFvFQ5TLbsA3sY6xLlWlinpAYYGNKb5MKnLXkSPU", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch01-02", "key": "3c499048b3c6ff72", "label": "Programs with very simple rules often behave in complex ways", "statement": "When simple computer programs are enumerated and run systematically, their behavior is often far from simple, and some of the very simplest programs produce behavior as complex as any known.", "quote": "despite the simplicity of their rules, the behavior of the programs was often far from simple. Indeed, even some of the very simplest programs that I looked at had behavior that was as complex as anything I had ever seen.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 1: The Foundations for a New Kind of Science", "kind": "computational-observation", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.798, "truth": 0.93, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.95 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.91 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.785, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA7q7NkCMce75_ocdQaL1dchBJQ1qaVY_IfGiUBP68sTI", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch01-03", "key": "baaf5fa5810c1085", "label": "Natural complexity arises because natural systems behave like typical programs", "statement": "The great complexity seen across physical, biological and other natural systems is explained by those systems operating like typical simple programs, which commonly produce complex behavior, rather than by any special or supernatural source of complexity.", "quote": "For all it takes is that systems in nature operate like typical programs and then it follows that their behavior will often be complex.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 1: The Foundations for a New Kind of Science", "kind": "model-of-nature", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.296, "truth": 0.3, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.36 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.24 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.685, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA-Y4ugoqZj5QRiDVVGbgQHPbbBTLQ7uMTw-lwnVqUj_0", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch01-04", "key": "66930abceb9dc279", "label": "Equation-based descriptions work for simple behavior but fail for complex behavior", "statement": "Describing behavior with mathematical equations succeeds for fairly simple behavior such as planetary motion but almost inevitably fails when behavior is more complex, and descriptions based on natural selection share this limitation; thinking in terms of programs allows meaningful statements about highly complex behavior.", "quote": "while their basic idea of describing behavior in terms of mathematical equations works well in cases like planetary motion where the behavior is fairly simple, it almost inevitably fails whenever the behavior is more complex.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 1: The Foundations for a New Kind of Science", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.295, "truth": 0.13, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.12 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.14 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.635, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAigs9i4sRbjybndSHU8a4WyuzmIIAAfMI0EZ1qNXSw1E", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch01-05", "key": "1c7ace414f027c81", "label": "The same basic forms of behavior recur in simple programs regardless of details", "statement": "Across the world of simple programs the same basic forms of behavior occur repeatedly almost independently of the underlying details of the rules, suggesting universal principles of overall behavior that should also apply to systems throughout nature.", "quote": "in the world of simple programs I have discovered that the same basic forms of behavior occur over and over again almost independent of underlying details.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 1: The Foundations for a New Kind of Science", "kind": "computational-observation", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.677, "truth": 0.685, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.67 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.7 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.73, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAV7SOKgtgRP6-t8f9Ogv5ZfMbKRNIw4ati5_4soEn8Yg", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch01-06", "key": "9558c14170120168", "label": "Simple programs yield a straightforward explanation of thermodynamic behavior", "statement": "The long-standing difficulty in understanding how thermodynamic behavior, including the Second Law of Thermodynamics, arises in physics can be resolved by a straightforward explanation drawn from the behavior of simple programs.", "quote": "For more than a century, for example, there has been confusion about how thermodynamic behavior arises in physics. Yet from my discoveries about simple programs I have developed a quite straightforward explanation.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 1: The Foundations for a New Kind of Science", "kind": "physical-hypothesis", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.487, "truth": 0.26, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.32 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.2 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.625, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAhHEiwuNSaayTSWHqWGeWzJUAeON2-HM7H1zwEJ60KB8", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch01-07", "key": "a66f3d75abc6404a", "label": "Universal computation is possible in systems with one-sentence rules", "statement": "Contrary to the assumption that computational universality requires elaborate systems like electronic computers, there exist systems whose rules can be stated in a single sentence that are nevertheless universal, able to perform any possible computation.", "quote": "there are systems whose rules are simple enough to describe in just one sentence that are nevertheless universal.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 1: The Foundations for a New Kind of Science", "kind": "mathematical", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": true, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "supports", "evidence_kind": "computational", "data_test": { "verdict": "supports", "confidence": 0.8, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "computational", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/wolfram-nks/wolfram2002-ch01-07/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered. (A) One-sentence rule: the sentence 'A cell becomes black if it or its right-hand neighbour is black, unless it and both of its neighbours are black' has at most 30 words and, evaluated as a Boolean predicate on the 8 neighbourhoods, reproduces all 8 entries of Wolfram's rule 110 (binary 01101110). (B) TM -> tag: for 30 random 2-symbol Turing machines with 2-4 states (every transition writes a bit, moves left or right, and changes to any state; no halting), each started from a random tape of 8 bits on each side of the head and run for 40 steps, Cook's 10m-symbol 2-deletion tag system (rules as printed on pp. 5-6 of Cook 2004) started from the encoded configuration reaches the encoded configuration of each successive Turing-machine step within 100000 tag steps; 100% of the 1200 step checks succeed. (C) Tag -> cyclic tag: for the same 30 tag systems plus 30 random 2-tag systems with 2-6 symbols and appendants of length 0-4, each run for 200 tag steps from a random tape (or until the tape empties), Cook's 2k-appendant cyclic tag system (symbol i -> N^(i-1) Y N^(k-i); appendants = encoded appendants then k empty ones) reproduces the encoded tag tape after every 2k cyclic-tag steps; 100% of checks. (D) Glider inventory: the velocities of all naturally occurring rule-110 gliders in Cook 2004 figure 5 (A 2/3, B -1/2, C 0, D 1/5, E and Ebar -4/15, F -1/9, G -1/3; H and the glider gun are stated by Cook not to arise naturally) are all present among the exactly periodic localized structures measured in test-data/claim-tests/wolfram-nks/wolfram2002-ch02-09/derived/measured.json (random initial conditions, 20 runs). 'Supports' requires A-D.", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered. 'Refutes' if A fails (rule 110 is not the stated sentence), or if B or C fails in more than 5% of checks (the printed constructions do not emulate as claimed), or if fewer than 5 of the 7 figure-5 velocities are observed in D. Other combinations are 'mixed'. The test cannot refute Cook's theorem itself; a failure of B or C would show that the printed proof as transcribed does not work, not that no one-sentence universal system exists.", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: cook2004-rule110-universality, tm-tag-cts-emulation-generator, wolfram2002-ch02-09-glider-inventory", "inference_method": "analysis.py: (A) evaluates the sentence as the predicate (c OR r) AND NOT (l AND c AND r) on all 8 neighbourhoods and compares with rule 110; (B) for 30 random 2-symbol Turing machines builds Cook's 10m-symbol 2-deletion tag system from the printed lookup-table entries (H_kz, L_kz, R_kz, R_k*, H_k, L_k, R_k), encodes the configuration as H_k1 H_k0 [L_k1 L_k0]^TL [R_k1 R_k0]^TR (with the leading H_k1 already consumed when the head reads 0), runs the tag system and records whether the encoding of each successive TM configuration appears on the tape; (C) for those 30 tag systems and 30 random 2-tag systems builds Cook's 2k-appendant cyclic tag system and checks after every 2k cyclic-tag steps that the cyclic-tag tape is the encoding of the tag tape; (D) reads the rule-110 glider velocities measured for claim wolfram2002-ch02-09 and checks each velocity of Cook's figure 5.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.915, "truth": 0.98, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.99 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.97 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.91, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAF6XhDncZgPMQ6UjN9VQEUeRVHpNETA8yf0Q9M4WPtQk", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch01-08", "key": "4a1ccf5c62cf5588", "label": "Most systems with non-simple behavior are computationally irreducible", "statement": "Predicting a system's outcome by a mathematical shortcut is normally possible only for special systems with simple behavior; other systems are computationally irreducible, so their behavior can be found only by tracing each step with roughly as much computational effort as the system itself expends.", "quote": "such systems are computationally irreducible—so that in effect the only way to find their behavior is to trace each of their steps, spending about as much computational effort as the systems themselves.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 1: The Foundations for a New Kind of Science", "kind": "general-principle", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.485, "truth": 0.475, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.51 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.44 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.66, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAB6_oknTYqvEoYLuD6ITKUOwi13J2AnYc9gXPd9lH8KU", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch01-09", "key": "af187a0fb9bc2357", "label": "Computational irreducibility explains free will despite deterministic rules", "statement": "Computational irreducibility provides an explanation of how humans, even if they follow definite underlying rules, can meaningfully be said to have free will.", "quote": "it leads to an explanation of how we as humans—even though we may follow definite underlying rules—can still in a meaningful way show free will.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 1: The Foundations for a New Kind of Science", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.041, "truth": 0.2, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.22 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.18 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.905, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAIUROgNK-tGDYCRRfyZtVIJrJzuf83Ty78hYpYU8mMns", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch01-10", "key": "84ccb1c90873b2e3", "label": "Complexity of simple abstract systems imposes fundamental limits on proof", "statement": "The complexity found in simple abstract systems leads to fundamental limitations on mathematical proof, of the kind hinted at by Gödel's Theorem, and these limitations are relevant well beyond the narrow scope of current mathematics.", "quote": "one of the consequences of this complexity is that it leads to fundamental limitations on the idea of proof that has been central to traditional mathematics.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 1: The Foundations for a New Kind of Science", "kind": "mathematical", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": true, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.683, "truth": 0.82, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.92 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.72 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.71, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAXLSJPOIw_LoQ9Tm44euN6kK-r6Tc77x-eI1UvFXusHo", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch01-11", "key": "0553fbb5ca7f0d48", "label": "Simple programs capture how genetic programs generate biological forms", "statement": "Simple programs can reproduce many features of biological organisms and appear to capture essential mechanisms by which genetic programs generate observed biological forms, enabling new models and general abstract theories in biology.", "quote": "such programs can reproduce many features of biological organisms—and for example seem to capture some of the essential mechanisms through which genetic programs manage to generate the actual biological forms we see.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 1: The Foundations for a New Kind of Science", "kind": "model-of-nature", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.438, "truth": 0.58, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.72 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.44 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.67, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAJR4F-ACBgmjKwnMLLOj1OQj9TfxdFUvBKg5ZfRhUI_Y", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch01-12", "key": "543c146a5a90ac3f", "label": "Sophisticated tasks need only extremely simple underlying rules", "statement": "Contrary to engineering experience, performing sophisticated tasks does not require correspondingly complicated basic rules; extremely simple underlying rules, potentially implementable directly at the atomic scale, are often sufficient.", "quote": "extremely simple underlying rules—that might for example potentially be implemented directly at the level of atoms—are often all that is needed.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 1: The Foundations for a New Kind of Science", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.461, "truth": 0.525, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.47 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.58 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.615, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RACMlBqBJ27d-5HiuxP1Ad5iNrtYnj207unvjE1reVEoQ", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch01-13", "key": "51eec205bf417457", "label": "Natural selection tends to oppose rather than generate complexity", "statement": "Darwinian natural selection does not clearly imply the generation of complexity and in many respects tends to oppose it; a different mechanism, the intrinsic complexity of simple programs, is responsible for most great complexity in biology.", "quote": "I will argue in this book that in many respects it tends to oppose complexity.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 1: The Foundations for a New Kind of Science", "kind": "model-of-nature", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.387, "truth": 0.13, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.13 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.13 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.67, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAr6kfnroCPVmMUGcLEEosEMIQjwJedhscIBzqQPRcbFE", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch02-01", "key": "8ec42d453621de66", "label": "A rule-90-type cellular automaton produces a nested self-similar pattern", "statement": "A one-dimensional cellular automaton in which each cell becomes black when exactly one of its two neighbors was black (rule 90), started from a single black cell, produces an intricate but regular nested pattern made of triangular pieces that are smaller copies of the whole.", "quote": "it actually consists of many nested triangular pieces that all have exactly the same form.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 2: The Crucial Experiment", "kind": "computational-observation", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "supports", "evidence_kind": "computational", "data_test": { "verdict": "supports", "confidence": 0.99, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "computational", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/wolfram-nks/wolfram2002-ch02-01/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered: (1) for every k = 1..11 the 2^k-step triangle decomposes exactly (zero mismatching cells) into three copies of the 2^(k-1)-step triangle plus an all-white central inverted triangle; and (2) every simulated row t whose value is present in the OEIS A001317 b-file equals A001317(t) when the row's cells at positions of parity t are read as a binary number (zero mismatching rows).", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered: any cell of the simulated pattern violates the three-copy decomposition at some k <= 11, or any simulated row differs from the independently tabulated A001317 value.", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: eca-rule90-single-cell-2048-steps, oeis-a001317-bfile", "inference_method": "analysis.py evolves rule 90 from a single black cell for 2048 steps on a 4097-cell line (boundary never reached, asserted). For k = 1..11 it reconstructs the 2^k-row triangle from three translated copies of the 2^(k-1)-row triangle (top centred, bottom copies shifted by -2^(k-1) and +2^(k-1)) over a white background and counts mismatching cells against the simulated triangle, also counting black cells inside the central inverted triangle. It then downloads the OEIS A001317 b-file (3322 terms), reads each simulated row's cells at positions x = -t, -t+2, ..., t as a binary number and compares with A001317(t) for all 2048 rows.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.986, "truth": 0.99, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.99 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.99 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.97, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA-l7jOnSVDKKpDcLioSHCBb5Ixv6Yt77ZqwW-cwWFnC0", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch02-02", "key": "4cae909ee92f1d3f", "label": "Rule 30 from a single black cell produces an irregular, complex pattern", "statement": "The elementary cellular automaton rule 30, started from a single black cell, produces a highly irregular and complex pattern with almost no overall regularity, rather than a uniform, repetitive or nested one.", "quote": "Rather than getting a simple regular pattern as we might expect, the cellular automaton instead produces a pattern that seems extremely irregular and complex.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 2: The Crucial Experiment", "kind": "computational-observation", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "supports", "evidence_kind": "computational", "data_test": { "verdict": "supports", "confidence": 0.85, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "computational", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/wolfram-nks/wolfram2002-ch02-02/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "In the interior of rule 30's single-cell pattern, shift-agreement and decimation-agreement stay near the random value 0.5 and general-purpose compressors achieve no more than 20 % saving relative to a density-matched random pattern, while the same detectors flag rule 50 as repetitive and rule 90 as nested.", "disconfirming_observation": "A space-time shift or decimation that reproduces at least 90 % of the interior cells, or a compressor that halves the size relative to the density-matched random pattern.", "admissible_datasets": "The exact rule 30 evolution from a single black cell on an unbounded (light-cone-sized) lattice, generated by committed code; control rules and random references generated by the same code with a fixed seed. No data derived from Wolfram's own figures.", "inference_method": "Black fraction, maximum shift agreement A_rep (p <= 64, |s| <= p), maximum decimation agreement A_nest (k = 2, 3), and lzma/bz2 size ratios against a density-matched Bernoulli pattern, each compared with the pre-registered thresholds; validity requires the repetitive (rule 50) and nested (rule 90) controls to be detected.", "explicit": true }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [ { "id": "wolfram-conus-textile-rule30", "relation": "models", "note": "Generates Rule 30 from a single black cell, reproducing the irregular pattern the claim describes.", "label": "Wolfram (1984) Rule 30 & Meinhardt–Klingler (1987) Conus textile Pigmentation faithfully reproduces Conus textile Linnaeus, 1758 (textile cone snail) morphology", "organism": "Conus textile Linnaeus, 1758 (textile cone snail)", "verdict": "faithful", "score": 87.3, "thompson_verdict": null, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA2G31b0Bg50syNWFhJ5Aj8U2-KZQ5QizNhMjRl1uSb_g", "registry": "unconfirmed", "report": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/morphoeval/kg/2026-10-18-conus-audit/REPORT.md" } ], "thumbnail": { "file": "docs/thumbs/wolfram-conus-textile-rule30.jpg", "morpholib": "wolfram-conus-textile-rule30", "source": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/docs/media/conus_textile_rule30.gif" }, "testability": 0.861, "truth": 0.975, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.97 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.98 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.84, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAIJjZ5xuewwMErdGGmrOGhSJPMZKluY16T9nBDLrsTsU", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch02-03", "key": "2303acc47067e1dd", "label": "Simple rules with simple initial conditions can yield highly complex behavior", "statement": "As a general phenomenon, a system with simple underlying rules started from simple initial conditions can nevertheless show highly complex behavior.", "quote": "even though the underlying rules for a system are simple, and even though the system is started from simple initial conditions, the behavior that the system shows can nevertheless be highly complex.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 2: The Crucial Experiment", "kind": "general-principle", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "supports", "evidence_kind": "computational", "data_test": { "verdict": "supports", "confidence": 0.9, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "computational", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/wolfram-nks/wolfram2002-ch02-03/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered. Rule 30 from a single black cell on a lattice wide enough that boundaries never influence the measured cells. (a) Compressibility: the lzma-compressed size of the first 2^16 centre-column bits (packed 8 per byte) is at least 0.95 times the compressed size of 2^16 bits from os.urandom packed the same way. (b) Aperiodicity: no period p <= 2^15 holds from any offset t0 <= 2^15 within the first 2^16 centre-column bits (i.e. for every p there is a t >= 2^15 with x[t] != x[t+p]). (c) Randomness tests on the 2^16 centre-column bits: monobit frequency test p > 0.01, Wald-Wolfowitz runs test p > 0.01, chi-square test on the 256 frequencies of non-overlapping 8-bit blocks p > 0.01. (d) Pattern complexity relative to simple rules: the lzma ratio (compressed/raw bytes of the packed bit image) of the 1001-step single-cell pattern (rows of 2001 cells) is at least 5 times larger for rule 30 than for the nested rule 90 and at least 5 times larger than for the repetitive rule 250. 'Supports' requires (a)-(d). In addition the census of all 256 elementary rules by the same pattern ratio is reported (number of rules with ratio > 0.5 of rule 30's ratio), without bearing on the verdict.", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered. 'Refutes' (for the witness, and hence failing to confirm the existence claim) if the rule-30 centre column is eventually periodic with period <= 2^15 within 2^16 steps, or if its lzma ratio is below 0.5 of the random baseline. Other combinations are 'mixed'.", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: eca-single-cell-generator", "inference_method": "analysis.py evolves rule 30 from one black cell on 131075 cells for 65536 steps and records the centre column; compresses the packed bits with lzma (preset 9 extreme) and compares with 65536 bits from os.urandom; checks every period p <= 32768 from offset 32768 for a mismatch; applies the monobit, Wald-Wolfowitz runs and 8-bit block chi-square tests; evolves all 256 rules for 1000 steps on 2003 cells and computes the lzma ratio of the packed pattern, comparing rule 30 with rules 90 and 250 and counting rules whose ratio exceeds half of rule 30's.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.912, "truth": 0.98, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.99 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.97 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.905, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RASBp32M-vb40UdufvnT2Gay-isF8mu_5iofpJEGsqEFs", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch02-04", "key": "e7f912e4232ed8c5", "label": "Complexity from simple rules accounts for most complexity in nature", "statement": "The generation of complex behavior from simple rules and simple initial conditions is ultimately responsible for most of the complexity seen in nature.", "quote": "I will argue that it is this basic phenomenon that is ultimately responsible for most of the complexity that we see in nature.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 2: The Crucial Experiment", "kind": "model-of-nature", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.267, "truth": 0.29, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.38 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.2 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.685, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAmruX3IN2TblfNNf29AIoN5tID-ScaiNTTV0Fo_mhoX4", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch02-05", "key": "7a3f08ea14b69cf7", "label": "Rule 30's center column shows no deviation from randomness over a million steps", "statement": "The sequence of cell colors directly below the initial black cell in rule 30 does not repeat in its first million steps, and statistical tests show no meaningful deviation from perfect randomness.", "quote": "in the first million steps in this sequence, for example, it never repeats, and indeed none of the tests I have ever done on it show any meaningful deviation at all from perfect randomness.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 2: The Crucial Experiment", "kind": "computational-observation", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "supports", "evidence_kind": "computational", "data_test": { "verdict": "supports", "confidence": 0.85, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "computational", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/wolfram-nks/wolfram2002-ch02-05/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered. (1) Non-repetition: for every period p in 1..500000, the final matching suffix of x[t] = x[t - p] has length less than p (no tail of the million-step sequence consists of at least two full periods of any period p <= N/2). (2) Randomness: run the following tests, implemented in numpy following NIST SP 800-22 rev. 1a, on the 1,000,000-bit sequence: frequency (monobit), block frequency (M = 128), runs, longest run of ones (M = 10000), binary matrix rank (32 x 32), discrete Fourier transform, non-overlapping template matching (m = 9, template 000000001, N = 8 blocks), overlapping template matching (m = 9, M = 1032), Maurer's universal (L = 7, Q = 1280), linear complexity (M = 500), serial (m = 16; two p-values), approximate entropy (m = 10), cumulative sums (forward and backward), random excursions (8 states) and random excursions variant (18 states), i.e. about 41 p-values. 'supports' if (1) holds, no p-value is below 1e-4, and at most 2 p-values are below 0.01 (the NIST alpha; with 41 p-values the chance of 3 or more below 0.01 under randomness is about 0.8 %). Cross-check (not part of the verdict): the first 100,000 computed bits must agree with the OEIS A051023 b-file; a disagreement means the generator is wrong and the verdict becomes 'inconclusive' with reason 'other'.", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered. 'refutes' if any period is found under (1), or if any p-value is below 1e-6, or if 4 or more p-values are below 0.01. Otherwise (e.g. exactly 3 p-values below 0.01, or one between 1e-6 and 1e-4) -> 'mixed'. Random-excursions tests are only applied if the number of cycles J >= 500 as NIST requires; if not applicable they are simply omitted from the count.", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: nks-ch02-05-rule30-center-column-generator, oeis-a051023-bfile", "inference_method": "analysis.py evolves rule 30 from a single black cell for 10^6 steps with bit-packed numpy (uint64 words), updating only the words inside the light cone of the centre cell at the final step, and records the centre cell at every step (generation 17 s). The first 100,001 bits were compared with the OEIS A051023 b-file. Eventual periodicity was tested for every p <= 500000 by computing the length of the longest suffix with x[t] = x[t-p] using big-integer XOR, counting a period when that length is at least p and at least 64 bits. Fifteen NIST SP 800-22 statistics (frequency, block frequency M=128, runs, longest run M=10000, 32x32 matrix rank, DFT, non-overlapping template 000000001, overlapping template m=9, Maurer universal L=7/Q=1280, linear complexity M=500 via Berlekamp-Massey, serial m=16 (2), approximate entropy m=10, cumulative sums forward/backward) were implemented in numpy/scipy from the NIST specification and validated on numpy pseudo-random bits before use; random excursions were not applicable (J = 340 cycles < 500).", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [ { "id": "wolfram-conus-textile-rule30", "relation": "tests", "note": "Computes finite-horizon statistics of the Rule 30 center column (through t = 1024), checking the randomness claim directly, though over far fewer than a million steps.", "label": "Wolfram (1984) Rule 30 & Meinhardt–Klingler (1987) Conus textile Pigmentation faithfully reproduces Conus textile Linnaeus, 1758 (textile cone snail) morphology", "organism": "Conus textile Linnaeus, 1758 (textile cone snail)", "verdict": "faithful", "score": 87.3, "thompson_verdict": null, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA2G31b0Bg50syNWFhJ5Aj8U2-KZQ5QizNhMjRl1uSb_g", "registry": "unconfirmed", "report": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/morphoeval/kg/2026-10-18-conus-audit/REPORT.md" } ], "thumbnail": { "file": "docs/thumbs/wolfram-conus-textile-rule30.jpg", "morpholib": "wolfram-conus-textile-rule30", "source": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/docs/media/conus_textile_rule30.gif" }, "testability": 0.885, "truth": 0.72, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.58 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.86 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.89, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAUfzFGaxB0NFvL6_X2IZGPDOh-MkU7y0l3YK63TxI6lE", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch02-06", "key": "c3964340e9c28c7c", "label": "Some cellular automata make even average properties hard to predict", "statement": "Some simple cellular automata, such as rule 110, are more complex than random-looking ones like rule 30: they mix regular regions with interacting localized structures, so that even average properties of their behavior become very difficult to predict.", "quote": "there are cellular automata whose behavior is in effect still more complex—and in which even such averages become very difficult to predict.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 2: The Crucial Experiment", "kind": "computational-observation", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.749, "truth": 0.82, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.81 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.83 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.74, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAdUtDGBSMJAI1-x36GpBz5WG4c71SQ5u9ug4O6RhofUU", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch02-07", "key": "08710f43009c39cd", "label": "Rule 110's fate can be determined only by running it", "statement": "Whether the localized structures in rule 110 eventually annihilate into a regular pattern or proliferate into randomness apparently cannot be determined in advance; the only reliable method is to run the cellular automaton for as many steps as needed.", "quote": "The only sure way to answer these questions, it seems, is just to run the cellular automaton for as many steps as are needed", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 2: The Crucial Experiment", "kind": "computational-observation", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.681, "truth": 0.67, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.62 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.72 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.685, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAzjtFGZ2X_gXFsc59pDN0cna1NCEmRl5oNVUGeLm93Vc", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch02-08", "key": "6a20e264eb2322d7", "label": "Rule 110 from one black cell becomes periodic with period 240 after about 2780 steps", "statement": "Rule 110 started from a single black cell resolves after about 2780 steps: one localized structure survives and interacts with periodic stripes from the left to give behavior that repeats every 240 steps.", "quote": "the outcome is finally clear after about 2780 steps: one structure survives, and that structure interacts with the periodic stripes coming from the left to produce behavior that repeats every 240 steps.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 2: The Crucial Experiment", "kind": "computational-observation", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "mixed", "evidence_kind": "computational", "data_test": { "verdict": "mixed", "confidence": 0.85, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "computational", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/wolfram-nks/wolfram2002-ch02-08/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered: the smallest P in 1..2000 for which a(t+P, x) = a(t, x) for every cell x in the light cone [-t, 0] and every t from some onset t0 to the end of the run equals 240, and that onset t0 (the smallest t from which the relation holds for all later t up to T - P) lies in [2500, 3060], i.e. within 10% of 2780.", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered: no P <= 2000 makes the pattern periodic on the light cone for the last 2000 steps of an 8000-step run and 240 is not a period even on the fixed right-edge windows [-500, 0], [-1000, 0] and [-2000, 0]; or the minimal period is not a divisor of 240; or 240 is a period but the onset lies outside [2000, 3500]. Intermediate outcomes (minimal period a proper divisor of 240; periodicity holds only on a restricted window; onset in [2000, 2500) or (3060, 3500]) are pre-registered as 'mixed'.", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: eca-rule110-single-cell-8000-steps", "inference_method": "analysis.py evolves rule 110 from one black cell for 8000 steps (boundary never reached; rows 0-4 checked against the standard 1, 11, 111, 1101, 11111). Part A (pre-registered): for P = 1..2000 it tests exact fixed-frame recurrence a(t+P,x) = a(t,x) over the light cone [-t,0] and over the right-edge windows [-500,0], [-1000,0], [-2000,0] across the last 2000 steps; no P qualifies (the leading edge and the drifting structure break every fixed-frame recurrence). Part B (diagnostic, after A): the P = 240 mismatch is recounted excluding the 300 leading-edge cells, which isolates a single cluster of 9-24 cells that drifts left at -0.0846 cells/step; an exhaustive (P, shift) search in windows of +-40 and +-150 cells around that cluster finds its exact space-time period to be (213 steps, -18 cells), with (240, 0) and (240, -20) never matching; the fixed-frame recurrence of the right-edge windows [-50,0] and [-100,0] and of the stripe region is measured for P in {7, 71, 80, 213, 240, 480}, and the onset times of each regime are determined.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.976, "truth": 0.89, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.9 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.88 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.955, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA9wt5KnI_SU9r6FQEU-LUbax5noiq7DmcUSpGQpYRW28", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch02-09", "key": "57a526177f08b513", "label": "Identical cell rules yield diverse behaviors through different configurations", "statement": "Even though every cell of a cellular automaton follows the same rule, different configurations of cell colors can collectively produce many different kinds of behavior, such as regular backgrounds and distinct localized structures.", "quote": "even though individual cells follow the same rule, different configurations of cells with different sequences of colors can together produce all sorts of different kinds of behavior.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 2: The Crucial Experiment", "kind": "computational-observation", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "supports", "evidence_kind": "computational", "data_test": { "verdict": "supports", "confidence": 0.97, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "computational", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/wolfram-nks/wolfram2002-ch02-09/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered. (A) Background: there is a configuration on a 14-cell ring that rule 110 maps, after 7 steps, onto a rotation of itself (a spatially 14-periodic, temporally 7-periodic background), and in 20 independent random-initial-condition runs (density 0.5, cyclic lattice of 700 cells, 3000 steps) the mean fraction of cells whose 14-cell neighbourhood matches that background (any phase) over steps 1000-3000 is at least 0.50. (B) Structures: across the same runs, tracks of non-background cells that persist for at least 300 steps and are exactly periodic (the window around the track at time t equals the window at time t+p shifted by s cells, for 5 consecutive periods) exist with at least 3 distinct velocities s/p (pairwise differing by more than 0.05 cells/step). Both (A) and (B) must hold for 'supports'.", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered. 'Refutes' if no 7-step periodic 14-cell background exists or the mean background fraction is below 0.25, or if fewer than 2 distinct exactly periodic localized-structure velocities are found across all runs. Anything between (background fraction 0.25-0.50, or exactly 2 velocities) is 'mixed'.", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: eca-rule110-random-ic-generator", "inference_method": "analysis.py enumerates all 16384 configurations of a 14-cell ring under rule 110 and finds those that return to a rotation of themselves after 7 steps; the only non-uniform orbit (14 rotations of 00010011011111, shift 0 after 7 steps, basin 51.5% of ring states) is the ether. Twenty random initial conditions on a 700-cell ring are run for 3000 steps; a cell is 'background' when its 14-cell window equals one of the ether's window codes. Non-background cells are clustered (gap <= 3), clusters are linked across steps (centre moves <= 6 cells), and each track of >= 300 steps is tested for exact periodicity (window at t equals window at t+p shifted by s for 5 consecutive periods, p <= 60). Distinct rational velocities s/p differing by > 0.05 are counted.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.924, "truth": 0.985, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.99 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.98 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.92, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAwp_rItJFAaqEzq6By44_asXSfNE8bbGf0RnMe6Dzn4g", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch02-10", "key": "6e31c412e17364b6", "label": "Intuition that complex results need complex plans comes from engineering", "statement": "The intuition that complex objects require complex construction plans fails because it derives from engineering, where designers restrict themselves to systems whose behavior they can understand and predict, a constraint nature does not share.", "quote": "Yet to do this reliably, we have to restrict ourselves to systems whose behavior we can readily understand and predict—for unless we can foresee how a system will behave, we cannot be sure that the system will do what we want.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 2: The Crucial Experiment", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.139, "truth": 0.685, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.81 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.56 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.72, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAgjCI0GJDxCjAExHIMHwan7hwGfNvn3ICqPPsso49w9k", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch02-11", "key": "86daa1c000a9cc9a", "label": "Systems with simple rules and complex behavior are very common in nature", "statement": "Because nature is not constrained to predictable designs, systems whose simple rules produce complex behavior, like rule 30 and rule 110, are very common in nature.", "quote": "one of the important conclusions of this book is that such systems are actually very common in nature.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 2: The Crucial Experiment", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.311, "truth": 0.435, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.57 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.3 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.655, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RApFQ1IE2K2Tplpqmy0KLihRV0UzbJ9snm_I964C6GXvA", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch02-12", "key": "561daf6972ed2668", "label": "Complex cellular-automaton-like patterns are absent from historical ornament", "statement": "Historical ornamental art contains many repetitive patterns and some nested ones, but the more complicated patterns produced by simple cellular automata such as rule 30 never appear to have been used.", "quote": "Repetitive patterns are common and some nested patterns are seen, but the more complicated kinds of patterns discussed in this chapter do not ever appear to have been used.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 2: The Crucial Experiment", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.508, "truth": 0.455, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.23 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.68 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.675, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA-nZcN6Jk-OMDZ3IKxufX5j4SBNK76qAHAAkSWjLMkoc", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch02-13", "key": "d5d9421d927a4f6e", "label": "Computers enable discoveries beyond working out mathematical equations", "statement": "Computers are not limited to computing the consequences of mathematical equations; directly studying the behavior of even the simplest computer programs yields fundamental scientific discoveries.", "quote": "computers are not just limited to working out consequences of mathematical equations. And indeed, what we have seen in this chapter is that there are fundamental discoveries that can be made if one just studies directly the behavior of even some of the very simplest computer programs.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 2: The Crucial Experiment", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.487, "truth": 0.955, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.98 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.93 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.8, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAVcep66_G5r9TTHu_k4cJltazUH1wWBwqF8-UBJ_2Q_M", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch02-14", "key": "51cbee7a21c57f5b", "label": "Unknown phenomena are found only by systematic, preconception-free experiments", "statement": "Phenomena not already known to exist can be found only by very systematic and general experiments whose results are examined with as few preconceptions as possible.", "quote": "the only way to find phenomena that one does not already know exist is to do very systematic and general experiments, and then to look at the results with as few preconceptions as possible.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 2: The Crucial Experiment", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.068, "truth": 0.215, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.28 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.15 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.845, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RARXET-o_gOs1E9chFfksfZ5Im98m0LtoNxyYLzanIVnM", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch02-15", "key": "386e0ec4f5f32328", "label": "Lack of adequate computers delayed discovery of complexity from simple rules", "statement": "A main reason that complexity from simple programs was not discovered before the 1980s is that computer technology powerful enough for the required large-scale exploratory experiments did not yet exist, together with a lack of intuition drawn from practical computing.", "quote": "one of the main reasons that the discoveries I describe in this chapter were not made before the 1980s is just that computer technology did not yet exist powerful enough to do the kinds of exploratory experiments that were needed.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 2: The Crucial Experiment", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.474, "truth": 0.42, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.42 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.42 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.645, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAhlf2YSOAlhC62tbz4GyH7Yw74-FUr7tJ_pj4aRrAsIY", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch02-16", "key": "37109953b9cab895", "label": "It is usually very hard to foresee what even a simple program will do", "statement": "Practical computing shows that it is usually very difficult to foresee the behavior of even a simple program, which is why software bugs are so common; the simple structure of cellular automaton rules likewise does not make their behavior easy to predict.", "quote": "from experience in practical computing one knows that it is usually very difficult to foresee what even a simple program will do.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 2: The Crucial Experiment", "kind": "general-principle", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.645, "truth": 0.825, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.79 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.86 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.685, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAayco2aUCqwQ-Cl1wF1yaWvx8cg1TpCcdKxf4PRNfpyI", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch02-17", "key": "fa1391101e741b83", "label": "Primes follow simple generating rules yet are distributed seemingly randomly", "statement": "The prime numbers, though generated by simple rules, have a distribution that seems in many respects random, an early instance of complexity from simple rules that mathematics largely neglected in favor of proving regularities.", "quote": "The rules for generating primes are simple, yet their distribution seems in many respects random.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 2: The Crucial Experiment", "kind": "mathematical", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": true, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "refutes", "evidence_kind": "computational", "data_test": { "verdict": "refutes", "confidence": 0.55, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "computational", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/wolfram-nks/wolfram2002-ch02-17/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered. Generate all primes below N = 10^8 by sieve; validate against the OEIS A000040 b-file (first 10000 primes must match exactly) and the published value pi(10^8) = 5761455 (OEIS A006880). Simulate the Cramer model on the same range with numpy seed 20261031 and run every statistic on both. Seven respects, each with a threshold for 'random-like': R1 coarse gap distribution: for primes in [N/2, N], maximum over j of |F_emp(30 j) - (1 - exp(-30 j / mean gap))| < 0.03, where F_emp is the empirical CDF of gaps; R2 Pearson correlation of consecutive gaps in [N/2, N]: |rho| < 0.05; R3 equidistribution over the four residue classes coprime to 12: maximum deviation of a class share from 1/4 below 0.005 (the Cramer model is evaluated on its own coprime-to-12 events); R4 counts of primes in consecutive disjoint intervals of length H = round(ln N) in [N/2, N]: total variation distance between the empirical count distribution and Poisson with the same mean < 0.02; R5 discrete Fourier transform of the indicator of primes among the 2^22 odd numbers just below N: ratio of the largest non-zero-frequency power to the mean power < 30 (a Gumbel-scale maximum for random indicators is about ln(2^21) ~ 15); R6 sequential compressibility: lzma size of the sequence of half-gaps (clipped at 255) in [N/2, N] divided by the lzma size of a seeded random permutation of the same sequence >= 0.98; R7 maximum over x <= N of |pi(x) - Li(x)| / sqrt(x / ln x) < 3. A respect is calibrated only if the Cramer simulation satisfies its threshold; miscalibrated respects are dropped and reported. PASS (supports) if the primes are random-like in at least (K - 2) of the K calibrated respects (so 5 of 7 if all are calibrated).", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered. FAIL (refutes) if the primes are random-like in at most K - 4 of the K calibrated respects (3 of 7), or if the gap sequence is plainly regular (lzma ratio of the raw half-gap byte sequence below 0.1, or a single Fourier frequency carrying more than half the non-DC spectral power). MIXED for exactly K - 3 random-like respects (4 of 7). If the OEIS validation fails the generator is wrong and the result is 'inconclusive' (other). If the OEIS files cannot be fetched, validation falls back to the published pi(10^8) value only and this is reported.", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: primes-sieve-and-cramer-generator, oeis-a000040-bfile, oeis-a006880-bfile", "inference_method": "analysis.py sieves all primes below 10^8 (pi(10^8) = 5761455, matching OEIS A006880; first 10000 primes match the OEIS A000040 b-file), simulates Cramer's model on the same range with seed 20261031, and evaluates the seven pre-registered respects on both: coarse gap CDF versus exponential, consecutive-gap correlation, equidistribution over residues coprime to 12, Poisson fit of counts in intervals of length 18, Fourier spectrum of the prime indicator over 2^22 odd numbers below 10^8, lzma compressibility of the half-gap sequence relative to its shuffle, and the scaled fluctuation of pi(x) - Li(x). All seven thresholds were satisfied by the Cramer simulation, so all seven respects were calibrated. Runtime about 3 min.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": { "verdict": "not-representative", "assessors": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "verdict": "not-representative", "confidence": 0.94, "file": "test-data/claim-tests/wolfram-nks/wolfram2002-ch02-17/faithfulness.json" }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "verdict": "faithful-with-narrower-scope", "confidence": 0.64, "file": "test-data/claim-tests/wolfram-nks/wolfram2002-ch02-17/faithfulness.grok.json" } ], "status": "contested" } }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.827, "truth": 0.755, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.93 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.58 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.815, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAmdUJpvERcJvG2yOgAIipgubxNTjC6P4WGkaXG_a7Ax8", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch02-18", "key": "3b1d03f6031a0338", "label": "Complexity from simple programs was never discovered before despite many hints", "statement": "Although there were many hints over several centuries, including primes, digits of pi, iterated maps and the Game of Life, the basic phenomenon of simple programs producing complex behavior was never identified before Wolfram's work.", "quote": "despite many hints over the course of several centuries, the basic phenomenon that I have described in this chapter was never discovered before.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 2: The Crucial Experiment", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.492, "truth": 0.08, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.08 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.08 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.63, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAzTBsTbknZWKErcSDzU7a8i8V13MUgUIPaIlm_2m-d1E", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch03-01", "key": "9f9bccb3e0f4c899", "label": "Overall behavior types are similar across all kinds of simple programs", "statement": "Whatever kind of underlying rules a simple program uses (cellular automata, mobile automata, Turing machines, substitution systems, tag systems, register machines, symbolic systems), the overall behavior that emerges falls into the same few basic types first seen in elementary cellular automata.", "quote": "whatever kind of underlying rules one uses, the behavior that emerges turns out to be remarkably similar to the basic examples that we have already seen in cellular automata.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 3: The World of Simple Programs", "kind": "general-principle", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.678, "truth": 0.685, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.59 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.78 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.73, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAJUfnBAVKze7GB9IMnn5aNw8E_4pH9-q3N-BJ3bTdKpg", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch03-02", "key": "a0cb8a6677007687", "label": "Most elementary cellular automata give fixed-size patterns from a single black cell", "statement": "Among the 256 elementary (two-color, nearest-neighbor) cellular automata started from a single black cell, about two-thirds produce patterns that stay of fixed size and about one-third produce patterns that grow forever, with about 14% yielding patterns more complicated than repetition.", "quote": "In about two-thirds of all the cellular automata shown on the last few pages [54, 55, 56], the patterns produced remain of a fixed size. But in about one-third of cases, the patterns instead grow forever.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 3: The World of Simple Programs", "kind": "computational-observation", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "supports", "evidence_kind": "computational", "data_test": { "verdict": "supports", "confidence": 0.95, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "computational", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/wolfram-nks/wolfram2002-ch03-02/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered: run all 256 rules for T = 4096 steps on a ring of 2T + 64 cells (so the light cone never wraps). Width w(t) = extent of cells differing from the background value at time t, where the background follows b_{t+1} = f(b_t, b_t, b_t). A rule is 'fixed size' if max_{t in [T/2, T]} w(t) equals max_{t in [T/4, T/2]} w(t), otherwise 'growing'. A growing rule is 'repetitive' if some temporal period P <= 16 and spatial shift |s| <= 16 satisfy grid[t + P, x + s] == grid[t, x] for every t in [T/2, T - P] and every x in [-t + 16, t - 16]; otherwise it is 'more complicated than repetition'. The claim passes if the fixed-size fraction lies in [0.60, 0.73], the growing fraction in [0.27, 0.40] and the more-complicated fraction in [0.10, 0.18], and if the three-way classification of every rule is identical for T = 2048 and T = 4096 (no rule changes class with the cutoff).", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered: 'refutes' if the fixed-size fraction is below 0.55 or above 0.78, or the more-complicated fraction is outside [0.07, 0.21]; 'mixed' if the fractions fall between the pass and refute bands, or if more than 4 rules change class between T = 2048 and T = 4096 (indicating the cutoff, not the rules, decides the shares); 'inconclusive' if the periodicity search is not able to classify the growing patterns (e.g. because the width of the periodic window is inadequate for some rule) in a way that is stable across cutoffs.", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: eca-single-cell-census", "inference_method": "analysis.py evolves each of the 256 rules for 4096 steps from a single black cell on an 8256-cell ring, tracks the background value from a cell outside the light cone (odd rules make it alternate), and measures the width of the pattern (cells differing from the background) in every row. A rule is fixed-size if the maximum width over rows 2048..4096 equals the maximum over rows 1024..2048; otherwise growing. For growing rules it searches temporal periods P <= 16 and shifts |s| <= 16 such that the space-time pattern repeats over rows 2048..4096-P inside the interior mask; a growing rule with such a period is repetitive, otherwise more complicated. Two interior masks are evaluated: the pre-registered light-cone mask |x| <= t - 16, and an extent mask (inside the pattern's actual extent at time t minus 16 cells each side), added after the first run showed that for rules 57 and 99, whose patterns grow at half a cell per step, the light-cone mask includes background cells that the growing pattern later overwrites, so their period-3 interiors were being scored as non-periodic. The whole classification is repeated with cutoff T = 2048 using the first 2048 rows. Run time about 3 minutes.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.935, "truth": 0.83, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.88 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.78 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.91, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RARvuQl_JLabXt4wvXCACgFqvH3gpl7omtO1MlRDWX4tw", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch03-03", "key": "6c092cbf910e54bc", "label": "Ten of the 256 elementary cellular automata produce apparent randomness", "statement": "Of the 256 elementary cellular automata started from a single black cell, 10 produce patterns that seem in many respects random, falling into three basic forms, while 24 produce nested patterns falling into only three fundamentally different forms.", "quote": "And out of the 256 rules discussed here, it turns out that 10 yield such apparent randomness. There are three basic forms, as illustrated on the facing page.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 3: The World of Simple Programs", "kind": "computational-observation", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "supports", "evidence_kind": "computational", "data_test": { "verdict": "supports", "confidence": 0.6, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "computational", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/wolfram-nks/wolfram2002-ch03-03/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered. Each rule is run for T = 4096 steps from a single black cell on a white background (zero boundary, width 2T+1). Statistics: (i) rho = 8 * lzma_bytes / cells of the central strip (columns -64..63 relative to the seed, rows 1024..4095, one byte per cell, preset 9); (ii) periodic: the strip rows are time-periodic with some period p <= 64 over rows 2048..4095; (iii) growing: the black-cell extent of row 4095 is at least 1.2 times that of row 2047, or the extent of row 4095 exceeds 64 cells while the strip is not periodic. Calibration (performed before the rules are run): random references are i.i.d. fair bits (numpy seed 20260303) in a 128 x 3072 strip; nested references are the same-size central strips of the Sierpinski gasket (Pascal's triangle mod 2), Pascal's triangle mod 3 thresholded to nonzero, and the outer products t_i XOR t_j of the Thue-Morse and of the period-doubling sequences; periodic references are random patterns of period 1..64 in time and 1..16 in space. tau_random = geometric mean of the smallest random-reference rho and the largest nested-reference rho. Classification: 'random-looking' iff rho >= tau_random; 'nested' iff not random-looking, not periodic, and growing; 'regular' otherwise. Symmetry classes: orbits under reflection (swap left and right inputs) and complementation (conjugation by colour swap). Secondary, reported but not decisive: for nested rules, the black-cell count exponent D = log2(N(4096)/N(2048)) with N(t) = black cells in rows 0..t-1, and the width exponent log2(width(4095)/width(2047)); the number of clusters when D is binned to 0.1 and the width exponent to {about 1, about 0.5} is compared with Wolfram's 'three fundamentally different forms'. 'supports' if the random-looking count is in [8, 12] and forms exactly 3 symmetry classes, and the nested count is in [20, 28].", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered. 'refutes' if the random-looking count is <= 5 or >= 16, or the nested count is <= 14 or >= 36, under the calibrated criterion. Otherwise 'mixed' (e.g. counts near but outside the pass windows, or random-looking rules forming a number of symmetry classes other than 3). 'inconclusive' with reason 'other' if the calibration fails to separate random from nested references.", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: nks-ch03-03-eca-single-seed-generator", "inference_method": "analysis.py first calibrates the strip-compressibility statistic rho (bits per cell after lzma, 128 x 3072 central strip) on i.i.d. random bits (rho = 1.110-1.116), four classical nested patterns (0.009-0.033) and six periodic tilings (0.004-0.013), giving tau = 0.190. It then runs each of the 256 rules for 4096 steps from a single black cell (array width 2(T+128)+1 so that zero-boundary defects of background-flipping rules cannot reach the strip), computes rho, tests the strip for time-periodicity with period <= 64 over rows 2048-4095, measures the black-cell extent at rows 2047 and 4095, and classifies: random-looking if rho >= tau; nested if not random, not periodic and growing; regular otherwise. Random-looking rules are grouped into orbits under reflection and complementation. Run time about 50 s.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.878, "truth": 0.815, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.87 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.76 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.84, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAYw1k5TVY4nzprW9vpRQ7rPDfTyZbqqX_vz9VZ8Hzx7Q", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch03-04", "key": "a93e56c88d891b6e", "label": "Beyond a threshold, more complex rules do not give more complex behavior", "statement": "At least beyond a certain point, adding complexity to the underlying rules of a system does not lead to more complex overall behavior; in cellular automata, all the ingredients for the most complex behavior already exist in the elementary two-color rules.", "quote": "at least beyond a certain point, adding complexity to the underlying rules for a system does not ultimately lead to more complex overall behavior.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 3: The World of Simple Programs", "kind": "general-principle", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.566, "truth": 0.75, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.73 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.77 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.665, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA324SnWCFJd4wAfLtx8YE8q19MQ4G69BBUJOThujgFyw", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch03-05", "key": "e1a2ee66f7163d07", "label": "About 85% of three-color totalistic cellular automata behave regularly", "statement": "About 85% of the 2187 three-color nearest-neighbor totalistic cellular automata produce behavior that is ultimately quite regular, while the remainder include rules with seemingly random behavior and rules with interacting localized structures like rule 110.", "quote": "About 85% of all three-color totalistic cellular automata produce behavior that is ultimately quite regular.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 3: The World of Simple Programs", "kind": "computational-observation", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "supports", "evidence_kind": "computational", "data_test": { "verdict": "supports", "confidence": 0.75, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "computational", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/wolfram-nks/wolfram2002-ch03-05/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered. Each code c in 0..2186 (Wolfram's convention: base-3 digit k of c is the new colour for neighbourhood sum k in 0..6; colours 0 = white, 1 = gray, 2 = black) is run for T = 3000 steps from a single gray cell on a white background with an array wide enough that boundary effects cannot reach the central 128 columns. Statistics on the central strip (columns -64..63): (i) periodic: rows 2250..2999 are time-periodic with some period p <= 256; (ii) rho = 8 * lzma_bytes / (cells * log2(3)) over rows 1500..2999. Calibration (performed before the codes are run): nested references are the same-size strips of Pascal's triangle mod 3 (3 symbols), Pascal's triangle mod 2, and the Thue-Morse and period-doubling outer-product patterns (normalised by log2 of their own alphabet size); irregular references are the strips of elementary rules 110, 124, 137, 193 (localised structures) and 30, 45 (random) run from a single black cell with the same geometry. tau = geometric mean of the largest nested-reference rho and the smallest irregular-reference rho. A code is 'regular' iff it is periodic or rho < tau. 'supports' if the regular fraction lies in [0.80, 0.90].", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered. 'refutes' if the regular fraction is below 0.70 or above 0.95. 'mixed' if it lies in [0.70, 0.80) or (0.90, 0.95]. 'inconclusive' with reason 'other' if the calibration fails to separate the reference classes (largest nested rho >= smallest irregular rho). The number of irregular codes that are random-looking (rho above the smallest random reference) versus structured-irregular is reported but not decisive.", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: nks-ch03-05-totalistic3-generator", "inference_method": "analysis.py ran all 2187 three-colour totalistic codes from a single gray cell for T = 3000 steps on an array of width 2*(T+128)+1 (boundaries cannot reach the centre), then classified the central 128-column strip: time-periodic with p <= 256 over rows 2250..2999, or lzma compressibility rho over rows 1500..2999 below tau. Calibration before the census: nested references rho = 0.017..0.037 (Pascal mod 2 / mod 3, Thue-Morse and period-doubling outer products), irregular references rho = 0.099..0.136 (elementary rules 110, 124, 137, 193) and 1.11..1.12 (rules 30, 45); classes separated, tau = sqrt(0.0367 * 0.0985) = 0.0601. Result: 1706 codes periodic, 145 non-periodic but nested-compressible (rho <= 0.042), 336 irregular (rho 0.12..1.11, median 0.90; 169 with rho >= 0.9); regular fraction 1851/2187 = 0.8464, inside the pre-registered [0.80, 0.90] band.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.878, "truth": 0.83, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.86 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.8 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.865, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAsvV09m5lE6EsNSAOXheGmKZTJYCE6TqIBd2eELueHwA", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch03-06", "key": "69e6001af71d606e", "label": "No basic mobile automaton shows behavior beyond repetition or nesting", "statement": "None of the 65,536 two-color mobile automata whose rule updates only the active cell shows behavior more complex than repetition or nesting; complex behavior appears only when the rule can also update the active cell's neighbors, and even then it is rare.", "quote": "Of the 65,536 possible mobile automata with rules of the kind discussed so far it turns out that not a single one shows more complex behavior.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 3: The World of Simple Programs", "kind": "computational-observation", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "supports", "evidence_kind": "computational", "data_test": { "verdict": "supports", "confidence": 0.85, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "computational", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/wolfram-nks/wolfram2002-ch03-06/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered. Encoding: the behaviour of a mobile automaton is summarised by its step sequence s_t in {0,1,2,3} = 2 * (new colour of the active cell) + (1 if the active cell moves right else 0); for the extended family s_t additionally records the two neighbour colours written (16 symbols), and the sequence of active-cell positions is determined by it. Calibration (performed before the mobile automata are run, on reference sequences only): rho(L) = 8 * lzma_size(sequence of L symbols, one byte each, preset 9) / (L * log2(alphabet size)). References over a 4-symbol alphabet: periodic sequences with periods 1..500 (numpy seed 20260306), nested sequences (Thue-Morse, period-doubling, Fibonacci word, paper-folding, ruler sequence mod 4), and random sequences (numpy random symbols; rule 30 centre bits paired). The complexity threshold tau is the geometric mean of the largest rho(8000) over the periodic and nested references and the smallest rho(8000) over the random references. Stage 1: all 65,536 basic rules, 2000 steps (vectorised); a rule is 'periodic' if its last 1000 symbols have a period p <= 500. Stage 2: every non-periodic rule is run for 16000 steps and rho is computed on symbols 8000..16000 (tail); a rule is 'complex' if rho > tau. Stage 3: any rule flagged complex is re-run for 64000 steps and rho on symbols 32000..64000 is required to still exceed tau (guards against long transients). Extended family: 100,000 rules sampled uniformly (numpy seed 20260306), same three stages with the 16-symbol alphabet and a 16-symbol calibration run analogously. 'supports' if no basic rule is complex after stage 3 and the fraction of complex extended rules is <= 1 %. Secondary check reported but not decisive: the number of basic rules with non-periodic step sequences, which Wolfram gives as 218 (p. 72).", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered. 'refutes' if at least one basic rule is complex after stage 3 (its tail step sequence compresses no better than the geometric midpoint between nested and random references at 32000 symbols). 'mixed' if no basic rule is complex but the extended family's complex fraction exceeds 1 %. 'inconclusive' with reason 'other' if the calibration fails to separate the reference classes (largest nested/periodic rho >= smallest random rho).", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: nks-ch03-06-mobile-automaton-generator", "inference_method": "analysis.py first calibrates the compressibility statistic rho(L) = 8*lzma_bytes/(L*log2 A) on reference sequences (periodic with 14 periods up to 500, Thue-Morse, period-doubling, Fibonacci, paper-folding and ruler sequences, numpy random symbols and paired rule 30 centre bits): for A = 4 the non-random references give rho <= 0.162 and the random ones >= 1.27, so tau = 0.454; for A = 16, tau = 0.323. It then simulates all 65,536 basic mobile automata in parallel for 2000 steps from an all-white tape, labels a rule periodic if its last 1000 step symbols have a period <= 500, re-runs the non-periodic rules for 16000 steps and computes rho on the second half, and would re-run any rule above tau for 64000 steps. The same three stages were applied to 100,000 uniformly sampled neighbour-updating rules (seed 20260306) with the 16-symbol alphabet. Run time about one minute.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.865, "truth": 0.825, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.84 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.81 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.835, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAfO5O86fkxKBkdLVFpZr2ygjp8DSwTlop5_HSzjad64w", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch03-07", "key": "fb8e8d81c3cc9642", "label": "Complex behavior correlates with many cells being active at once", "statement": "In generalized mobile automata, complex behavior almost never occurs unless many cells are active simultaneously, and this correlation between overall activity and complexity helps explain why complexity is much more common in cellular automata than in mobile automata.", "quote": "complex behavior almost never occurs except when large numbers of cells are active at the same time.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 3: The World of Simple Programs", "kind": "computational-observation", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.657, "truth": 0.7, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.67 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.73 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.66, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA0Bbuke9mdgKN4gIZQwAJqqeWTHkf6TXrqsn_meGQkDo", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch03-08", "key": "5667db2e4906ae3a", "label": "Two- and three-state two-color Turing machines give only repetition or nesting", "statement": "All 4096 two-state, two-color Turing machines, and all of the roughly three million three-state, two-color Turing machines started on a blank tape, ultimately produce only repetitive or nested patterns.", "quote": "all ultimately turn out to yield just repetitive or nested patterns—at least if they are started with all cells white.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 3: The World of Simple Programs", "kind": "computational-observation", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "supports", "evidence_kind": "computational", "data_test": { "verdict": "supports", "confidence": 0.8, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "computational", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/wolfram-nks/wolfram2002-ch03-08/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered. Stage 1: run every machine for 1000 steps and record the letters (state, colour read) for steps 201..1000 (alphabet 6 for s = 3, 4 for s = 2); compute the number p(12) of distinct length-12 factors of this 800-letter window; machines with p(12) <= 200 are classed low-complexity (repetitive or nested), the rest are flagged. Stage 2: run flagged machines for 20000 steps and compute p(64) over the letters of steps 10001..20000 (window of 10000; maximum possible 9937): p(64) >= 2500 is 'complex', p(64) <= 1280 (= 20 x 64, a generous linear bound for nested sequences) is low-complexity, otherwise 'unclear'. Stage 3: 'unclear' machines run for 200000 steps with the window of the last 100000 letters: p(64) >= 25000 complex, <= 1280 low-complexity, otherwise unclear. Controls run through the same statistics: a periodic letter sequence, a Thue-Morse (nested) letter sequence, and uniformly random letters, which must be classed low, low and complex respectively. PASS (supports) if no two- or three-state machine is classed complex and no machine remains unclear after Stage 3.", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered. FAIL (refutes) if at least one two- or three-state two-colour machine is classed complex at Stage 2 or Stage 3 (it is reported with its NKS number and complexity profile). MIXED if no machine is complex but some remain unclear after Stage 3, or if the controls are misclassified (criterion not discriminating).", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: nks-turing-machine-census-generator", "inference_method": "analysis.py evolves every two-state (4096) and three-state (2,985,984) two-colour Turing machine under the NKS numbering (p. 888) from a blank tape with the head in state 1, vectorised over chunks of 100000 machines, and records the letter sequence (state, colour read). Stage 1 computes the number p(12) of distinct length-12 factors of the letters of steps 201-1000 and flags machines with p(12) > 200 for Stage 2 (20000 steps, p(64) over steps 10001-20000; complex if p(64) >= 2500, low if <= 1280) and Stage 3 (200000 steps, p(64) over the last 100000 letters, complex if >= 25000). Periodic, Thue-Morse and uniformly random control sequences pass through the same statistics. As a supplementary (non-criterion) check the 200 highest-p(12) machines of each family are run through Stage 2 anyway, and the single highest-p(64) machine of each family is profiled at Stage-3 scale (p(n) for n = 8..512, lzma ratio, head extent and sweep lengths). Runtime about 4 minutes.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.836, "truth": 0.705, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.75 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.66 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.8, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA6Jo96rI7B2E4T9UrJG_tdsCm7HlXyYOjPrZaORyQuCg", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch03-09", "key": "019d674bf7066a70", "label": "Four head states suffice for random-looking Turing machine behavior", "statement": "Two-color Turing machines with four head states can produce seemingly random behavior (about five in every million such rules), and allowing more than four states makes apparent randomness only slightly more common without changing the kinds of behavior seen.", "quote": "With four states, however, more complicated behavior immediately becomes possible. Indeed, in about five out of every million rules of this kind, one gets patterns with features that seem in many respects random", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 3: The World of Simple Programs", "kind": "computational-observation", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.727, "truth": 0.785, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.83 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.74 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.715, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAzTWtIGOxvAkuL6eAO-8NePao85opGwJ1j4mbvo_N6pQ", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch03-10", "key": "0f28c5db123c32af", "label": "Neighbor-independent substitution systems can only produce nested patterns", "statement": "Substitution systems in which each element is replaced according to its own color alone always produce nested patterns, so obtaining behavior more complicated than nesting requires rules that depend on at least one neighboring element.", "quote": "To get behavior that is more complicated than simple nesting, it follows therefore that one must consider substitution systems whose rules depend not only on the color of a single element, but also on the color of at least one of its neighbors.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 3: The World of Simple Programs", "kind": "mathematical", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": true, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "inconclusive", "evidence_kind": "computational", "data_test": { "verdict": "inconclusive", "confidence": 0.7, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "computational", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/wolfram-nks/wolfram2002-ch03-10/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered: enumerate exhaustively (a) all 225 neighbour-independent systems with 2 colours and replacement strings of length 0..3, and (b) all 2197 systems with 3 colours and replacement strings of length 0..2; start each from each single colour and iterate until the string has at least 2^15 symbols (or the string dies out, stays bounded for 60 steps, or exceeds 10^6 symbols). For every run that reaches 2^15 symbols ('growing'), compute the subword complexity p(n) (number of distinct length-n factors) of the first min(len, 2^17) symbols for n = 1..20. The claim passes if every growing neighbour-independent run has p(20) <= 10^4 and p(20)/p(10) <= 8 (a quadratic law gives 4, an exponential law about 2^10), and if the Thue-Morse system {0 -> 01, 1 -> 10} reproduces OEIS A010060 and the Fibonacci system {0 -> 01, 1 -> 0} reproduces OEIS A003849 term for term over the available b-file terms. Discriminating power: the neighbour-dependent control family (2 colours, replacement of each element determined by the pair (element, right neighbour), replacement strings of length 1 or 2, 1296 systems, right-most element paired with colour 0) must contain at least one system whose growing run has p(20) > 2 x 10^4 and p(20)/p(10) > 8; otherwise the test cannot separate the two families and the verdict is at most 'inconclusive'.", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered: 'refutes' if any growing neighbour-independent run has p(20) > 10^4 or p(20)/p(10) > 8, or if the Thue-Morse or Fibonacci outputs disagree with the OEIS b-files; 'inconclusive' if the control family contains no system exceeding the thresholds (the complexity measure would then be too weak to distinguish nested from more complicated behaviour).", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: neighbour-independent-substitution-systems, neighbour-dependent-control-systems, oeis-a010060-bfile, oeis-a003849-bfile", "inference_method": "analysis.py enumerates every neighbour-independent substitution system in the two pre-registered families (225 + 2197 systems), iterates each from every single colour (7041 runs) until the string has at least 2^15 symbols, dies, becomes bounded or exceeds 40000 steps, and computes the subword complexity p(n) for n = 1..20 of the first <= 2^17 symbols of every growing run (5109 runs; 24 slow linear-growth runs are analysed at the ~20000 symbols they reached). The same statistics are computed for the pre-registered neighbour-dependent control family (1296 systems, 2592 runs, <= 2000 steps) and, exploratorily, for 1500 random three-context systems. The Thue-Morse and Fibonacci systems are compared with the OEIS b-files, and a random 2^15-bit string gives the complexity reference. Run time about 9 minutes (the slow linear-growth systems dominate).", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.93, "truth": 0.93, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.96 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.9 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.925, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAaj-FR6NF1-qHHmj4cmqm7wGLFaSr202Il5S2-7hNnb8", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch03-11", "key": "1a51e333fc226eca", "label": "Substitution systems with deletion need three or more colors for complexity", "statement": "Among two-color substitution systems that allow elements to be destroyed, those with slow growth produce only simple repetitive patterns, but allowing three or four colors immediately makes patterns as random-looking as those of cellular automata possible.", "quote": "allowing elements to have three or four colors rather than just two immediately makes much more complicated behavior possible.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 3: The World of Simple Programs", "kind": "computational-observation", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.668, "truth": 0.71, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.69 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.73 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.665, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAt9j0uIptTeaaYnVwHN91NoDq9_j6l6dAvJJiFXwJs0c", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch03-12", "key": "6a208816d5c28f21", "label": "Text-editor-like search-and-replace rules can generate great complexity", "statement": "Sequential substitution systems, which repeatedly apply the first matching search-and-replace rule like a text editor, give only simple behavior with two replacements and two elements, but with three replacements about one in 10,000 random rules produces seemingly random behavior.", "quote": "just by using the simple operations available even in a very basic text editor, it is still ultimately possible to produce behavior of great complexity.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 3: The World of Simple Programs", "kind": "computational-observation", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.685, "truth": 0.78, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.8 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.76 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.685, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAs_-aUfTBy7RVvZ24Q8sfCBVp53q_4IuXKQCKnbdilC0", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch03-13", "key": "8bfa5ef586ab6b79", "label": "One-element-deletion tag systems reduce to neighbor-independent substitution", "statement": "A tag system that removes only one element per step always acts as a slow version of a neighbor-independent substitution system and so produces only repetitive or nested patterns, whereas removing two elements per step can yield very complicated behavior.", "quote": "if only one element is removed at each step, then a tag system always effectively acts just like a slow version of a neighbor-independent substitution system of the kind we discussed on page 83.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 3: The World of Simple Programs", "kind": "mathematical", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": true, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "supports", "evidence_kind": "computational", "data_test": { "verdict": "supports", "confidence": 0.93, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "computational", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/wolfram-nks/wolfram2002-ch03-13/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered. (1) Equivalence: for all 225 one-deletion two-colour tag systems with blocks of length 0-3, all 62 initial sequences of length 1-5, and 4 consecutive passes, the sequence after each pass of |s| steps equals the substitution-system iterate exactly (100% of cases). (2) Simplicity: for every one-deletion rule started from the sequences 1, 11 and 10 and run for up to 400 passes, either the state space is finite (the sequence empties or an exact state recurs, i.e. repetitive) or the sequence reaches >= 2000 symbols and its factor complexity p(10) (number of distinct length-10 subwords) is <= 60 (nested, linear complexity). (3) Complexity with two deletions: at least one of the 50625 two-deletion two-colour tag systems with blocks of length 0-3, started from the pair 11, runs 50000 steps without emptying and without any exact state recurrence, and the lzma-compressed size of its length-difference series over steps 10000-50000 is at least 60% of the median compressed size of 5 random shuffles of the same series. 'Supports' requires (1), (2) and (3).", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered. 'Refutes' if (1) fails in any case, or if any one-deletion rule reaches >= 2000 symbols with p(10) > 200, or if no two-deletion rule meets (3). Other combinations are 'mixed'.", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: tag-system-enumeration-generator", "inference_method": "analysis.py (1) runs every one-deletion rule for |s| steps from every sequence s of length 1-5 and compares with the substitution image, over 4 passes; (2) iterates every one-deletion rule from 1, 11 and 10 as a substitution system until the state recurs or empties (finite state space) or the sequence reaches 2000 symbols, where the number of distinct length-10 subwords p(10) is computed; (3) runs all 50625 two-deletion rules from 11 for 2000 steps, classifies them as emptied, recurrent or running, then runs the 400 running rules with the smallest length (and NKS p. 94 case (a)) for 50000 steps with exact state-recurrence detection and compares the lzma size of the length-difference series over steps 10000-50000 with that of its shuffles.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.922, "truth": 0.92, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.94 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.9 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.905, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAXzDEUrz7Qxz_YTwIg4i7832flbmWtSaKEMsHWAP-8F4", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch03-14", "key": "2a13f25bef4778b2", "label": "Simple cyclic tag systems show random fluctuations in sequence growth", "statement": "Some cyclic tag systems with two alternating blocks, started from a single black element, produce sequences whose average growth is steady but whose fluctuations about that growth are in many respects random.", "quote": "if one looks at the fluctuations in this growth, as in the plots on the next page, then one finds that these fluctuations are in many respects random.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 3: The World of Simple Programs", "kind": "computational-observation", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "mixed", "evidence_kind": "computational", "data_test": { "verdict": "mixed", "confidence": 0.55, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "computational", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/wolfram-nks/wolfram2002-ch03-14/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered. Family: all 225 cyclic tag systems with two blocks, each block a binary string of length 0-3 (15 choices per block), initial sequence {1}, Wolfram's update (remove first element; if it was 1 append the current block; blocks alternate every step). Stage 1: run each system 100,000 steps; a system is 'growing' if the sequence never empties and its final length is >= 1000. Stage 2: run each growing system 1,000,000 steps and compute (i) linear fit of length L(t) vs t: R^2 >= 0.999 and local growth rates over 10 equal windows all within 25% of the global slope ('steady growth'); (ii) Hurst exponent H of the detrended residual r(t) = L(t) - (a + b t), estimated as half the log-log slope of Var[r(t+tau) - r(t)] over tau = 2^0..2^13, in [0.35, 0.65] ('random-walk-like fluctuations'); (iii) lzma (preset 9 | EXTREME) compressed size of the packed leading-element bit sequence >= 0.25 bits per symbol ('incompressible driver'). The claim PASSES if at least one system satisfies (i), (ii) and (iii) simultaneously. Secondary, reported but not decisive: whether the book's own examples (d) {{1},{1,0,1}} and (e) {{1,1,1},{0}} pass.", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered. The claim FAILS if no system in the 225-member family satisfies all of (i)-(iii): i.e. every growing system has either unsteady growth, bounded or non-diffusive fluctuations (H outside [0.35, 0.65]), or a leading-element sequence that compresses below 0.25 bits per symbol (periodic or nested).", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: nks-cyclic-tag-two-block-family", "inference_method": "analysis.py enumerates the 225 rules, stores each history as one growing tape (sequence at step t is tape[t:]), screens all rules for 100,000 steps, then runs the 80 growing rules for 1,000,000 steps. For each it fits L(t) linearly, computes local growth rates in 10 windows, estimates the Hurst exponent of the detrended residual from the variance of increments at lags 1..8192, and lzma-compresses the packed leading-element bit sequence. Two seeded control sequences (i.i.d. Bernoulli(3/4); first-order Markov with no '00' and P(1)=3/4, the local statistics Wolfram reports for example (d)) calibrate the compression measure. Per-rule results are in derived/systems.csv.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.809, "truth": 0.79, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.78 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.8 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.8, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAbXNJ-LZ1C_nVrN6AQwc9ggnw9kOX-VoW4FwFIRDJXIE", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch03-15", "key": "492ddb43ea08ab58", "label": "Register machines need eight instructions to show complex behavior", "statement": "Among two-register machines with increment and decrement-jump instructions, all programs of up to four instructions behave repetitively, only two five-instruction programs give nesting, none up to seven instructions is substantially more complicated, and 126 of the 11,019,960,576 eight-instruction programs show complex behavior.", "quote": "But with eight instructions, 126 out of the 11,019,960,576 possible programs finally do show more complicated behavior.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 3: The World of Simple Programs", "kind": "computational-observation", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.757, "truth": 0.75, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.82 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.68 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.71, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAsXDssg5BXCkoRdxQQ5IrukdHzN2Rs6-LOOboFOKturs", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch03-16", "key": "e7a8692184d813d6", "label": "Short programs in ordinary low-level languages can behave randomly", "statement": "Because register machines idealize programs in low-level languages such as C, Basic, Java or assembler, searching many millions of short programs in such languages typically yields at least a few with complex, seemingly random behavior.", "quote": "searching through many millions of short programs typically yields at least a few that exhibit complex and seemingly random behavior.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 3: The World of Simple Programs", "kind": "computational-observation", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.688, "truth": 0.71, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.63 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.79 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.75, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAS1rX8ZgWgJCgWeh9geRAdcC_R0TASBfbUay4xQawnTg", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch03-17", "key": "ac932dae5ec7d16e", "label": "Combinator-like symbolic rewriting systems can behave randomly", "statement": "Symbolic systems that repeatedly apply a single rewrite rule of the form e[x_][y_] → (expression in x and y) to nested expressions can, like other simple programs, produce behavior that is complex and seemingly random rather than stabilizing.", "quote": "But often—just as in so many other kinds of systems—the behavior is instead complex and seemingly quite random.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 3: The World of Simple Programs", "kind": "computational-observation", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.786, "truth": 0.895, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.93 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.86 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.795, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAdARPOQrtsh91Wnu5fGKW5QBH6FrFolWVNO6xKTlakfI", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch03-18", "key": "418b0ae3fea0db45", "label": "Complexity does not depend on the special features of cellular automata", "statement": "Removing the special features of cellular automata, such as a rigid array of cells and parallel updating, does not prevent complex behavior from simple rules, so the phenomenon of complexity is universal and independent of the details of particular systems.", "quote": "So this suggests that in fact the phenomenon of complexity is quite universal—and quite independent of the details of particular systems.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 3: The World of Simple Programs", "kind": "general-principle", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.506, "truth": 0.84, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.88 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.8 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.75, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAKspTLwO43iBsY6E0nZaVQHnYTBvF3ajft2vPmspWvzU", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch03-19", "key": "5b6f1d2488a8d1be", "label": "The rule-complexity threshold for complex behavior is very low", "statement": "Systems with sufficiently simple rules show only repetition, slightly more complicated rules often add nesting, and complex behavior requires crossing a threshold in rule complexity, but in every kind of system studied this threshold is extremely low.", "quote": "The remarkable discovery that we have made, however, is that this threshold is typically extremely low.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 3: The World of Simple Programs", "kind": "general-principle", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.55, "truth": 0.735, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.65 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.82 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.72, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAsL0vmvA4mmLFI_TG848Smx2ccJbR5kCIX_-LJOJU3ms", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch03-20", "key": "106bc49967b4ecae", "label": "Repetition, nesting, randomness and localized structures dominate everywhere", "statement": "The four themes of repetition, nesting, randomness and localized structures are the dominant types of behavior across a vast range of systems, and these overall behavior types are almost independent of the details of the underlying rules.", "quote": "the basic themes of repetition, nesting, randomness and localized structures that we already saw in specific cellular automata in the previous chapter are actually very general, and in fact represent the dominant themes in the behavior of a vast range of different systems.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 3: The World of Simple Programs", "kind": "general-principle", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.457, "truth": 0.705, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.68 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.73 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.715, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAcqhjbmGOQHUO2PLcXVrjQ3Ma0zZYfBf_C20y2T2Uptk", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch03-21", "key": "3928ca54306cbfc8", "label": "Overall behavior of natural systems can be inferred without knowing their details", "statement": "Because the typical types of behavior are independent of rule details, one can make fundamental statements about the overall behavior of a natural system without knowing its internal details, and its important features will usually be ones already seen in very simple programs.", "quote": "even if we do not know all the details of what is inside some specific system in nature, we can still potentially make fundamental statements about its overall behavior.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 3: The World of Simple Programs", "kind": "general-principle", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.277, "truth": 0.385, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.43 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.34 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.72, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAcuR2sJOtLu6exjwqySRlw79362k1glY7mAoGwyXOxwk", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch03-22", "key": "e1e8eb3676c35b63", "label": "Computer experiments let one discover phenomena not anticipated in advance", "statement": "A methodology based on computer experiments, in which one runs precisely specified programs and observes their behavior, can discover genuinely unexpected phenomena that a traditional approach of constructing examples of predefined behavior would miss, while giving results as precise as mathematical statements.", "quote": "And the great advantage of such an experimental approach is that it does not require one to know in advance exactly what kinds of behavior can occur.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 3: The World of Simple Programs", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.249, "truth": 0.91, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.93 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.89 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.77, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAIFttkd76fY28cVAmTmNGV2ma6dfD2h4-V5ED6V_qd7s", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch03-23", "key": "0f06da616d34b376", "label": "One can never start a computer experiment with too simple a system", "statement": "Computer experiments should study the simplest possible systems with the simplest possible procedures, because simple systems already show complex behavior, and the most common mistake is studying systems far more complicated than necessary.", "quote": "in my experience the single most common mistake in doing computer experiments is to look at systems that are vastly more complicated than is necessary.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 3: The World of Simple Programs", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.164, "truth": 0.635, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.72 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.55 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.85, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAGTqBV1wBKab-BCNo8tVXqADoeBMcF2eIJSyEFr2_Kwk", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch04-01", "key": "906ab5251acdb4f5", "label": "Number systems fully solvable by analysis show only simple behavior", "statement": "Systems based on numbers that traditional mathematics (e.g. calculus) can analyze completely end up showing only fairly simple behavior; textbook systems are selected for analyzability and therefore are simple.", "quote": "Inevitably, however, when such complete analysis is possible, the final behavior that is found is fairly simple.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 4: Systems Based on Numbers", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.321, "truth": 0.24, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.2 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.28 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.74, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA2UyXP8vuxvyIBnDj4z0vEoOvBNZT-tr5l4SgkwUDxQw", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch04-02", "key": "25ceee7ef205eea2", "label": "Simple arithmetic systems can produce highly complex behavior", "statement": "When systems based on numbers are studied by computer experiment rather than by mathematical analysis, even very simple ones turn out to produce highly complex behavior.", "quote": "if one ignores the need for analysis and instead just looks at the results of computer experiments, then one quickly finds that even rather simple systems based on numbers can lead to highly complex behavior.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 4: Systems Based on Numbers", "kind": "computational-observation", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "supports", "evidence_kind": "computational", "data_test": { "verdict": "supports", "confidence": 0.9, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "computational", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/wolfram-nks/wolfram2002-ch04-02/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered. Family: all pairs (m, b) with multiplier m in 2..9 and base b in 2..9, iterating x_{t+1} = m x_t from x_0 = 1 for t = 1..T = 3000 (i.e. the digits of m^t). For each pair build the digit array of rows m^t written in base b; take the interior window of each row consisting of digit positions between 25% and 75% of that row's length (least significant digit = position 0), concatenate all interior digits in row order into one byte string (one digit per byte). Measure (i) bits per digit = 8 * lzma(preset 9|EXTREME) compressed size / number of digits; (ii) maximum absolute deviation of any digit-value frequency from 1/b. A pair is 'complex' if (i) >= 0.8 * log2(b) and (ii) <= 0.02; a pair is 'simple' if (i) < 0.1 * log2(b). The claim PASSES if at least one pair with m not a power of b is 'complex' AND every pair with m a power of b (m = b^j, j >= 1, e.g. (2,2), (4,2), (8,2), (9,3), (3,3), ...) is 'simple' (validity check that the measure separates trivially regular digit arrays). Reported, not decisive: how many of the 64 pairs are complex, and whether the pairs with m and b sharing all prime factors (e.g. (6,2), (4,8), (2,4)) behave differently.", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered. The claim FAILS if no pair with m not a power of b is 'complex' (every such digit array compresses below 0.8 log2(b) bits per digit or has digit frequencies deviating from uniform by more than 0.02). If any trivial pair (m a power of b) is not 'simple', the measure lacks discriminating power and the verdict is inconclusive (not-operationalizable).", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: nks-powers-digit-arrays", "inference_method": "analysis.py iterates x -> m x from 1 for 3000 steps for each of the 64 (m, b) pairs using Python integers, converts each power to base-b digits, keeps the interior 25%-75% of digit positions per row, concatenates (one byte per digit) and lzma-compresses; it also computes digit-value frequencies in the window. Per-pair results are in derived/pairs.csv. Runtime about 4 minutes.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.808, "truth": 0.94, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.95 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.93 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.835, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAUP2UvUZXWLnwZpTJmf6m9dwN_6UySmtkargrcPqdHKc", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch04-03", "key": "c96d17c614a0ef64", "label": "Base-2 digits of powers of 3 look random beyond small-scale structure", "statement": "Successive powers of 3 written in base 2 form a pattern that, apart from some small-scale structure, appears random for all practical purposes, even though it comes from repeated multiplication by 3.", "quote": "Some small-scale structure is visible, but on a larger scale the pattern seems for all practical purposes random.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 4: Systems Based on Numbers", "kind": "computational-observation", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.805, "truth": 0.845, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.82 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.87 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.84, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAJtrObqRRwpGHAk3n988S51YawaEPkFTGDZx9x-vZKvg", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch04-04", "key": "2d4f2d509f7ad411", "label": "Fractional parts of powers of 3/2 are complex and apparently random", "statement": "The fractional parts of successive powers of 3/2, a base-independent measure of size, show the same complexity and apparent randomness that appears in their digit sequences.", "quote": "they too exhibit the kind of complexity and apparent randomness that is evident at the level of digits.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 4: Systems Based on Numbers", "kind": "computational-observation", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.775, "truth": 0.745, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.72 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.77 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.81, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA6yjuiPK7I1cirjI51a6WuBxwQwC4rWANEGQu1FtRHWg", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch04-05", "key": "fbf7da086dd9f65f", "label": "Simple whole-number rules can yield complex sizes, not just complex digits", "statement": "Simple rules acting only on whole numbers (such as multiplying by 5/2 when even and adding 1 then halving when odd) can produce sequences whose overall sizes fluctuate in a complex, apparently random way with no sign of repetition, so complexity is not just an artifact of looking at digits.", "quote": "So even if one just looks at overall sizes of whole numbers it is still possible to get great complexity in systems based on numbers.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 4: Systems Based on Numbers", "kind": "computational-observation", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.798, "truth": 0.83, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.84 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.82 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.82, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RATPeVB-Xak_civCcY3DornW1bf1CkhCJC_Cm-Xr5oJLg", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch04-06", "key": "4c8925b03a744184", "label": "Non-local arithmetic rules still behave like local cellular automata", "statement": "Although arithmetic operations are non-local in digits (carries can propagate arbitrarily far) while cellular automaton rules are local, the overall behavior of number-based systems is very similar to that of cellular automata, so the details of underlying rules do not crucially affect the kinds of behavior that occur.", "quote": "But despite fundamental differences like this in underlying rules, the overall behavior produced by systems based on numbers is still very similar to what one sees for example in cellular automata.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 4: Systems Based on Numbers", "kind": "general-principle", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.553, "truth": 0.62, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.72 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.52 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.755, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAWxWujWc_Kd3e9KfwaAHnQma-PbE6vjdOK1ylxVCgVRg", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch04-07", "key": "91990ba4546e773f", "label": "Reverse-and-add in base 2 shows localized structures and never repeats", "statement": "The base-2 reverse-and-add process (add a number to its digit-reversal) started from 512 produces localized structures like those in cellular automata, and its overall pattern never appears to become simply repetitive.", "quote": "Localized structures are visible, but the overall pattern never seems to take on any kind of simple repetitive form.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 4: Systems Based on Numbers", "kind": "computational-observation", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.776, "truth": 0.66, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.66 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.66 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.81, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAc22Gku537iyq0PzEeWKRHY2lie3R-KLudrDyMElUpnE", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch04-08", "key": "e0ad6caf6e8b4cf5", "label": "Recursive sequences using only addition and subtraction can be complex", "statement": "Recursive integer sequences whose rule refers back a variable distance (e.g. f[n - f[n - 1]]) and uses only addition and subtraction can produce fluctuations that are complex and in many respects random.", "quote": "even though the rules ultimately involve only addition and subtraction, they nevertheless correspond to programs that are capable of producing behavior of great complexity.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 4: Systems Based on Numbers", "kind": "computational-observation", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "supports", "evidence_kind": "computational", "data_test": { "verdict": "supports", "confidence": 0.9, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "computational", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/wolfram-nks/wolfram2002-ch04-08/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered. Rules (all with f[1]=f[2]=1, from NKS pp. 129-130): (c) f[n]=f[f[n-1]]+f[n-f[n-1]] (OEIS A004001); (d) f[n]=f[n-f[n-1]]+f[n-f[n-2]-1]; (e) f[n]=f[n-f[n-1]]+f[n-f[n-2]] (OEIS A005185); (f) f[n]=f[n-f[n-1]-1]+f[n-f[n-2]-1]; (g) f[n]=f[f[n-1]]+f[n-f[n-2]-1]; (h) f[n]=f[f[n-1]]+f[n-2f[n-1]+1]. Compute f[n] for n <= N = 2^20 (stop a rule if an index < 1 occurs). Residual r[n] = f[n] - n/2 for (c)-(g); for (h) r[n] = f[n] - a n^b with (a,b) a least-squares power-law fit in log-log. Statistics: (i) bits per symbol = 8 * lzma(preset 9|EXTREME) compressed size of the increment-sign sequence sign(r[n]-r[n-1]) in {-1,0,1} stored as one byte each, divided by N-1; (ii) sign balance |P(increment>0) - P(increment<0)|; (iii) dyadic self-similarity corr(r[n], r[2n]) for n in [N/4, N/2) (reported). A rule is 'complex/random-like' if it is well defined up to N, (i) >= 0.5 bits/symbol and (ii) <= 0.05. The claim PASSES if at least one of rules (e)-(h) is complex/random-like AND the nested controls (c) and (d) both have (i) < 0.15 bits/symbol (validity of the measure). Calibration from controls outside the family: binary digit sum s2(n) gives 0.002 bits/symbol, its partial sums 0.005, a symmetric random walk 1.10.", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered. The claim FAILS if none of rules (e)-(h) is complex/random-like (every one is undefined before N, or compresses below 0.5 bits/symbol, or is sign-unbalanced by more than 0.05). If the nested controls (c) or (d) do not compress below 0.15 bits/symbol the measure lacks discriminating power and the verdict is inconclusive (not-operationalizable). If computed terms disagree with the OEIS b-files for A005185 or A004001, the verdict is inconclusive (other) until the implementation is fixed.", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: oeis-a005185-bfile, oeis-a004001-bfile, nks-recursive-sequences-p129", "inference_method": "analysis.py computes each of the six recurrences for n <= 2^20 with memoised integer arithmetic, verifies rules (e) and (c) term-by-term against the 10,000-term OEIS b-files of A005185 and A004001 (all terms match), detrends by n/2 (rules c-g) or by a log-log power-law fit for n >= 16 (rule h), lzma-compresses the increment-sign sequence of the residual, and measures sign balance and the dyadic correlation corr(r[n], r[2n]).", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.78, "truth": 0.895, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.92 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.87 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.82, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA9bxB4gr3yJk17YRpr-VTnDA9srQMU34Frai4615nV8Q", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch04-09", "key": "ed13beaded1d2d94", "label": "The sequence of primes is in many respects random", "statement": "Even though the primes are generated by a simple sieving rule, the sequence of primes appears in many respects remarkably random.", "quote": "the actual sequence of primes that is obtained seems in many respects remarkably random.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 4: Systems Based on Numbers", "kind": "computational-observation", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.791, "truth": 0.93, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.96 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.9 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.82, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAfPddvxjPR1QViedAT6Gr6BoF89xvyXuplhvQYRu6Dy0", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch04-10", "key": "b32554d9d14d4e25", "label": "Complexity in number-theoretic sequences arises from their generating rules", "statement": "Sequences defined by simple properties of numbers (primes, divisor sums, representations as sums of squares or primes) show complexity that persists despite centuries of number theory, and this complexity arises as a fundamental consequence of the rules generating them, just as in other simple programs.", "quote": "such sequences of numbers exhibit complexity that somehow arises as a fundamental consequence of the rules by which the sequences are generated.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 4: Systems Based on Numbers", "kind": "general-principle", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.537, "truth": 0.66, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.8 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.52 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.7, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAGbaflaAGTpXMkkqf8APofeY_bLg9FKHi-gDa3xPqs6s", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch04-11", "key": "4907ba75a10e8384", "label": "The digits of pi are random for practical purposes", "statement": "Despite pi's simple definition, its digit sequence shows no significant regularity in all computed digits and appears for practical purposes completely random.", "quote": "Despite the simplicity of its definition, the digit sequence of π seems for practical purposes completely random.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 4: Systems Based on Numbers", "kind": "computational-observation", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "supports", "evidence_kind": "computational", "data_test": { "verdict": "supports", "confidence": 0.8, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "computational", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/wolfram-nks/wolfram2002-ch04-11/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "All 20 p-values from the fixed battery on 10^6 decimal and 10^6 hexadecimal digits of pi are consistent with uniform i.i.d. digits: none below 1e-4 and at most 2 below 0.01.", "disconfirming_observation": "A p-value below 1e-6, or 4 or more of the 20 below 0.01, i.e. a detectable regularity in the digits.", "admissible_datasets": "Digits of pi from a published digit file whose every digit is checked against an independent exact computation and against an independent tabulation (OEIS); random references from a seeded standard PRNG. Digits must start right after the point and be contiguous.", "inference_method": "Ten classical randomness tests per base (chi-square frequency, pair, triple, poker, gap; serial correlation lags 1-3; maximum periodogram; lzma size against 20 PRNG references), p-values counted against the pre-registered thresholds at alpha = 0.01 with the binomial multiplicity rule above.", "explicit": true }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.847, "truth": 0.865, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.83 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.9 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.88, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAj9ZwTP8XoiP8m_v5rQo2e9NyBwAw-hVJYh8j3zJP_Ho", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch04-12", "key": "d499396d8feeed64", "label": "Square roots of non-square integers have random-looking digits", "statement": "As far as can be determined, the square root of every whole number that is not a perfect square has a digit sequence that appears completely random.", "quote": "so far as one can tell, all whole numbers other than perfect squares have square roots whose digit sequences appear completely random.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 4: Systems Based on Numbers", "kind": "computational-observation", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.694, "truth": 0.775, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.72 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.83 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.805, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RANZNiyGuNMRwdwtx8TZ8_V4rAScK08im3tsV_XQQX2B8", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch04-13", "key": "6334f5d909dd8fe2", "label": "Cube roots, logarithms and exponentials also have random-looking digits", "statement": "Beyond square roots, almost all cube roots, fourth roots, logarithms and exponentials of simple numbers also have apparently random digit sequences.", "quote": "And so far as one can tell, almost all these kinds of numbers also have apparently random digit sequences.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 4: Systems Based on Numbers", "kind": "computational-observation", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.674, "truth": 0.815, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.78 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.85 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.79, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAkbRi1Kt5UP_Vk5ImnPMkC_MQA7e6_QhAjwBTltCXriQ", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch04-14", "key": "f39ec3807647d2a3", "label": "Only rational numbers have repetitive digit sequences", "statement": "Every rational number p/q has a digit sequence that eventually repeats (with period at most q - 1), and rational numbers are the only numbers with repetitive digit sequences.", "quote": "In fact, rational numbers turn out to be the only kinds of numbers that have repetitive digit sequences.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 4: Systems Based on Numbers", "kind": "mathematical", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": true, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "supports", "evidence_kind": "computational", "data_test": { "verdict": "supports", "confidence": 0.97, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "computational", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/wolfram-nks/wolfram2002-ch04-14/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered: (1) for bases 2, 3 and 10 and all denominators q = 1..20000, the digit expansion of 1/q (and of p/q for all 1 <= p < q when q <= 300) has period <= q - 1 and preperiod + period <= q, with zero violations, and the base-10 periods of 1/q agree with OEIS A007732 for every n covered by its b-file; (2) 100% of 20000 random eventually periodic digit patterns (random preperiod of length 0..20, random non-trivial period block of length 1..30, bases 2, 3, 10) are reproduced exactly when the rational number reconstructed from them is re-expanded by long division; (3) none of the first 10000 decimal digits of sqrt(2), e and pi (OEIS b-files) is eventually periodic in the sense that, for some period p <= N/3, the last 2p digits already repeat with period p.", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered: any rational whose expansion has minimal period > q - 1 or does not become periodic within q digits; any disagreement with A007732; any eventually periodic pattern whose reconstructed rational re-expands differently; or an irrational constant's published digits exhibiting at least two full agreeing periods for some p <= N/3.", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: rational-expansions-bases-2-3-10-q-le-20000, oeis-a007732-bfile, random-eventually-periodic-patterns, oeis-a002193-bfile, oeis-a001113-bfile, oeis-a000796-bfile", "inference_method": "analysis.py (1) runs long division for 1/q, q = 1..20000, and for all p/q with q <= 300, in bases 2, 3 and 10 (64,850 expansions per base), recording preperiod and period from the first repeated remainder and counting violations of period <= q-1 or preperiod + period <= q; base-10 periods of 1/n are compared with the 10,000-term OEIS A007732 b-file. (2) It draws 20,000 random eventually periodic patterns (base in {2,3,10}, preperiod 0-20 digits, block 1-30 digits, all-(b-1) blocks rejected), reconstructs the exact rational with Python Fractions and re-expands it, counting patterns not reproduced digit for digit. (3) It downloads the first 10,000 decimal digits of sqrt(2), e and pi from OEIS and, for every p <= N/3, finds the smallest index after which the digit sequence agrees with its shift by p, flagging any p for which two full periods already agree. Run time about 9 s including downloads.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.959, "truth": 0.98, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.99 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.97 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.97, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RATIvf08UGCuq9-uRtawDCqm_fx9HTbmIaRJXMcH0AxWg", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch04-15", "key": "d4c3e0c2e254157c", "label": "Roots never have nested digit sequences", "statement": "Nested digit sequences, such as those produced by substitution systems, never correspond to numbers obtainable by taking roots (square roots, cube roots, and so on).", "quote": "such a digit sequence never corresponds to a number that can be obtained by the mathematical operation of taking roots.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 4: Systems Based on Numbers", "kind": "mathematical", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": true, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.74, "truth": 0.65, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.44 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.86 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.685, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAKkMJCkW37eGV_f5pFhmvP49RlHsEelMez_f6lDPakA4", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch04-16", "key": "47d43581cd44a87b", "label": "Continued fractions of pi and higher roots look random", "statement": "In continued fraction representation, square roots are purely repetitive and e shows definite regularity, but pi, cube roots, fourth roots and similar numbers have continued fraction terms that seem essentially random.", "quote": "But for π, as well as for cube roots, fourth roots, and so on, the continued fraction representations one gets seem essentially random.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 4: Systems Based on Numbers", "kind": "computational-observation", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.743, "truth": 0.815, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.72 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.91 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.82, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAF4qqMIghubzFjbbJHoNcRt0uX7f-kOU24FI7iPwVFfw", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch04-17", "key": "69bdc67555226334", "label": "Numbers from simple operations are intrinsically complex in any representation", "statement": "For any representation of numbers in which recovering the value takes comparable effort for all numbers, some numbers look simple but others produced by simple mathematical operations look random, so such numbers are often intrinsically complex independent of representation.", "quote": "numbers generated by simple mathematical operations are often in some intrinsic sense complex, independent of the particular representation that one uses to look at them.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 4: Systems Based on Numbers", "kind": "general-principle", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.409, "truth": 0.515, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.36 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.67 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.715, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA_5dvff8isdC7niYq4B4SO2SReZ5BAwc7qQWgturLe_o", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch04-18", "key": "8cc120aaea7de0ed", "label": "Axis crossings of Sin[x] + Sin[a x] follow a continued-fraction substitution system", "statement": "For a sum of two sine functions Sin[x] + Sin[a x], the arrangement of axis crossings is generated by a generalized substitution system whose rule at each step comes from successive continued fraction terms of (a - 1)/(a + 1), giving nested patterns when a is a quadratic irrational.", "quote": "for any curve like Sin[x] + Sin[α x] the relative arrangements of these crossing points turn out to be related to the output of a generalized substitution system in which the rule at each step is obtained from a term in the continued fraction representation of (α - 1)/(α + 1).", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 4: Systems Based on Numbers", "kind": "mathematical", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": true, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "supports", "evidence_kind": "computational", "data_test": { "verdict": "supports", "confidence": 0.9, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "computational", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/wolfram-nks/wolfram2002-ch04-18/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered. Test set: a in {sqrt2, sqrt3, sqrt5, sqrt7, (1+sqrt5)/2, 1+sqrt2, 2+sqrt3} (quadratic irrationals), {pi, e, 2^(1/3), ln 10} and 20 pseudo-random a uniform in [1.05, 12] from numpy seed 20261031 (31 values). For each a: (1) take the first N = 20000 positive zeros of f(x) = sin x + sin(a x), each verified numerically (|f(x)| <= 1e-8), labelled A if it is a zero of sin((1+a)x/2) (spacing 2pi/(1+a)) and B if it is a zero of cos((1-a)x/2) (spacing 2pi/(a-1)); (2) build the substitution word s_1 = A^{c_1} B, s_n = s_{n-1}^{c_n} s_{n-2} (equivalently the composition tau_{c_1} ... tau_{c_n}(A)) to length >= 200000 from the continued fraction theta = [0; c_1, c_2, ...]. PASS (supports) if for every a and every n in 1..24 the set of length-n factors of the crossing word equals the set of length-n factors of the substitution word and has exactly n + 1 elements, and if for every quadratic-irrational a the continued fraction of theta is eventually periodic within 60 terms and the composite substitution over one period has the substitution word's tail as a fixed point (applying it to the first 2000 symbols of the tail reproduces a prefix of the tail).", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered. FAIL (refutes) if for any a there is some n <= 24 at which the factor sets differ, after excluding near-coincident zeros (two zeros closer than 1e-9 times the A spacing, which would make the ordering numerically undefined); or if any quadratic-irrational case has a non-eventually-periodic continued fraction or a tail that is not a fixed point of the period substitution. Partial agreement (factor sets equal only for some a, or only up to a smaller n without a numerical explanation) is 'mixed'.", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: sin-sum-zero-crossings-generator", "inference_method": "analysis.py lists the first 20000 positive zeros of sin x + sin(a x) analytically from the two factor families, verifies |f| <= 2.9e-11 at each, and forms the A/B label word. It computes the continued fraction of theta = (a-1)/(a+1) (exactly, with period detection, for the seven quadratic surds; from the double's exact rational value for the others, keeping terms while the convergent denominator is below 200000), builds the substitution word s_n = s_{n-1}^{c_n} s_{n-2} to 200000 symbols (checked against the composition tau_{c_1}...tau_{c_n}(A)), and compares the sets of factors of length 1..24. For the quadratic cases it also checks that the composite substitution over one continued-fraction period fixes the tail word and that the preperiod substitutions map the tail onto the full word. Runtime about 12 s.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.847, "truth": 0.85, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.85 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.85 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.795, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAWOeYjCAwY_gUEShLGZOiPn_aW0yvomBIEIEzmk5Dk7c", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch04-19", "key": "161240e6f51f614b", "label": "The shift map only transcribes randomness from its initial condition", "statement": "The shift map (doubling modulo 1) generates no randomness of its own: it just moves digits of the initial number leftward, so its output is random only if the initial number's digit sequence was already random.", "quote": "in no real sense is any randomness actually being generated by the evolution of this system. Instead, it is just that randomness that was inserted in the digit sequence of the original number shows up in the results one gets.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 4: Systems Based on Numbers", "kind": "mathematical", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": true, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "supports", "evidence_kind": "computational", "data_test": { "verdict": "supports", "confidence": 0.95, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "computational", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/wolfram-nks/wolfram2002-ch04-19/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered, all of: (1) transcription identity: for 2000 random reduced fractions p/q with odd q in [3, 10^5], the itinerary of the exact rational orbit (Python Fractions) for 2000 steps agrees bit for bit with the binary digits d_1..d_2000 of p/q computed independently by long division (0 mismatches of 4,000,000), and for three seeds whose binary digits are taken from OEIS b-files truncated to N = 10000 digits (A004539 binary digits of sqrt(2), A010060 Thue-Morse, A030190 binary Champernowne) the exact itinerary agrees with the published digits for all t < N (0 mismatches), with A004539 additionally cross-checked against digits computed with integer isqrt (0 mismatches); (2) periodic seeds stay periodic: for every odd q in 3..2000 and p = 1, the itinerary of p/q, found by exact cycle detection, is purely periodic with minimal period equal to the multiplicative order of 2 modulo q (0 exceptions), and every seed p/2^k (k <= 60) reaches the fixed point 0 within k steps; (3) randomness is inherited, not created: for every seed class the lzma compression ratio of the 10000-bit itinerary differs from the ratio of the seed's own first 10000 digits by less than 0.01, the itinerary of a periodic seed (1/q, q <= 2000) has ratio below 0.10, the Thue-Morse itinerary has ratio below the 1st percentile of 200 random-bit references, and the itinerary of a random-bit seed has ratio within the central 98% of the random references; (4) control with discriminating power: the itinerary of x -> 3x mod 1 started at the seed 1/2^60 (whose binary digits are a single 1 followed by zeros, ratio below 0.05) for 10000 steps has compression ratio above 0.8 times the median random reference and passes an 8-bit block chi-square test at p > 0.001, i.e. it does produce randomness its seed did not have.", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered: any itinerary bit that differs from the corresponding seed digit in part (1); any odd-q seed whose itinerary period differs from the multiplicative order of 2, or any dyadic seed not reaching 0 within k steps; any seed class whose shift-map itinerary is more than 0.01 less compressible than the seed digits, or a periodic/Thue-Morse itinerary as incompressible as random bits (ratio within the central 98% of the random references). Failure of the control (4) alone does not refute the claim but would be reported as reducing the discriminating power of the test (verdict stays 'supports' with lower confidence if (1)-(3) pass). If (1) fails the verdict is 'refutes'; if (1) passes but (2) or (3) fails the verdict is 'mixed'.", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: shift-map-exact-orbits, oeis-a004539-bfile, oeis-a010060-bfile, oeis-a030190-bfile, control-3x-mod-1-orbit", "inference_method": "analysis.py computes exact orbits of the doubling map with Python Fractions. (1) For 2000 random reduced fractions p/q (odd q <= 10^5) the 2000-step itinerary is compared bit for bit with the binary digits of p/q from long division; for seeds whose digits are OEIS b-files (A004539 sqrt(2), A010060 Thue-Morse, A030190 Champernowne) truncated to a dyadic rational, the itinerary is compared with the published digits, and the A004539 digits are cross-checked against math.isqrt. (2) For every odd q in 3..2000 the exact orbit of 1/q is walked until it repeats and its period and preperiod are compared with the multiplicative order of 2 mod q; 1/2^k is iterated for k <= 60. (3) lzma compression ratios of seed digits and of the 10000-bit itinerary are compared for Thue-Morse, Champernowne, sqrt(2), random bits, 1/1999 and 1/7, against 200 random-bit references; the NIST serial test (m = 8) is applied to each itinerary. (4) Control: the exact orbit of 3x mod 1 from 1/2^60 for 10000 steps, with compression ratio, pair frequencies and serial test. Run time about 15 s including downloads.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.941, "truth": 0.96, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.99 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.93 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.94, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAA2G65JKD0f9BzxOnPShgbtCsDJo9quyU6CJD1d93mOg", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch04-20", "key": "7dc7eaa4a4c0dc93", "label": "Some simple iterated maps generate randomness intrinsically from simple seeds", "statement": "Some simple iterated maps, such as taking the fractional part of 3x/2, produce behavior that looks random even when started from very simple initial numbers like 1/2, so they intrinsically generate randomness rather than transcribing it from initial conditions.", "quote": "a crucial discovery in this book is that systems like (a) and (b) on pages 150 and 151 can show behavior that seems in many respects random even when their initial conditions show no sign of randomness and are in fact extremely simple.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 4: Systems Based on Numbers", "kind": "computational-observation", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.799, "truth": 0.695, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.66 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.73 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.825, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAdYX7nZxX73XJ6jIaIc7FuixRuhlOs0L11gS-0I6zhY0", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch04-21", "key": "01f06808c03496d9", "label": "Sensitive dependence on initial conditions does not itself produce randomness", "statement": "Sensitive dependence on initial conditions (the chaos phenomenon) only amplifies differences already present in initial conditions, so on its own it contributes nothing to the ultimate production of randomness, even in systems that also show intrinsic randomness.", "quote": "this phenomenon on its own can make no contribution at all to what we can reasonably consider the ultimate production of randomness.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 4: Systems Based on Numbers", "kind": "general-principle", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.491, "truth": 0.8, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.9 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.7 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.715, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RATzvDS5KYsyTfkmo85l2UzOekHjv0_BjWEykv1X2UFnM", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch04-22", "key": "bd97156e43319585", "label": "Continuous cellular automata show the same complexity as discrete ones", "statement": "Cellular automata whose cells take a continuous range of gray levels, updated by simple maps of the neighborhood average, show the same kind of complexity as ordinary discrete cellular automata, and can even show localized structures.", "quote": "despite the presence of continuous gray levels, the behavior that is produced exhibits the same kind of complexity that we have seen in many ordinary cellular automata and other systems with discrete underlying elements.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 4: Systems Based on Numbers", "kind": "computational-observation", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.765, "truth": 0.865, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.91 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.82 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.805, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAOGn491pu4lBl6B7POLulVjH21KqJEfczqJHDICRN3k0", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch04-23", "key": "a32e130b37899c67", "label": "Nature does not fundamentally follow continuous differential equations", "statement": "Although almost all traditional models in physics (Maxwell, Einstein, Schrödinger equations) are partial differential equations, nature does not fundamentally follow these continuous mathematical abstractions.", "quote": "it is certainly not that nature fundamentally follows these abstractions.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 4: Systems Based on Numbers", "kind": "physical-hypothesis", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.289, "truth": 0.52, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.28 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.76 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.8, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAZqmGoPGTUaXi-U-vZcpKN0PAwIJVEC49PakdUXcOkps", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch04-24", "key": "a1ccdb7783b33192", "label": "Partial differential equations predominate largely by historical accident", "statement": "The dominance of partial differential equations as models in science is in many respects a historical accident of their being solvable by explicit formulas before computers; had computers come earlier, scientific modeling would probably be very different.", "quote": "I suspect that in fact the current predominance of partial differential equations is in many respects a historical accident—and that had computer technology been developed earlier in the history of mathematics, the situation would probably now be very different.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 4: Systems Based on Numbers", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.236, "truth": 0.445, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.55 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.34 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.895, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAYEX0PPvp-FlZKbWTk8rCbO0THopExoG-C-ZsLeYsjh8", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch04-25", "key": "719f80a12e4ac3a7", "label": "Simple partial differential equations can show complex behavior", "statement": "Complex behavior of the kind seen in simple programs is not restricted to discrete systems: some fairly simple partial differential equations, found by searching, produce highly complex patterns, even with apparently discrete patches.", "quote": "we now know that the same kind of behavior can also occur in completely continuous systems such as partial differential equations.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 4: Systems Based on Numbers", "kind": "computational-observation", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.701, "truth": 0.835, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.97 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.7 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.79, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAJD74o6r_gzlGnxc2LtQiCE9ZHz99PZ0HrcQ_ppAaHdA", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch04-26", "key": "fcc575d0024b44b9", "label": "Complexity is not rarer in continuous systems, only harder to detect", "statement": "Complexity is probably not fundamentally rarer in continuous systems than in discrete ones; it was much easier to discover in discrete systems because they can be studied directly by computer experiment without approximation artifacts.", "quote": "Probably complexity is not in any fundamental sense rarer in continuous systems than in discrete ones. But the point is that discrete systems can typically be investigated in a much more direct way than continuous ones.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 4: Systems Based on Numbers", "kind": "general-principle", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.42, "truth": 0.685, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.64 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.73 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.705, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA_qHhZByqbMGjRTF2uOe1QurQbz_U6X_yV2kZbdJyDj4", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch04-27", "key": "75de2532eccaa98c", "label": "Phenomena seen in discrete simple programs also occur in simple continuous systems", "statement": "Essentially all of the phenomena observed in discrete simple programs can also be found in continuous systems with fairly simple rules.", "quote": "I suspect that essentially all of the various phenomena that we have observed in discrete systems in the past several chapters can in fact also be found even in continuous systems with fairly simple rules.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 4: Systems Based on Numbers", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.483, "truth": 0.555, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.56 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.55 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.72, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RANFmaM54785BwgzyovpV3KPHIeAbR9DrPuJF1N25bke4", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch05-01", "key": "97c680ebfeed2e3f", "label": "Adding dimensions does not fundamentally change the occurrence of complexity", "statement": "Contrary to what traditional science suggests, going from one to two or more dimensions produces some specific new effects but does not fundamentally change the overall behavior or the occurrence of complexity in simple programs.", "quote": "adding more dimensions does not ultimately seem to have much effect on the occurrence of behavior of any significant complexity.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 5: Two Dimensions and Beyond", "kind": "general-principle", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.595, "truth": 0.8, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.85 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.75 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.76, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAXEupIfWbJrXCr3Zzg2TpSoId_NrDPOAeSBEZmbut9eE", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch05-02", "key": "a81a33441f8640b6", "label": "Slices of 2D cellular automata resemble 1D cellular automata", "statement": "The complexity inside patterns generated by two-dimensional totalistic cellular automata is very similar to that of one-dimensional cellular automata: a one-dimensional slice through the 2D pattern evolves much like an ordinary 1D cellular automaton.", "quote": "if one looks at the evolution of a one-dimensional slice through each two-dimensional pattern the results one gets are strikingly similar to what we have seen in ordinary one-dimensional cellular automata.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 5: Two Dimensions and Beyond", "kind": "computational-observation", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.739, "truth": 0.73, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.76 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.7 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.785, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA9neRl3MONAIWYEnO2pC5uC0tBSpkpIG1QMXXNkS_5ZA", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch05-03", "key": "0a483edc7bc4c71a", "label": "Simple 2D cellular automata can grow near-perfect circles", "statement": "Some simple two-dimensional cellular automata on a square grid grow patterns whose overall shape closely approximates a perfect circle, despite the grid's square symmetry.", "quote": "it is even possible to find cellular automata that yield overall shapes that closely approximate perfect circles.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 5: Two Dimensions and Beyond", "kind": "computational-observation", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "supports", "evidence_kind": "computational", "data_test": { "verdict": "supports", "confidence": 0.9, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "computational", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/wolfram-nks/wolfram2002-ch05-03/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered. Run code 746 (a white cell becomes black iff exactly 3 of its 8 neighbours are black; a black cell stays black iff it has 0-4 black neighbours and becomes white with 5 or more; Wolfram's outer-totalistic numbering, bit index 2*s + c) from a horizontal row of 7 black cells for T = 400 and T = 1200 steps on a grid large enough that the pattern never touches the edge. Take the centroid of all black cells as centre, bin all black cells by polar angle into 360 one-degree bins and let r(theta) be the largest centre distance in each bin (outer boundary profile). Compute CV = std(r)/mean(r) and the anisotropy ratio A = mean of r within +/-5 degrees of the four axis directions divided by the mean of r within +/-5 degrees of the four diagonal directions (a square gives A = 0.707, a diamond 1.414, a circle 1). 'supports' if at T = 1200 both CV <= 0.03 and |A - 1| <= 0.03, and at T = 400 both CV <= 0.05 and |A - 1| <= 0.05. Measurement validation (not part of the verdict): the same statistics for the control rule 'a cell becomes black if any of its 8 neighbours is black' (which grows a square) must give A < 0.8 and CV > 0.06, otherwise the method is declared broken and the verdict is 'inconclusive' with reason 'other'.", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered. 'refutes' if at T = 1200 CV >= 0.06 or |A - 1| >= 0.06 (the outline is at least as far from a circle as a regular octagon is from its circumscribed circle in CV terms, or shows a clear square or diamond bias). Any intermediate outcome -> 'mixed'. Growth rate: the mean radius divided by T is reported and compared with Wolfram's 'about 0.37 t', but does not enter the verdict.", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: nks-ch05-03-code746-generator", "inference_method": "analysis.py evolves Wolfram's 8-neighbour outer totalistic code 746 from a row of 7 black cells on a 500x500 (T = 400) and 1100x1100 (T = 1200) grid with numpy, asserting that the pattern never reaches the grid edge. All black cells are binned by polar angle about the centroid into 360 one-degree bins and the largest radius per bin forms the outer profile r(theta); CV = std/mean of that profile and A = mean radius within 5 degrees of the lattice axes over the mean radius within 5 degrees of the diagonals. A control rule in which any black neighbour makes a cell black (which grows a square) was run with the same initial condition to validate that the statistics detect lattice anisotropy.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.902, "truth": 0.875, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.91 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.84 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.915, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA_kW1qUK5hJ5P7sS3WbecpeiljOANuY7wH1jbDh87fqU", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch05-04", "key": "ffa18d4bb877c5e0", "label": "2D cellular automata can produce complex overall shapes, not just complex interiors", "statement": "A simple 2D cellular automaton (a cell turns black when exactly three of its eight neighbors are black, otherwise unchanged) can grow patterns whose overall shapes keep changing with no simple form, so complexity can appear in a pattern's overall shape as well as in its interior.", "quote": "there can be great complexity not only in the detailed arrangement of black and white cells in a two-dimensional cellular automaton pattern, but also in the overall shape of the pattern.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 5: Two Dimensions and Beyond", "kind": "computational-observation", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "supports", "evidence_kind": "computational", "data_test": { "verdict": "supports", "confidence": 0.85, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "computational", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/wolfram-nks/wolfram2002-ch05-04/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered. Run the rule for T = 1000 steps from a row of 11 black cells. Let rho_t(theta) be the outer radius of the occupied set from the pattern centroid in 360 angular bins, normalised by its mean, and D(t1,t2) the mean absolute difference between rho_t1 and rho_t2. PASS (supports) if all three hold: (a) growth continues: mean radius R(1000) >= 1.5 * R(500) and the population is larger at step 1000 than at step 500; (b) the outline keeps changing: D(500,1000) >= 0.05 and D(750,1000) >= 0.03, while both control rules (8-neighbour 'black if any neighbour black', which grows a square, and 4-neighbour 'black if any neighbour black', which grows a diamond) give D(500,1000) <= 0.02; (c) the outline at step 1000 is not a simple form: the minimum over the reference family {circle, axis-aligned square, 45-degree square, regular octagon at 0 and 22.5 degrees} of the mean absolute difference between rho_1000 and the reference profile is >= 0.05, while for each control rule the same minimum is <= 0.03.", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered. FAIL (refutes) if growth stops (population unchanged over steps 900-1000) or if the outline converges to a simple form: D(500,1000) < 0.02 and the minimum simple-shape distance at step 1000 is < 0.03. Any other combination is 'mixed' (e.g. shape still changing but growth slowing, or controls not behaving as expected, which would mean the descriptor is not discriminating).", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: nks-code-174826-row11-generator", "inference_method": "analysis.py evolves NKS code 174826 (B3/S012345678) from a row of 11 black cells for 1000 steps on a dynamically padded numpy grid, and at 8 checkpoints records population, mean radius, convex-hull solidity and the normalised outer-radius profile rho_t(theta) in 360 angular bins about the pattern centroid. It computes D(t1,t2) = mean |rho_t1 - rho_t2| between checkpoints and the distance from rho_1000 to five reference profiles (circle, two squares, two octagons). The same pipeline is run on two simple-growth controls (8-neighbour and 4-neighbour 'black if any neighbour black') and on code 175850 from a row of 7 for comparison. Runtime about 20 s.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.847, "truth": 0.72, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.9 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.54 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.855, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA1p3ubSKUgGuFdsIGXAfM4MwnwuzdKpHZ24VWkFc512U", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch05-05", "key": "2fc3a2abc6dcadc9", "label": "Three-dimensional cellular automata show the same basic kinds of behavior", "statement": "Three-dimensional cellular automata show some new specific phenomena but the same basic kinds of behavior as one- and two-dimensional ones, so the phenomenon of complexity does not depend crucially on dimensionality.", "quote": "But overall it seems that the basic kinds of behavior produced are just the same as in one and two dimensions.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 5: Two Dimensions and Beyond", "kind": "computational-observation", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.564, "truth": 0.84, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.88 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.8 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.745, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAJg8pvjDABvCmCqJAlXKzFTbvnyyU4k7Eu9vBX9rIL0k", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch05-06", "key": "fb6d3feb973a6037", "label": "Complex behavior in 2D Turing machines is as rare as in 1D", "statement": "Two-dimensional Turing machines behave much like one-dimensional ones: with two or three head states only repetitive and nested behavior normally occurs, and with four states complex behavior is possible but rare (a few rules per million).", "quote": "For Turing machines with two or three possible states, only repetitive and nested behavior normally seem to occur. With four states, more complex behavior is possible, but it is still rather rare.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 5: Two Dimensions and Beyond", "kind": "computational-observation", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.76, "truth": 0.64, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.72 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.56 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.805, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RALKrRmWz3iaqESoAcEpq90Kp_YFiAy_JPkRz6eUbG12Y", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch05-07", "key": "e889ad3741e9d325", "label": "Neighbor-independent geometric replacement rules always give nested fractals", "statement": "Substitution systems and geometric replacement rules in which each element is replaced independently of other elements, including those of traditional fractal geometry, inevitably produce purely nested patterns.", "quote": "with this kind of setup, it is ultimately inevitable that all the patterns produced must have a completely regular nested structure.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 5: Two Dimensions and Beyond", "kind": "mathematical", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": true, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "supports", "evidence_kind": "computational", "data_test": { "verdict": "supports", "confidence": 0.9, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "computational", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/wolfram-nks/wolfram2002-ch05-07/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Every enumerated or sampled neighbour-independent substitution rule yields a pattern that exactly decomposes into single-cell patterns at every scale and whose number of distinct 4 x 4 and 8 x 8 blocks stays below s^4 b^2 k^2, while some neighbour-dependent rules and a random image violate these.", "disconfirming_observation": "A neighbour-independent rule whose pattern breaks the scale decomposition or exceeds the quadratic block-complexity bound.", "admissible_datasets": "Patterns generated exactly by committed code from fully specified substitution rules (all two-colour 2 x 2 rules, seeded samples of larger rule spaces); controls generated by the same code.", "inference_method": "Exact array equality for the nesting identity at every scale j; exact (or 64-bit-hashed) counts of distinct k x k windows compared with the bound s^4 b^2 k^2; validity requires the neighbour-dependent controls and a random image to be flagged.", "explicit": true }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.825, "truth": 0.92, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.96 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.88 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.85, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAEvtp6dtumUXB8Nc1Or6gSboGCiVIMNmv2cbZ_7IMVdM", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch05-08", "key": "3872076fb9645cf4", "label": "Fractal geometry misses complexity by excluding interactions between elements", "statement": "Traditional fractal geometry does not consider interactions between elements, which is why all patterns it produces are purely nested; allowing replacements to depend on neighbors on a grid readily yields complicated, non-nested patterns.", "quote": "in traditional fractal geometry the idea of interaction between elements is not considered—so that all patterns that are produced have a purely nested form.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 5: Two Dimensions and Beyond", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.627, "truth": 0.485, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.57 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.4 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.735, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAlEwcxGc_5HxuJxZIp7V3sHSnSoRNs4XtePOQjUdF7RU", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch05-09", "key": "56ed4d2d23e0483d", "label": "Networks of identical two-connection nodes can form arrays of any dimension", "statement": "Networks in which every node is identical and has exactly two outgoing connections can, purely by the pattern of connections, form structures equivalent to arrays of any number of dimensions, as well as trees and nested structures.", "quote": "using the same principles an array with any number of dimensions can easily be obtained.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 5: Two Dimensions and Beyond", "kind": "mathematical", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": true, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "supports", "evidence_kind": "computational", "data_test": { "verdict": "supports", "confidence": 0.9, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "computational", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/wolfram-nks/wolfram2002-ch05-09/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered. (1) Arrays: for d = 1..6 construct the network by one uniform rule: each lattice point x of Z^d is a block of d nodes (x, i), i = 0..d-1, and node (x, i) has exactly two outgoing connections, to (x + e_i, (i+1) mod d) and (x - e_i, (i+1) mod d). Verify (a) every node has out-degree exactly 2 and the rule is identical for every node; (b) exact structural equivalence: on the torus (Z_L)^d with L = 5, contracting each block to a point gives a multigraph whose edge set equals the d-dimensional grid's edge set {x <-> x +- e_i} with every block connected to exactly 2d distinct neighbouring blocks (exact set comparison); (c) dimension criterion: breadth-first search along connections from one node of the infinite network, counting N(r) = nodes within r steps; the growth exponent log2(N(R)/N(R/2)) at R = 20 d must lie within 0.5 of d for d = 1, 2, 3, 4 (so that it rounds to d), and is reported (not scored) for d = 5, 6. (2) Trees: the infinite binary tree (node k connects to 2k+1 and 2k+2) has N(r) = 2^(r+1) - 1 for r <= 15 (exact). (3) Nested: the level-7 Sierpinski gasket graph (3 corner nodes of degree 2, all others of degree 4) is given an Eulerian orientation along an Euler circuit plus a directed 3-cycle through the corners, which must give every node out-degree exactly 2; its undirected growth exponent log2(N(R)/N(R/2)) at R = 64 from a corner must lie within 0.3 of log2(3) = 1.585, the gasket's dimension. 'Supports' if (1a), (1b), (1c), (2) and (3) all hold.", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered. 'Refutes' if the uniform construction fails structurally for some d <= 6 (out-degree not 2, or the block quotient is not the d-dimensional grid), or if the measured growth exponent for some d <= 4 rounds to an integer other than d, or if no out-degree-2 orientation of the gasket exists. 'Mixed' if arrays pass but the tree or nested construction fails its criterion. 'Inconclusive' is not expected: the test is a self-contained computation.", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: out-degree-2-network-generator, nks-p195-p196-network-systems", "inference_method": "analysis.py builds the d-dimensional block network from the single rule in the pre-registration for d = 1..6 and checks, on the torus (Z_5)^d, that every node has two outgoing connections and that contracting blocks gives exactly the grid's edge multiset with 2d distinct neighbouring blocks per block. It runs a breadth-first search along connections on the infinite network from node (0,0) and computes the growth exponent log2(N(R)/N(R/2)) at R = 20 d (d <= 4) or 8 d (d = 5, 6), alongside the same exponent for the plain L1 lattice ball at radius R/d as a finite-size reference. It checks N(r) for the infinite binary tree and constructs the level-7 Sierpinski gasket graph (3282 nodes), orients its 6561 edges along an Euler circuit (Hierholzer) and adds a directed 3-cycle through the corners so that every node has out-degree 2, then measures the growth exponent from a corner (undirected and directed).", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.906, "truth": 0.71, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.7 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.72 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.91, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA8knGYk9Yoj2ujCTTo0nPAkr7vm7od4qyQ10s0BJfvX4", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch05-10", "key": "ccef96149fc8d7ff", "label": "Network rules depending on distance-two neighborhoods can give random growth", "statement": "Network systems whose rewiring rules depend only on whether a node's two connections lead to the same node always grow in an essentially repetitive way, but when rules depend on nodes up to two connections away, even the number of nodes can vary in an apparently random way (in about one in 10,000 rules).", "quote": "even the total number of nodes at each step can vary in a way that seems in many respects completely random.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 5: Two Dimensions and Beyond", "kind": "computational-observation", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.722, "truth": 0.6, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.65 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.55 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.765, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RANAUuwOyy7wAC1Jqd45FLx0X-WPtcQzr-z-F1Nb-MwCA", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch05-11", "key": "2e5da5ea9f9db28f", "label": "Network systems may underlie the structure of space and spacetime", "statement": "Some network systems will likely turn out to be closely related to the basic structure of space and spacetime in our universe.", "quote": "I suspect that some of these systems will in the end turn out to be closely related to the basic structure of space and spacetime in our universe.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 5: Two Dimensions and Beyond", "kind": "physical-hypothesis", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.251, "truth": 0.23, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.2 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.26 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.79, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAIeI2BKMDwdcg1mFM_E6p5T451OdJafv0UXK_Bxdr4cM", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch05-12", "key": "74dffd60fdf52c36", "label": "Most multiway systems grow exponentially or not at all", "statement": "Most multiway systems (which keep all sequences produced by all possible replacements at each step) either grow exponentially fast or do not grow at all; slow growth is rare.", "quote": "most either grow exponentially quickly, or not at all; slow growth of the kind seen on the facing page is rather rare.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 5: Two Dimensions and Beyond", "kind": "computational-observation", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.644, "truth": 0.705, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.66 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.75 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.74, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAd-lnguvJQpNCo2IAkZNe8n5FJYF6YbDV-6RzPbXzIjo", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch05-13", "key": "16d73be8840139b4", "label": "Slowly growing multiway systems eventually become repetitive", "statement": "Even when slowly growing multiway systems show early apparent randomness in their state counts, they typically end up showing some form of repetition (sometimes with long periods, such as 1071 steps).", "quote": "even when such growth leads to a certain amount of apparent randomness it typically in the end seems to exhibit some form of repetition.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 5: Two Dimensions and Beyond", "kind": "computational-observation", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.587, "truth": 0.635, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.65 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.62 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.7, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAhIo6IJFcAPmiVeW266dTMzJkuffjL2f_5dchp2kOVZ4", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch05-14", "key": "bf1b693972e36f59", "label": "Multiway systems build their own network of connections in time", "statement": "Because each sequence in a multiway system always leads to the same successors, the evolution can be represented as a network of which state leads to which, so multiway systems build up their own, often complicated, pattern of connections in time.", "quote": "multiway systems can in effect build up their own pattern of connections in time—and this pattern can often be quite complicated.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 5: Two Dimensions and Beyond", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.334, "truth": 0.96, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.98 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.94 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.825, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA1GJ25nJ0JIhenqF6J8Q5CBMsOqv9GeYXYqdtsq_9VAg", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch05-15", "key": "02bebf384ff353f0", "label": "One-dimensional local constraints can always be met by a repetitive pattern", "statement": "In one dimension, any set of local constraints on cell colors that can be satisfied at all can be satisfied by a simple, purely repetitive arrangement, so simple 1D constraints cannot force complex patterns.", "quote": "in one dimension it is possible to prove that any local set of constraints that can be satisfied at all can always be satisfied by some simple and purely repetitive arrangement of colors.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 5: Two Dimensions and Beyond", "kind": "mathematical", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": true, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "supports", "evidence_kind": "computational", "data_test": { "verdict": "supports", "confidence": 0.97, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "computational", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/wolfram-nks/wolfram2002-ch05-15/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered: across all enumerated or sampled constraint systems, every system that admits a valid word of length 4V + w (the operational test of satisfiability, independent of any cycle argument) also admits a periodic arrangement u^infinity with |u| <= V whose every cyclic window of length w is allowed; and every system with no such long valid word has no periodic arrangement either. Zero violations in both directions.", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered: at least one constraint system admits a valid word of length 4V + w but no periodic arrangement with period <= V (this would refute the claim as stated, since the shortest possible periodic solution is bounded by V); or the two satisfiability indicators disagree in the other direction, which would indicate a broken test.", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: sft-k2-w2-all, sft-k2-w3-all, sft-k2-w4-all, sft-k3-w2-all, sft-k4-w2-all, sft-k2-w5-sample, sft-k3-w3-sample", "inference_method": "analysis.py encodes each constraint system as a bitmask of allowed length-w words. Satisfiability is decided by iterating a reachability vector over the k^(w-1) de Bruijn vertices for 4V + 1 edge steps (existence of a valid word of length 4V + w). Independently, every period word u with |u| <= V is enumerated (sum of k^p over p = 1..V candidates, each stored as the bitmask of its cyclic length-w windows) and u^infinity is accepted iff its window mask is contained in the allowed set. The two indicators are compared for all 138,856 systems (exhaustive for (k,w) = (2,2), (2,3), (2,4), (3,2), (4,2); seeded samples of 2000 and 5000 for (2,5) and (3,3)); minimal periods are tabulated. Run time about 3 s.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.961, "truth": 0.975, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.99 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.96 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.92, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAtsf6NEcoxU2xwuLlURrwkFzPO8RhpG8srVtH-aTze3g", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch05-16", "key": "cf1c2a1c4f935573", "label": "All satisfiable 2D nearest-neighbor template constraints allow repetitive patterns", "statement": "Of all 4,294,967,296 two-dimensional constraints defined by allowed templates of a cell and its four neighbors, 766,979,044 cannot be satisfied, and every one of the rest can be satisfied by a repetitive pattern, with 171 repetitive patterns sufficing for all.", "quote": "among the 3,527,988,252 that remain, it turns out that every single one can be satisfied by a simple repetitive pattern.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 5: Two Dimensions and Beyond", "kind": "mathematical", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": true, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.791, "truth": 0.785, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.89 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.68 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.73, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA6a4ysjMqwToskzL89P-iaQCso2Iqn_JxfTLzzUfZUAA", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch05-17", "key": "68eecf931dc54b5d", "label": "Constraint systems require going outside the system to find their patterns", "statement": "Unlike rule-based systems, which can be run directly, systems defined by constraints offer no direct procedure for finding the patterns they allow; one must search from outside the system, which can take enormous computational effort.", "quote": "But in a system that is based on constraints, there is no such direct procedure, and instead one must in effect always go outside of the system to work out what patterns can occur.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 5: Two Dimensions and Beyond", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.366, "truth": 0.645, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.43 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.86 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.67, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA2wjrZUJZsYzSHwg6LhTFfVJULA9x_CV1n1HPGGySAV0", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch05-18", "key": "4892a076efc3fbd2", "label": "The simplest constraint forcing a non-repetitive pattern forces a nested one", "statement": "Among 2D template constraints that also require one template to appear somewhere, systematic search over more than 18 million constraints finds that the first constraint forcing a non-repetitive pattern (number 18762389) forces a unique nested pattern.", "quote": "after examining more than 18 million of them, one finally discovers the system shown on the facing page. And in this system, unlike all others before it, no repetitive pattern is possible; the only pattern that satisfies the constraint is the non-repetitive nested pattern shown in the picture.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 5: Two Dimensions and Beyond", "kind": "mathematical", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": true, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.722, "truth": 0.71, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.84 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.58 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.66, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA8sI55pgLogNYx8YtMYomM-KL5d7OFQPt1c214-sUKaU", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch05-19", "key": "ae9d47788bb7de57", "label": "No tested simple template constraint forces more than nested behavior", "statement": "Of the 137,438,953,472 template constraints with a required-template condition, none of the millions tested forces anything more complicated than nested behavior.", "quote": "of the millions of these that I have tested, none have forced anything more complicated than the kind of nested behavior seen on the previous page.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 5: Two Dimensions and Beyond", "kind": "computational-observation", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.454, "truth": 0.8, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.88 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.72 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.665, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAynhpreJJhdfQ-YrlWrQvXfdPaN_3SZYwO_YSAkrOSo4", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch05-20", "key": "6126e8474b3001d2", "label": "3x3 template constraints can force a rule 30–like random pattern", "statement": "Constraints on 3×3 blocks of cells can be constructed to force complex patterns: a set of 56 allowed templates forces a unique, largely random pattern equivalent to the evolution of the rule 30 cellular automaton.", "quote": "a system with 56 allowed templates in which the only pattern satisfying the constraint is a complex and largely random one, derived from the rule 30 cellular automaton.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 5: Two Dimensions and Beyond", "kind": "mathematical", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": true, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "supports", "evidence_kind": "computational", "data_test": { "verdict": "supports", "confidence": 0.8, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "computational", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/wolfram-nks/wolfram2002-ch05-20/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered. (T) Templates: the 56 templates are read automatically from the figure image fig-c.png of p. 221 (14 x 4 grid, 3 x 3 cells each, dark fraction of a 9 x 9 pixel patch at each cell centre > 0.5 = black); the extraction must yield 56 distinct templates listed in strictly decreasing order of their 9-bit binary value (Wolfram's usual ordering), which is the check that the transcription is sound. (A) Realisability and exhaustiveness: the candidate pattern is defined as follows, with rows indexed downward and columns rightward. Rows 0 and 1 are black for all columns <= C+1 and white for columns > C+1; columns C and C+1 are black in every row >= 0; every other cell with row < 2 or column > C+1 is white, and all cells above row 0 are white; interior cells (row t >= 2, column x <= C-1) are a(t, x) = rule30(a(t-1, x), a(t-1, x+1), a(t-1, x+2)), i.e. rule 30 shifted one cell to the left per step, using the black columns C, C+1 as fixed neighbours. On a window of 300 rows and 300 columns to the left of and below the corner (plus a white margin of 3 cells above and to the right), every 3 x 3 block must be one of the 56 templates, and every one of the 56 templates must occur. (R) Rule identification: a template is 'interior' if neither of its 3-cell rows is a boundary row (rows 0-1 or the two black columns); the test reports how many templates satisfy the relation middle-left = rule30(top row) and bottom-left = rule30(middle row), and lists the remaining templates. (U) No periodic alternative: for every horizontal period w = 1..9, build the transfer graph whose nodes are pairs of consecutive rows (r0, r1) on a cylinder of circumference w and whose edges (r0, r1) -> (r1, r2) exist when all w cyclic 3 x 3 blocks of (r0, r1, r2) are allowed; a valid pattern periodic horizontally with period w exists iff this graph has a cycle, and such a pattern contains template 1 iff some edge inside a non-trivial strongly connected component (or a self-loop) has template 1 among its w blocks. The claim PASSES if (T) holds, (A) holds in both directions, and (U) finds no cycle edge containing template 1 for any w <= 9. (R) is reported, not decisive.", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered. If (U) finds a cyclic (doubly periodic) pattern containing template 1 the uniqueness part of the claim is REFUTED (a second pattern satisfies the constraint). If (T) fails the result is 'inconclusive' (reason: transcription). If (A) fails in the subset direction (the candidate pattern contains a disallowed block) the result is 'inconclusive' (the pattern definition inferred from the templates is wrong, not the claim), unless the failing blocks are interior rule-30 blocks, in which case the templates do not encode rule 30 and the claim is refuted. If (A) holds as a subset but not all 56 templates occur, the verdict is 'mixed' (the figure's template set is larger than needed).", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: nks-p221-templates-figure, shifted-rule30-pattern", "inference_method": "analysis.py downloads fig-c.png (46,304 bytes), reads the 56 templates from the 14 x 4 grid by sampling 9 x 9 pixel patches at the 3 x 3 cell centres, checks that they are distinct and strictly decreasing as 9-bit numbers, builds the candidate pattern (two-row black band, two-column black wall, interior shifted rule 30) on a 300 x 300 window, enumerates its 3 x 3 blocks, tallies the shifted-rule-30 relation over templates, and for horizontal periods w = 1..11 builds the transfer graph on pairs of cylinder rows (4^w nodes), finds strongly connected components with scipy and counts cycle edges containing template 1. Outputs in derived/templates.csv and derived/periodic_search.json; runtime about 4 minutes (w = 11 dominates).", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.819, "truth": 0.76, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.77 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.75 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.735, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAJ3vfr5wbhBjJyiQTfTpTAISeYPcYItg45NQF2DAnYP0", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch05-21", "key": "ead8d4686bdb62e7", "label": "Simple constraints rarely force complex behavior, unlike simple rules", "statement": "Unlike simple evolution rules, almost all simple constraints lead only to fairly simple patterns; complex behavior forced by constraints is rare.", "quote": "it seems that almost all simple constraints lead only to fairly simple patterns.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 5: Two Dimensions and Beyond", "kind": "general-principle", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.541, "truth": 0.765, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.71 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.82 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.685, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAB8YdW_VrWtjezPo22shXlgutihnitbyX7ss8lWEl36c", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch05-22", "key": "f13880fc7fed40f9", "label": "Constraint-like equations helped hide complexity from traditional science", "statement": "Because describing complex behavior with constraints requires fairly complicated constraints, the traditional focus of science and mathematics on equations that act like constraints is another reason they failed to identify the phenomenon of complexity.", "quote": "the fact that traditional science and mathematics tends to concentrate on equations that operate like constraints provides yet another reason for their failure to identify the fundamental phenomenon of complexity that I discuss in this book.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 5: Two Dimensions and Beyond", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.156, "truth": 0.385, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.4 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.37 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.905, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA-pv0BXuzH7ZnAYkHpmeLX-7WwSdwh9OlcnPkAyUhRhs", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch06-01", "key": "8031709329b2495e", "label": "Simple systems self-organize from random initial conditions", "statement": "Many simple-rule systems such as cellular automata, when started from completely random initial conditions, spontaneously organize themselves and produce behavior with many distinctly non-random features.", "quote": "many systems spontaneously tend to organize themselves, so that even with completely random initial conditions they end up producing behavior that has many features that are not at all random.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 6: Starting from Randomness", "kind": "computational-observation", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.803, "truth": 0.935, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.95 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.92 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.81, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAyHVP-2E0Gm9pZ7faTscN205g244DDgfDEtvusFgWpmM", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch06-02", "key": "10d297147620da0b", "label": "Cellular automaton behavior falls into four basic classes", "statement": "Despite differing in detail for almost every rule, the patterns produced by cellular automata of all kinds from random initial conditions can almost always be easily assigned to one of just four classes: uniform final state (class 1), simple stable or periodic structures (class 2), apparently random behavior (class 3), and interacting localized structures (class 4).", "quote": "among all kinds of cellular automata, it seems that the patterns which arise can almost always be assigned quite easily to one of just four basic classes illustrated below.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 6: Starting from Randomness", "kind": "computational-observation", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.671, "truth": 0.795, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.8 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.79 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.74, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAU9GBAstw8F1Og23y3vBThzHkpjnBfumYncpI0P7ahlU", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch06-03", "key": "52e5dfbf59dac903", "label": "Class 4 consists of simple localized structures interacting in complex ways", "statement": "Class 4 cellular automata mix order and randomness: they produce localized structures that are individually fairly simple, but which move around and interact with each other in very complicated ways.", "quote": "class 4 involves a mixture of order and randomness: localized structures are produced which on their own are fairly simple, but these structures move around and interact with each other in very complicated ways.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 6: Starting from Randomness", "kind": "computational-observation", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.703, "truth": 0.93, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.95 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.91 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.69, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAS_q8RSd5kyUabtO55Ux4IiWrcEbKyD26O0TbsIDNqTI", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch06-04", "key": "343f0573ddb2d4f8", "label": "Detailed cellular automaton properties correlate with the four classes", "statement": "Most detailed properties of cellular automata correlate closely with the four visually defined classes, so that knowing a cellular automaton's class is often enough to predict its detailed properties.", "quote": "most of these properties were closely correlated with the classes that I had already identified. Indeed, in trying to predict detailed properties of a particular cellular automaton, it was often enough just to know what class the cellular automaton was in.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 6: Starting from Randomness", "kind": "computational-observation", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.627, "truth": 0.69, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.7 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.68 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.68, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA3ossisX3zPpkiuGDTm02Rd-ydopGl3R9EarWzpsTqYc", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch06-05", "key": "7784fa89ad4945c7", "label": "A cellular automaton's class usually cannot be read off its rule", "statement": "For most cellular automata there is no easy way to determine from the underlying rule which class of behavior it will produce; one generally has to run it and see, though some rule forms can be shown to give only class 1 or 2 behavior.", "quote": "In most cases there is no easy way to do this, and in fact there is little choice but just to run the cellular automaton and see what it does.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 6: Starting from Randomness", "kind": "general-principle", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.63, "truth": 0.915, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.94 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.89 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.685, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAVGcgpmK5SA2RsCyiEJtIJjtlWtloPV_-yvHlQayxsyA", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch06-06", "key": "542111393629ca68", "label": "Class 4 lies between class 2 and class 3 in activity", "statement": "Although class 4 is the most complex in appearance, in terms of overall activity it is intermediate between class 2 and class 3, and in sequences of rules it commonly appears at the transition between class 2 and class 3 rules.", "quote": "Class 4 systems are then in the middle: for the activity that they show neither dies out completely, as in class 2, nor remains at the high level seen in class 3.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 6: Starting from Randomness", "kind": "computational-observation", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.743, "truth": 0.68, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.64 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.72 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.75, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAyPKAPqIdUGz2n-PlsvPZbO39_-ojXsbDvZzE1T_S6B4", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch06-07", "key": "8c48b89ff806f148", "label": "Continuous cellular automata show the same four classes", "statement": "Cellular automata whose cells take continuous gray-level values show essentially the same four classes of behavior as discrete cellular automata, with class 4 behavior and its discrete localized structures typically appearing at transitions as the rule parameter is varied.", "quote": "But it seems that this behavior falls into essentially the same four classes that we have already seen in ordinary cellular automata.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 6: Starting from Randomness", "kind": "computational-observation", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.632, "truth": 0.745, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.76 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.73 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.7, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA_2ZksljE_DwDiKX0NuOHPZ8gERzUxS30U5jfV5zx0J4", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch06-08", "key": "8678d905ba40b0ec", "label": "Two-dimensional cellular automata show the same four classes", "statement": "Two-dimensional cellular automata exhibit the same four classes of behavior as one-dimensional ones, which becomes evident when one-dimensional slices through their evolution are examined; class 4 behavior, as in the Game of Life, occurs even on a white background with slightly more complicated rules.", "quote": "Indeed, by looking at such slices one can readily identify the very same four classes of behavior as in one-dimensional cellular automata.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 6: Starting from Randomness", "kind": "computational-observation", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.716, "truth": 0.83, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.9 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.76 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.755, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAnSHYSN_AKMXngV9O562ut6L4aoYXjDh3fWF1gyR_R4U", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch06-09", "key": "10730b1100ef7d49", "label": "The four classes respond differently to small changes in initial conditions", "statement": "Changing one cell of the initial condition has characteristically different effects by class: in class 1 the change dies out, in class 2 it stays localized, in class 3 it spreads at a uniform rate to affect the whole system, and in class 4 it spreads only sporadically.", "quote": "In class 1, changes always die out, and in fact exactly the same final state is reached regardless of what initial conditions were used. In class 2, changes may persist, but they always remain localized in a small region of the system.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 6: Starting from Randomness", "kind": "computational-observation", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.811, "truth": 0.67, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.54 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.8 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.8, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAOlCKCBxcDi48uJcOD5Xzz-tyeay8xcCSQM64-UEFK7o", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch06-10", "key": "33ebfa7da148d255", "label": "Natural systems can be understood by how they handle information", "statement": "Some of the most important features of natural systems can often be understood just by identifying which cellular automaton class their handling of information (forgetting, localized retention, long-range communication) corresponds to.", "quote": "it is often possible to understand some of the most important features of systems that occur in nature just by looking at how their handling of information corresponds to what we have seen in the basic classes of systems that we have identified here.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 6: Starting from Randomness", "kind": "general-principle", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.345, "truth": 0.52, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.59 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.45 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.63, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA38NGHHxSMalpcwPOWmqWx1AmNdCGyVO4a_VVMg5gqAI", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch06-11", "key": "5bb9f8abd5200c46", "label": "Class 2 repetitiveness stems from lack of long-range communication", "statement": "Class 2 cellular automata are always eventually repetitive because their lack of long-range communication makes each part behave as an independent system of limited size, typically only a few cells across, and hence with short repetition periods.", "quote": "the absence of long-range communication effectively forces each part of a class 2 system to behave as if it were a system of limited size.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 6: Starting from Randomness", "kind": "computational-observation", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.703, "truth": 0.7, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.61 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.79 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.715, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAbf5pdmPuaGL_kp49pN4p77-M2MYeHkkWYJOg1mp2KN4", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch06-12", "key": "81a6ce99cf8c1809", "label": "Finite discrete deterministic systems must eventually repeat", "statement": "Any system of limited size made of discrete elements and following definite rules must eventually exhibit repetitive behavior, with repetition period at most equal to its total number of possible states.", "quote": "it is then a general result that any system of limited size that involves discrete elements and follows definite rules must always eventually exhibit repetitive behavior.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 6: Starting from Randomness", "kind": "mathematical", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": true, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "supports", "evidence_kind": "computational", "data_test": { "verdict": "supports", "confidence": 0.99, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "computational", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/wolfram-nks/wolfram2002-ch06-12/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered: across all enumerated systems and all initial states, 100% of orbits satisfy period <= N and transient + period <= N (zero violations), where N is the exact number of distinct global states of the system.", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered: at least one orbit of at least one enumerated system has eventual period > N, or never repeats within N + 1 steps (impossible to observe without a period > N, so equivalently a measured period exceeding N).", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: eca-cyclic-rings-n1-12, tm-2state-2color-cyclic-tape-n1-5, modular-multiplication-maps-n2-200", "inference_method": "analysis.py builds, for each enumerated system, the complete transition map on its N global states and computes for every state the transient length and the eventual period from the functional graph (in-degree peeling to find cycle nodes, cycle walking for periods, vectorised relaxation for transients). It then counts orbits with period > N or transient + period > N. Families: 256 ECA x ring sizes 1..12 (3072 systems, 2,096,640 orbits), 4096 two-state two-colour Turing machines x cyclic tapes 1..5 (20,480 systems, 2,113,536 orbits), and x -> m x mod n for n = 2..200 (20,099 maps, 2,686,699 orbits). Total 43,651 systems and 6,896,875 orbits; run time about 4 s.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.986, "truth": 0.985, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.99 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.98 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.975, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA9nJvMePSW35HuHqShH9-mrGNdj-qGqwS1w5PgkZsJfg", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch06-13", "key": "4c3b6e838feb6b1e", "label": "Repetition periods of class 3 rules grow rapidly with system size", "statement": "In cellular automata on a finite cyclic lattice, a rapid increase of repetition period with lattice size is characteristic of class 3 behavior, with large fluctuations as size changes; among elementary rules only rule 45 appears to give periods always near the maximum possible.", "quote": "In general, a rapid increase with size is characteristic of class 3 behavior. Of the elementary rules, however, only rule 45 seems to yield periods that always stay close to the maximum of 2^n.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 6: Starting from Randomness", "kind": "computational-observation", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.738, "truth": 0.585, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.69 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.48 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.745, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAUxB2cRQon7AGEy9I_ltEZFdTTH22jJCGwsKfHk-oYdA", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch06-14", "key": "42feb824f2686404", "label": "Class 3 randomness can arise without randomness in initial conditions", "statement": "The randomness of class 3 systems is not merely inherited from random initial conditions: random behavior can be generated even when the initial conditions contain no randomness at all.", "quote": "the crucial point that I discovered only some time later is that random behavior can also occur even when there is no randomness in initial conditions.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 6: Starting from Randomness", "kind": "computational-observation", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "supports", "evidence_kind": "computational", "data_test": { "verdict": "supports", "confidence": 0.9, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "computational", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/wolfram-nks/wolfram2002-ch06-14/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered. Sequences of N = 2^20 bits: (S1) rule 30 centre column from a single black cell; (S2) rule 30 centre column from a random initial row (numpy seed 20261031, width 2N+1, so that the column is exactly the random-initial-condition case); (S3) numpy PCG64 bits, seed 20261031; (S4) the Thue-Morse sequence. Battery of 10 tests, each giving a p-value with pass meaning p >= 0.01: monobit frequency; block frequency (M = 128); runs; longest run of ones (M = 10000, K = 6); serial (m = 16, minimum of the two p-values); approximate entropy (m = 10); cumulative sums (minimum of forward and backward); discrete Fourier transform spectral test; autocorrelation (lags 1..64, Bonferroni-corrected normal p-value of the largest |r|); and a 16-bit non-overlapping block chi-square uniformity test. Also record the lzma compression ratio of the packed bits. PASS (supports) if S1 passes at least 9 of 10 tests and has lzma ratio >= 0.99, S2 and S3 each pass at least 9 of 10, S4 fails at least 4 tests, and the first terms of S1 agree exactly with the OEIS A051023 b-file over the whole length of the b-file.", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered. FAIL (refutes) if S1 passes 7 or fewer of the 10 tests or has lzma ratio < 0.98 (an exploitable regularity), or if S1 disagrees with OEIS A051023 (then the generator is wrong and the test is aborted as inconclusive/other). If S1 passes exactly 8, or S4 fails fewer than 4 tests (battery not discriminating), the verdict is 'mixed'. If the OEIS file cannot be fetched the OEIS cross-check is dropped and reported, and the verdict rests on the generated sequences.", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: rule30-centre-column-generator, oeis-a051023-bfile", "inference_method": "analysis.py generates the rule 30 centre column for 2^20 steps from a single black cell (S1) and from a seeded random row of width 2^21+1 (S2) using big-integer bit operations, a PCG64 stream (S3) and the Thue-Morse sequence (S4), checks S1 against all 100001 terms of the OEIS A051023 b-file, and applies ten NIST SP 800-22-style tests (monobit, block frequency M=128, runs, longest run M=10000, serial m=16, approximate entropy m=10, cumulative sums, DFT, Bonferroni autocorrelation over lags 1-64, 16-bit block chi-square) plus the lzma compression ratio to each. Runtime about 5 min, dominated by the two 2^20-step evolutions.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.843, "truth": 0.925, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.98 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.87 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.83, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAVg51873gpHO-LGoIQyChDE7t2i-zPLFaNSWXcOwxnBU", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch06-15", "key": "cb31cf080ab7fda3", "label": "Additive rule 90 only transmits randomness from its initial conditions", "statement": "Because rule 90 is additive, its patterns are superpositions of the single-cell nested pattern, so it cannot generate randomness intrinsically; any randomness it shows comes from the initial conditions, and deviations such as a low initial density persist forever, unlike in rule 22.", "quote": "In rule 22 the low initial density has no long-term effect. But in rule 90 its effect continues forever.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 6: Starting from Randomness", "kind": "mathematical", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": true, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "supports", "evidence_kind": "computational", "data_test": { "verdict": "supports", "confidence": 0.95, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "computational", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/wolfram-nks/wolfram2002-ch06-15/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered. (A) Additivity: the rule-90 local map phi satisfies phi(a XOR b) = phi(a) XOR phi(b) for all 64 pairs of 3-cell neighbourhoods, and the rule-22 map does not; (B) superposition: for 50 random initial conditions on a cyclic lattice of width 513 run for 256 steps, the rule-90 evolution equals the cellwise XOR of the shifted single-cell evolutions exactly (100% of 50*256 rows); (C) single-cell pattern: for rule 90 from one black cell the row at t = 2^k (k = 0..10) has exactly 2 black cells and the row at t = 2^k - 1 has 2^k black cells (nested, Pascal mod 2); (D) persistence in rule 90: with initial densities p in {0.05, 0.1, 0.2} on a measured window of 100000 cells (array padded by 1024 cells on each side so boundaries never reach the window), the measured density at t = 2^k for k = 0..10 is within 0.01 of 2p(1-p) in all 33 cases, and at t = 1024 the three densities differ from the p = 0.5 density by more than 0.1; (E) loss of memory in rule 22: with p in {0.05, 0.1, 0.2, 0.5} on the same windows, the time-averaged densities over t = 512..1024 differ from one another by less than 0.01 (max minus min). 'Supports' requires A-E.", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered. 'Refutes' if A or B fails in any case (rule 90 is not additive / not a superposition), or if in D the rule-90 density at t = 1024 for p = 0.1 lies within 0.05 of the p = 0.5 density (the low-density effect has been forgotten), or if in E the rule-22 late-time densities spread by more than 0.05 (rule 22 remembers the initial density). Other combinations are 'mixed'.", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: eca-rule90-rule22-generator", "inference_method": "analysis.py: (A) checks phi(a XOR b) = phi(a) XOR phi(b) over all 64 neighbourhood pairs for rules 90 and 22; (B) evolves 50 random rows on a 513-cell cyclic lattice for 256 steps under rule 90 and compares every row with the XOR of the single-cell evolution shifted to each initially black cell; (C) counts black cells in the rule-90 single-cell pattern at t = 2^k and 2^k - 1; (D, E) evolve Bernoulli(p) rows of 100000 + 2*1024 cells for 1024 steps under rule 90 (p = 0.05, 0.1, 0.2, 0.5) and rule 22 (same p) with zero boundaries, measuring the density in the central 100000 cells, which the boundaries cannot influence within 1024 steps; D compares rule-90 densities at t = 2^k with 2p(1-p), E compares the rule-22 time-averaged densities over t = 512..1024 across p.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.919, "truth": 0.87, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.9 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.84 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.91, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA_uyzAW8Wyk28eSioJgUmnPhL6wwTTmlAfQvflJqUpOc", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch06-16", "key": "5c273954f50c58cb", "label": "Intrinsic randomness generation makes large-scale behavior stable", "statement": "Systems that intrinsically generate randomness, like rule 22 or rule 30, produce the same overall random behavior with the same large-scale properties whatever their initial conditions, giving them a fundamental stability that he says underlies the apparent stability of many systems in nature.", "quote": "By intrinsically generating randomness such systems in a sense have a certain fundamental stability: for whatever is done to their initial conditions, they still give the same overall random behavior, with the same large-scale properties.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 6: Starting from Randomness", "kind": "general-principle", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.585, "truth": 0.28, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.16 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.4 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.665, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAlnMXEbetKfe0C7FLGQXX7cFfP_G7Fvog4QGblpKEwrw", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch06-17", "key": "927501328c55c3d8", "label": "Spatially periodic initial conditions always give repetitive behavior", "statement": "In any cellular automaton, an initial condition consisting of a fixed block of n cells repeated forever leads to repetitive behavior with period at most 2^n, since each block evolves like a finite cyclic system.", "quote": "in any cellular automaton it is inevitable that initial conditions which consist just of a fixed block of cells repeated forever will lead to simple repetitive behavior.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 6: Starting from Randomness", "kind": "mathematical", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": true, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "supports", "evidence_kind": "computational", "data_test": { "verdict": "supports", "confidence": 0.98, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "computational", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/wolfram-nks/wolfram2002-ch06-17/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered: (1) across all (rule, block) pairs enumerated, 100% have eventual temporal period <= k^n (zero violations); (2) for every (rule, block) pair in the equivalence sample, the central block of a long line made of repeated copies of the block evolves identically to the n-cell ring for all simulated steps (zero mismatching cells).", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered: any (rule, block) pair whose eventual period exceeds k^n, or any pair for which the repeated-block line evolution differs from the ring evolution inside the region unaffected by the line's ends.", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: eca-repeated-blocks-n1-12, totalistic-3colour-repeated-blocks-n1-6, range2-binary-sample-repeated-blocks-n1-10, line-vs-ring-equivalence-sample", "inference_method": "analysis.py treats a block of n cells repeated forever as an n-cell ring, builds the ring's transition map on all k^n states for each rule and computes the eventual period of every state's orbit from the functional graph (cycle detection by in-degree peeling). Families: all 256 ECA for n = 1..12 (2,096,640 rule-block pairs), all 2187 three-colour totalistic rules for n = 1..6 (2,388,204 pairs, bound 3^n), and 500 seeded random range-2 binary rules for n = 1..10 (1,023,000 pairs). It then checks the reduction itself: for all 256 ECA and all 32,256 blocks of n = 1..6, a line of repeated copies of the block is evolved for 2*2^n steps and its central copy compared cell by cell with the ring evolution (15,845,376 cells). Run time about 18 s.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.968, "truth": 0.55, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.85 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.25 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.945, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAjK8kdotpm965-9r59yO1pbz1UwWGEgy8aWMbZXK-qIU", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch06-18", "key": "9d1b61cd433c5543", "label": "Special initial conditions often make one cellular automaton emulate another", "statement": "It is common for a cellular automaton to have special initial conditions under which it behaves exactly like some other cellular automaton; for example rule 126 behaves like rule 90 when started from paired-cell blocks, and class 3 rules can thereby act like class 2 rules.", "quote": "it turns out to be quite common for there to exist special initial conditions for one cellular automaton that make it behave just like some other cellular automaton.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 6: Starting from Randomness", "kind": "computational-observation", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.773, "truth": 0.82, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.81 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.83 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.77, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAPYN6xmXdC6gSPSMt7_odrMi7v3Eby3DT61sXz7AxAx0", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch06-19", "key": "7bc6561dac4f11cb", "label": "Nested patterns arise from rules that emulate themselves", "statement": "A cellular automaton whose blocks of cells evolve by the same rule as individual cells must produce patterns that are either essentially uniform or nested; this self-emulation is why rule 90 and rules that emulate it produce nested patterns.", "quote": "And this can be achieved in only two ways: either the pattern must be essentially uniform, or it must have a nested structure—just like we see in rule 90.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 6: Starting from Randomness", "kind": "mathematical", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": true, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.807, "truth": 0.6, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.38 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.82 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.725, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAnWE0rxuMN8uh2vsVsZfngVrzyusi0tKAX84S5IFqTUk", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch06-20", "key": "2c0e9994a00d632a", "label": "Additive rules self-emulate; rules 90 and 150 are the only elementary ones", "statement": "Every additive cellular automaton rule can emulate itself and therefore yields nested patterns, and among two-color nearest-neighbor rules the only fundamentally different additive rules are rules 90 and 150; self-emulation is otherwise rare, though non-additive examples such as rule 184 exist.", "quote": "one can show that any rule that is additive will be able to emulate itself and will thus yield nested patterns. But there are rather few additive rules, and indeed with two colors and nearest neighbors the only fundamentally different ones are precisely rules 90 and 150.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 6: Starting from Randomness", "kind": "mathematical", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": true, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "supports", "evidence_kind": "computational", "data_test": { "verdict": "supports", "confidence": 0.85, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "computational", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/wolfram-nks/wolfram2002-ch06-20/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered. Definitions: a rule f is additive iff f(x XOR y) = f(x) XOR f(y) for all pairs of 3-cell neighbourhoods x, y (which forces f(000) = 0). Rule f self-emulates with block size b >= 2 and t >= 1 steps iff there are two distinct b-cell blocks B0, B1 such that for every arrangement of 2k+1 blocks (k = ceil(t/b)) drawn from {B0, B1}, running f for t steps leaves the centre block equal to B_{f(c-1, c0, c1)}, where c-1, c0, c1 are the bits represented by the three central blocks; this is the block-emulation notion of NKS pp. 269-271 and note p. 1118, which allows t != b. The search covers b in {2, 3, 4}, t in {1, 2, 3, 4} and all block pairs. Trivial rules: 0, 204 (identity), 170 and 240 (shifts). Equivalences for 'fundamentally different': reflection (rule 60 <-> 102) and the sublattice relation p90[t, 2j - t] = p60[t, j], verified computationally on the first 256 steps from a single black cell. Nested: the single-cell pattern p satisfies p[2t, 2i] = p[t, i] for all 0 <= t < 256 and |i| <= t. Clause A passes if every additive rule self-emulates with b = t = 2 and every non-trivial additive rule is nested in this sense. Clause B passes if the non-trivial additive rules fall into exactly two equivalence classes, one containing 90 and one containing 150. Clause C passes if rule 184 self-emulates with b = 3 for some t <= 4 and the fraction of the 248 non-additive rules with at least one self-emulation in the searched range is <= 0.25. 'supports' if A, B and C all pass.", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered. 'refutes' if clause A or clause B fails (an additive rule that does not self-emulate with b = t = 2, a non-trivial additive rule that is not nested, or a third inequivalent non-trivial additive class). 'mixed' if A and B pass but C fails (rule 184 does not self-emulate with 3-cell blocks within the search, or self-emulation is found in more than 25 % of non-additive rules, so 'rather rare' would be an overstatement).", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: nks-ch06-20-eca-enumerator", "inference_method": "analysis.py tests all 256 elementary rules for GF(2)-linearity over all 64 neighbourhood pairs, then searches exhaustively for block self-emulations with b = 2, 3, 4 cells per block, t = 1..4 steps and all ordered pairs of distinct blocks, checking every arrangement of 2k+1 blocks (k = ceil(t/b)) so that the centre block's light cone is covered. Nesting of the non-trivial additive rules was checked as exact scale-2 self-similarity p[2t, 2i] = p[t, i] of the single-black-cell pattern over 256 steps, and the sublattice relation p90[t, 2j - t] = p60[t, j] was verified over 256 steps before being used to merge rules 60/102 with 90. Equivalence classes of non-trivial additive rules were formed by union-find under reflection and the verified sublattice relation.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.899, "truth": 0.74, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.78 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.7 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.855, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAj3SeEIuiIBJxl7LQSJp6D2YrDTVXV9H1SUHY3WFAXhQ", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch06-21", "key": "71cda8f5e3cbf178", "label": "Allowed-sequence networks grow fast for class 3 and 4, slowly for 1 and 2", "statement": "As cellular automata evolve, the set of cell sequences that can occur generally becomes progressively restricted; the finite networks describing these sets stay simple (about t^2 nodes after t steps) for class 1 and 2 rules but grow at least exponentially for most class 3 and 4 rules, apart from surjective rules started from all possible sequences.", "quote": "Indeed, this kind of rapid increase in network complexity is a general characteristic of most class 3 and 4 rules.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 6: Starting from Randomness", "kind": "computational-observation", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.669, "truth": 0.69, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.7 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.68 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.685, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA5-EbTztA3SBU-Dh6DihSQBZg7z76VJlGtc4CQ3JpeRQ", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch06-22", "key": "17fad89d9975890e", "label": "Class 4 systems always have structures that persist forever", "statement": "A crucial feature of any class 4 cellular automaton is that, although most structures that form eventually die out, there must always be certain structures that can persist forever in it.", "quote": "Most of these structures eventually die out, sometimes in rather complicated ways. But a crucial feature of any class 4 systems is that there must always be certain structures that can persist forever in it.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 6: Starting from Randomness", "kind": "computational-observation", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.612, "truth": 0.735, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.69 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.78 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.635, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAqH4FJ_cRj8ydxl-i6Cc9ScSf7En2ty9rrFLwnYsqL-o", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch06-23", "key": "56eec414c564ccc2", "label": "Complicated persistent structures imply moving structures exist", "statement": "In class 4 cellular automata, whenever sufficiently complicated persistent structures occur, structures that move can eventually be found; moving structures are what allow information to travel and complex class 4 behavior to occur.", "quote": "My experience with many different rules is that whenever sufficiently complicated persistent structures occur, structures that move can eventually be found.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 6: Starting from Randomness", "kind": "computational-observation", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.539, "truth": 0.56, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.55 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.57 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.635, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAx7xE9H-7ogYbQ5KxRUvAXsb5wKwmp1pKNZbsjrA2AGU", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch06-24", "key": "4c7e6cf8e883e120", "label": "Class 4 automata can mimic many other systems", "statement": "Class 4 cellular automata can, with appropriate initial conditions, mimic the behavior of all sorts of other systems, including producing unbounded growth of either complex or very simple form.", "quote": "it is a general feature of class 4 cellular automata that with appropriate initial conditions they can mimic the behavior of all sorts of other systems.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 6: Starting from Randomness", "kind": "computational-observation", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.591, "truth": 0.645, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.75 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.54 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.645, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAeH9oVEs11qWQGNo8GFEA3fK2jw31-5CSGHGszULOSoo", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch06-25", "key": "29abb1cdf7a96634", "label": "Interactions among simple structures in rule 110 give immense complexity", "statement": "Although individual persistent structures in class 4 systems such as rule 110 behave fairly repetitively, collisions between them can produce cascades of new structures and outcomes that take very many steps to resolve, yielding behavior of immense complexity from an extremely simple rule.", "quote": "So even though the individual structures in class 4 systems like rule 110 may behave in fairly repetitive ways, interactions between these structures can lead to behavior of immense complexity.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 6: Starting from Randomness", "kind": "computational-observation", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.79, "truth": 0.925, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.96 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.89 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.765, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAo770JlRIr9MdzggqV41yU-a4RhtIZAy8c4DO_I4y8EQ", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch07-01", "key": "4ee9dc9bc1abefe2", "label": "Universal behavior types span simple programs and natural systems", "statement": "The same kinds of overall behavior arise regardless of the details of underlying rules, and this universality holds not only among simple programs but also between simple programs and systems in nature, so idealized cell models and real molecular systems should show the same universal features.", "quote": "And the crucial point is that I believe that this universality extends not only across simple programs, but also to systems in nature.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 7: Mechanisms in Programs and Nature", "kind": "general-principle", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.429, "truth": 0.56, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.69 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.43 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.59, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAzZ6Q0_CbcATKNi-P2NgiZIUzOTk-dS7hwlgMiRoOPuQ", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch07-02", "key": "4ff96503bd7bad85", "label": "Just three basic mechanisms account for randomness", "statement": "Apparent randomness in any system arises from one of just three basic mechanisms: continual random input from the environment, randomness transcribed from initial conditions, or intrinsic generation of randomness by the system's own rules with no random input.", "quote": "But from my investigations of simple programs I have come to the conclusion that one can in fact identify just three basic mechanisms for randomness, as illustrated in the pictures below.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 7: Mechanisms in Programs and Nature", "kind": "general-principle", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.379, "truth": 0.66, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.74 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.58 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.67, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAhc0hkpPhCibkpE_bpEdcrd2CC5C3RBbZSc8HHv9lQFk", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch07-03", "key": "bd1467aeec588c83", "label": "Intrinsic randomness generation explains most randomness in nature", "statement": "The mechanism in which a system's own deterministic rules generate randomness without any random input is ultimately responsible for a large fraction, and perhaps essentially all, of the randomness seen in the natural world.", "quote": "I believe that this mechanism is in fact ultimately responsible for a large fraction, if not essentially all, of the randomness that we see in the natural world.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 7: Mechanisms in Programs and Nature", "kind": "model-of-nature", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.331, "truth": 0.18, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.18 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.18 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.74, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RANebH_6Iq0JSjs3CtWqaoLf0hxoq4hFZyMs5dmCFB-gs", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch07-04", "key": "ffd843b3d140dca8", "label": "Hardware noise-based random generators deviate from perfect randomness", "statement": "Devices that generate randomness by amplifying microscopic environmental noise (spark gaps, vacuum tubes, semiconductor diodes) have consistently been found to produce output with significant deviations from perfect randomness, because the sampling device relaxes only gradually and because the environment itself has correlations.", "quote": "But despite such sensitivity to microscopic effects, what has consistently been found in practice is that the output from such devices has significant deviations from perfect randomness.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 7: Mechanisms in Programs and Nature", "kind": "model-of-nature", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.588, "truth": 0.52, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.28 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.76 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.675, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RANfePfXwyPajUWZrfI3jSNyH7MPDbUtKdn5PjZm3_6sM", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch07-05", "key": "6629e354331dc0a8", "label": "Randomness from initial conditions lasts only a limited number of steps", "statement": "In physical chaotic systems such as kneading, mirror arrangements or pegboards, randomness can be attributed purely to initial conditions only for a small number of steps (around ten collisions for a pegboard), because amplification quickly reaches atomic scales and environmental perturbations take over; the limit is set by the separation between observed large-scale and uncontrollable small-scale features.", "quote": "So the idea that randomness comes purely from initial conditions can be realistic only for a fairly small number of steps; randomness which is seen after that must therefore typically be attributed to other mechanisms.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 7: Mechanisms in Programs and Nature", "kind": "model-of-nature", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.549, "truth": 0.7, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.7 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.7 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.67, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAQcpIt-9Ad7eK4vw6cDcUJ6glR8ao_7XyTRBuXFTFs2w", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch07-06", "key": "e0b15c54f9508ef9", "label": "Solar system motion should show sensitive dependence over millions of years", "statement": "Although planetary motion looks regular on human timescales, sensitive dependence on initial conditions should ultimately occur in the solar system, producing significant randomness over a few million years that may explain some present-day features of the solar system.", "quote": "But calculations imply that sensitive dependence on initial conditions should ultimately occur even in our solar system.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 7: Mechanisms in Programs and Nature", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.753, "truth": 0.74, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.62 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.86 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.76, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAsx4hSl2_aq_AsfHPbkMvAGR3Pegw9YXYQ3roNMkZrp4", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch07-07", "key": "a6f142ae12acb5bc", "label": "Maximal-period linear congruential generators still show strong nonrandomness", "statement": "Linear congruential random number generators designed to have maximal repetition period have repeatedly turned out to deviate substantially from perfect randomness (for example, successive outputs plotted as points fall on regular stripes), because the mathematical tractability that guarantees their period also implies regularity.", "quote": "But in practice over the years, one after another linear congruential generator that has been constructed to have maximal repetition period has turned out to exhibit very substantial deviations from perfect randomness.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 7: Mechanisms in Programs and Nature", "kind": "computational-observation", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "supports", "evidence_kind": "computational", "data_test": { "verdict": "supports", "confidence": 0.95, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "computational", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/wolfram-nks/wolfram2002-ch07-07/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered. Generators (all full period for their class): RANDU (a=65539, c=0, m=2^31; period 2^29, maximal for a multiplicative generator mod 2^31), ANSI C example rand (1103515245, 12345, 2^31), Numerical Recipes ranqd1 (1664525, 1013904223, 2^32), Borland C (22695477, 1, 2^32), VAX MTH$RANDOM (69069, 1, 2^32), Park-Miller minimal standard (16807, 0, 2^31-1), C++11 minstd_rand (48271, 0, 2^31-1), POSIX drand48 / java.util.Random (25214903917, 11, 2^48); for comparison Knuth's MMIX generator (6364136223846793005, 1442695040888963407, 2^64) and a cryptographic source (os.urandom). (1) Lattice: the exact spectral test on the dual lattice gives, for every generator with m <= 2^32 (7 generators), a family of at most 3000 parallel planes containing all consecutive triples of the whole period (minimal L1 norm of a nonzero dual vector in d = 3 at most 3000; Marsaglia's bound (6 m)^(1/3) is 2953 for m = 2^32), and at most 93000 parallel lines containing all consecutive pairs in d = 2 ((2 m)^(1/2) = 92682). (2) Visible deviation: projecting 2^20 consecutive triples (coordinates x/m) onto the minimal dual vector u and reducing mod 1, each of those 7 generators yields at most 3000 distinct values (<= 0.3% of 2^20) while os.urandom yields at least 99% distinct values under the same projection and rounding (1e-9). (3) Standard empirical test: the two-dimensional birthday-spacings test (L'Ecuyer and Simard 2001 setting: n = 2^15 points (x_i, x_{i+1}) in 2^21 x 2^21 cells, expected collisions lambda = 2, 32 independent replications from different seeds; total collisions compared with Poisson(64)) rejects (two-sided p < 1e-6) at least 6 of the 8 historical generators, while os.urandom and MMIX are not rejected (p > 1e-3). 'Supports' requires (1), (2) and (3).", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered. 'Refutes' if any of the 7 generators with m <= 2^32 has triples on more than 3000 planes (the lattice theorem would be wrong), or if the projection of the LCG triples gives more than 50% distinct values (the structure is not visible at 2^20 samples), or if fewer than 3 of the 8 historical generators fail the birthday-spacings test. Other combinations are 'mixed'.", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: lcg-historical-parameters, lcg-generator-output", "inference_method": "analysis.py: for each generator builds the dual lattice of consecutive d-tuples (basis (m,0,..), (-a^i mod m, e_i)), LLL-reduces it exactly and enumerates all short vectors (Fincke-Pohst) to obtain the exact spectral test value nu_d, the normalised figure of merit S_d and the minimal L1 norm (number of parallel hyperplanes containing every d-tuple of the whole period) for d = 2, 3, 4; generates 2^20 consecutive states from seed 12345, projects each triple (x_i, x_{i+1}, x_{i+2})/m onto the minimal-L1 dual vector and counts distinct values (rounded to 1e-9), repeating the same projections on 2^20 64-bit words from os.urandom; runs the two-dimensional birthday-spacings test (32 replications of 2^15 non-overlapping pairs in 2^21 x 2^21 cells, expected 2 collisions each, total compared with Poisson(64)) on every generator and on os.urandom.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.914, "truth": 0.93, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.94 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.92 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.9, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAWIAbA9Xay79zZUVo1tHyZ1ivDBJQuW7qoxjh0JuBnzY", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch07-08", "key": "0cc474402fa63b59", "label": "Amenability to mathematical analysis implies deviations from randomness", "statement": "The very possibility of detailed mathematical analysis of a system tends to imply that its output has at least some deviations from perfect randomness, whereas simple rules not constrained by the need for such analysis can generate highly random behavior.", "quote": "the very possibility of any detailed mathematical analysis tends to imply the presence of at least some deviations from perfect randomness.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 7: Mechanisms in Programs and Nature", "kind": "general-principle", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.458, "truth": 0.39, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.42 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.36 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.605, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAdiIy__oXFopJD6pvju1j8g8z4W6vHUD2HEN017dvs8o", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch07-09", "key": "364a454d34ffefdc", "label": "Rapid production of much randomness indicates intrinsic generation", "statement": "Whenever a large amount of randomness is produced in a short time, intrinsic randomness generation is overwhelmingly likely to be responsible, because it uses every component of a system to produce new randomness and has no length limit, whereas environmental amplification is slow and initial-condition randomness is short-lived.", "quote": "The basic answer, I believe, is that whenever a large amount of randomness is produced in a short time, intrinsic randomness generation is overwhelmingly likely to be the mechanism responsible.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 7: Mechanisms in Programs and Nature", "kind": "model-of-nature", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.391, "truth": 0.17, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.16 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.18 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.635, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAJx-a0XJm3nSevbqRGjnxASwGEy_NLmz4cwCQ4xvYy9o", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch07-10", "key": "e23b0007d3484573", "label": "Intrinsically generated randomness is repeatable across experimental runs", "statement": "If randomness in an experiment comes from intrinsic generation, then even the precise details of the random-looking behavior should be repeatable from one run to the next, because such behavior is robust to perturbations below a critical size, whereas randomness from the environment or from initial conditions should show little or no repeatability.", "quote": "But what is remarkable is that if intrinsic randomness generation is the mechanism at work, then the precise details of the behavior can also be repeatable.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 7: Mechanisms in Programs and Nature", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.502, "truth": 0.445, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.55 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.34 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.71, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA6pGkGyUIMsbBc3YYgtRHhTOtnCN10lZa3u4RMrhki1M", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch07-11", "key": "552182040c80f388", "label": "Detailed visual similarities in organisms imply intrinsic randomness", "statement": "Detailed visual similarities between members of the same species, and between the two symmetric sides of a system, in features that look complex and random cannot be attributed to environmental or initial-condition randomness and must come from intrinsic randomness generation.", "quote": "And instead, there is no choice but to conclude that the randomness must in fact come from the mechanism of intrinsic randomness generation that I have discovered in simple programs, and discussed in this section.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 7: Mechanisms in Programs and Nature", "kind": "model-of-nature", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.397, "truth": 0.15, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.18 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.12 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.69, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RACjvr3EWEAxdVgDobxwm43Ot6YhrHazd1yOSUdUqyobs", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch07-12", "key": "9c14e713a4c7e4a7", "label": "Randomness lets discrete components produce continuous behavior", "statement": "Systems made of discrete components appear smooth and continuous on large scales mainly because microscopic randomness averages out the discreteness, and it does not matter whether that randomness comes from outside or from intrinsic generation, as shown by random walks, aggregation models and deterministic cellular automata that grow circular shapes.", "quote": "But it turns out that all that really seems to matter is that randomness is present: the mechanism through which it arises appears to be largely irrelevant.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 7: Mechanisms in Programs and Nature", "kind": "computational-observation", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.797, "truth": 0.77, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.7 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.84 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.805, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA7Czzzuj8YdFIsoxohGu4ncfxHg-B-5HtBm0THumxn0M", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch07-13", "key": "348ca7bc423cc44b", "label": "Continuity requires slow features relative to small-scale random changes", "statement": "Continuous large-scale behavior can arise in a system with discrete components only when there are features that evolve slowly relative to the rate of small-scale random changes; for growth, the random small-scale changes must occur much faster than the overall growth.", "quote": "In general the point is that continuous behavior can arise in systems with discrete components only when there are features that evolve slowly relative to the rate of small-scale random changes.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 7: Mechanisms in Programs and Nature", "kind": "general-principle", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.649, "truth": 0.7, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.72 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.68 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.7, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAcLYtDXWeufEexe2ZidYrtSBHDS02RTLlnlJIKHbQz5A", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch07-14", "key": "5501cc04fcebcbe6", "label": "Density-driven discrete transitions are rare in 1D CAs, common in higher dimensions", "statement": "Cellular automata in which a continuous change in initial density of black cells produces a discrete switch in long-time behavior, with whichever color was initially more common taking over the whole system, are fairly rare in one dimension, where domain boundaries often get stuck, but become increasingly common in two and more dimensions.", "quote": "And so long as the boundaries of the regions do not get stuck—as happens in many one-dimensional cellular automata—the result is that whichever color was initially more common eventually takes over the whole system.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 7: Mechanisms in Programs and Nature", "kind": "computational-observation", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.796, "truth": 0.68, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.64 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.72 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.79, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAPWAwPT6CL8wkJuQi22aOeYlb5UGddgLksLCu8HIX2bs", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch07-15", "key": "892d42595e8ea00f", "label": "Continuous rules can yield discrete behavior, so discrete models often fit", "statement": "Even systems governed by continuous equations, such as certain chemical reaction kinetics, commonly have a limited number of stable states with discrete transitions between them, and because discrete overall behavior is often a system's most obvious feature, discrete models like cellular automata are often the most appropriate.", "quote": "And in fact it is quite common for such behavior to be one of the most obvious features of a system—which is why discrete systems like cellular automata end up often being the most appropriate models.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 7: Mechanisms in Programs and Nature", "kind": "model-of-nature", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.51, "truth": 0.68, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.86 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.5 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.675, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAHRWG8EWQILlzlc9R22JYuQs8QHnS2dfSDKboqzDm-XE", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch07-16", "key": "cc9834dc7ffa3676", "label": "Complex natural behavior is almost never best explained by constraints", "statement": "Almost none of the complex behavior seen in nature is best explained as the satisfaction of constraints, because finding a pattern that satisfies a constraint is usually far too difficult a computation to happen routinely in nature; explicit processes of evolution are the more plausible explanation.", "quote": "But despite this, my strong suspicion is that of all the examples of complex behavior that we see in nature almost none can in the end best be explained in terms of constraints.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 7: Mechanisms in Programs and Nature", "kind": "general-principle", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.268, "truth": 0.215, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.21 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.22 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.66, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAZHk7bTq2NR6wMjN8jzyewO75Ri5mIA1xwpvbbk4r9QI", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch07-17", "key": "6e745a14c0f68605", "label": "Local-improvement procedures get stuck when satisfying discrete constraints", "statement": "For discrete constraint systems the landscape of constraint violations is almost always jagged, so iterative procedures that only move downhill almost invariably get stuck far from a solution, random modifications help only slowly, and no speed-up techniques work well across broad classes of systems; hence natural systems are unlikely to come close to satisfying such constraints.", "quote": "So what this suggests is that even if in some idealized sense a system in nature might be expected to satisfy certain constraints, it is likely that in practice the system will actually not have a way to come even close to doing this.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 7: Mechanisms in Programs and Nature", "kind": "computational-observation", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.655, "truth": 0.37, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.3 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.44 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.74, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAEOjZqxF1-R_Mw2KDTlwWVQ7zymbD0RYjHxblmLbP1so", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch07-18", "key": "90de6ab60d683f72", "label": "Pushed or jiggled spheres do not reach densest packing", "statement": "Unlike identical coins in two dimensions, which readily form the densest hexagonal packing when pushed together, balls in three dimensions pushed together or jiggled almost always get stuck and essentially never reach the densest repetitive packing, which seems obtainable only by careful one-by-one placement.", "quote": "But if one just tries pushing balls together they almost always get stuck, and never take on anything like the arrangement shown.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 7: Mechanisms in Programs and Nature", "kind": "model-of-nature", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.675, "truth": 0.85, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.9 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.8 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.75, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RABxEblmI_mg4ex8z2SeZH6gd9YZlemzYwu6yGReOqPqg", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch07-19", "key": "8332f44639d1be70", "label": "Complex biological forms come from growth rules, not selection-driven constraints", "statement": "Natural selection can produce forms determined by constraint satisfaction only when those forms are rather simple; complex biological forms are associated instead with explicit evolution rules, mostly those governing the growth of an individual organism.", "quote": "when more complex forms are seen they once again tend to be associated not with constraints but rather with the effects of explicit evolution rules—mostly those governing the growth of an individual organism.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 7: Mechanisms in Programs and Nature", "kind": "model-of-nature", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.341, "truth": 0.275, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.27 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.28 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.66, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAtemsksibqM9SUi7gJbBa2fOkvTA6V3I46JX3bDqkoSs", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch07-20", "key": "ca00a561674741a9", "label": "Rule complexity does not determine behavioral complexity", "statement": "There is no direct correspondence between the complexity of a system's underlying rules and the complexity of its behavior: some of the simplest rules yield highly complex behavior, fairly complicated rules often yield simple behavior, and rules differing at a single position can behave very differently.", "quote": "Traditional intuition might have made one assume that there must be a direct correspondence between the complexity of observed behavior and the complexity of underlying rules. But one of the central discoveries of this book is that in fact there is not.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 7: Mechanisms in Programs and Nature", "kind": "computational-observation", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "inconclusive", "evidence_kind": "computational", "data_test": { "verdict": "inconclusive", "confidence": 0.5, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "computational", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/wolfram-nks/wolfram2002-ch07-20/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered. Families: (F1) the 256 elementary cellular automata; (F2) the 2187 three-colour nearest-neighbour totalistic cellular automata (Wolfram codes 0..2186). Rule-complexity measures: F1: (a) number of monomials in the algebraic normal form over GF(2), (b) minimal number of two-input gates (AND, OR, XOR, with negation free) computing the rule, found by breadth-first search over truth tables; F2: (c) Shannon entropy in bits of the 7-entry code table, (d) number of table entries that differ from the table's most frequent value. Behaviour-complexity measures: (e) lzma-compressed size (preset 9) of the space-time diagram, one byte per cell, from a random initial condition (width 300, periodic boundary, numpy seed 20260720, steps 200..600 after a 200-step transient); (f) the same for the single-seed pattern (one black / one gray cell, 400 steps, width 801, zero boundary). Statistics: Spearman rank correlation rho for each (rule measure, behaviour measure) pair within each family (8 pairs). 'supports' if max over the 8 pairs of rho <= 0.30, and in each family at least one rule at the minimum value of each rule measure has behaviour measure (e) in the top quartile of its family while at least one rule at the maximum value has (e) in the bottom quartile, and at least 5 % of F1 Hamming-distance-1 rule pairs (1024 pairs) differ in (e) by more than half of the family's range of (e).", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered. 'refutes' if any of the 8 Spearman correlations is >= 0.60 (a direct, monotone correspondence between rule complexity and behaviour complexity) or if in either family no rule at minimal rule complexity reaches the top quartile of behaviour complexity. Otherwise (e.g. 0.30 < max rho < 0.60, or the Hamming-neighbour fraction below 5 %) -> 'mixed'.", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: nks-ch07-20-rule-family-generator", "inference_method": "analysis.py enumerates the 256 elementary rules and the 2187 three-colour totalistic codes, computes the rule-complexity measures (ANF monomial count by Moebius transform; minimal two-input gate count by breadth-first search over all 3-input truth tables with free negation; table entropy; non-default entries) and runs each rule from a random initial condition (width 300, periodic, seed 20260720, 200-step transient, 400 recorded steps) and from a single seed (400 steps, width 801), compressing each space-time diagram with lzma preset 9. Spearman correlations were computed for the 8 (rule measure, behaviour measure) pairs, quartile counterexamples were listed, and the 1024 Hamming-distance-1 pairs of elementary rules were compared on the random-IC compressed size. Run time about 4 minutes.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.868, "truth": 0.945, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.96 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.93 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.88, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAQNzCrnWkhudCmoCCxahRLrt-rZM5vkEykuL7bSu8VJc", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch07-21", "key": "e4cda3c850837e19", "label": "Nesting in nature mostly arises from building up, not splitting down", "statement": "Nested patterns can arise either from elements splitting or branching into smaller ones or from larger elements being built up from smaller ones (as in additive cellular automata), and the building-up route is probably the more common origin of nesting in nature.", "quote": "it can also arise when larger elements are built up from smaller ones—and indeed I suspect that this is its more common origin in nature.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 7: Mechanisms in Programs and Nature", "kind": "model-of-nature", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.375, "truth": 0.35, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.42 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.28 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.655, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA4BR7JBfLLp7XmcIj9Y8i_FPASRr-uTgXg_Uo6HI_s9g", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch07-22", "key": "26c946fdacdd46e8", "label": "Merging of independently growing domains generically produces nesting", "statement": "Nesting can arise from random initial conditions through progressive annihilation of randomly placed elements: in essentially any system where domains grow fairly independently and then progressively merge, an overall nested pattern resembling a river-tributary tree forms, even when domain boundaries move as random walks.", "quote": "And indeed in essentially any system where there are domains that grow fairly independently and then progressively merge the same basic overall nesting will be seen.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 7: Mechanisms in Programs and Nature", "kind": "computational-observation", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.748, "truth": 0.75, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.74 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.76 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.775, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAU1fo4f_dJZlKcTF8CJuU6f-kC6a_XqROXFsbQzScfXA", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch08-01", "key": "2ed19456d445e1d7", "label": "Models of complex systems should first be judged by comparing overall pictures", "statement": "For systems with complex behavior, a model cannot be adequately assessed by matching a few extracted numbers; the best first test is a visual comparison of the model's overall behavior with that of the real system.", "quote": "by far the best first step in assessing a model is not to look at numbers or other details, but rather just to use one's eyes, and to compare overall pictures of a system with pictures from the model.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 8: Implications for Everyday Systems", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.153, "truth": 0.64, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.68 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.6 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.79, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAy-rSE0wPDFi6sZMsCaUS5xFWp9ZhiCkLwv_6LkM5ZhA", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch08-02", "key": "f3a5331358ea140b", "label": "Snowflake shapes arise from growth inhibition captured by a hexagonal cellular automaton", "statement": "The main features of snowflake shapes are reproduced by a hexagonal cellular automaton in which a cell becomes ice only if exactly one neighbor is ice, which represents the inhibition of nearby growth by released latent heat.", "quote": "One can capture this basic effect by having a cellular automaton with rules in which cells become black if they have exactly one black neighbor, but stay white whenever they have more than one black neighbor.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 8: Implications for Everyday Systems", "kind": "model-of-nature", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.561, "truth": 0.38, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.36 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.4 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.72, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAYYsopZDkHwJjXPG4Rg8EiCnOv_-d9ZVsSTbkjUEGSyM", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch08-03", "key": "490114e0e0851ae7", "label": "Growing snowflakes should alternate between tree-like and faceted shapes", "statement": "During the growth of an individual snowflake its shape should alternate between tree-like and faceted forms, as new branches grow and then collide with one another.", "quote": "one expects that during the growth of a particular snowflake there should be alternation between tree-like and faceted shapes, as new branches grow but then collide with each other.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 8: Implications for Everyday Systems", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.565, "truth": 0.36, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.38 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.34 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.7, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAp2JmvUT9YTBf9FIC19QP6M5wzv2v8TmFxZidOmzsmJI", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch08-04", "key": "7b43057d3ad5be04", "label": "Randomness in crystal shapes is often intrinsically generated by simple growth rules", "statement": "Apparent randomness in the shapes of crystalline materials often arises intrinsically from simple deterministic growth rules, rather than from randomness in the seed or the growth environment.", "quote": "And contrary to what has always been assumed, I suspect that this is actually how the apparent randomness that one sometimes sees in shapes formed by crystalline materials often comes about.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 8: Implications for Everyday Systems", "kind": "model-of-nature", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.435, "truth": 0.305, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.35 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.26 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.66, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA5mJjmsvMhLt28AHeBK6EZvwrnVzsfD3lF12YrPdwHvY", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch08-05", "key": "5b0456181115a4e1", "label": "Randomness of fracture surfaces comes from a material-independent intrinsic mechanism", "statement": "The roughness and randomness of fracture paths does not come from random irregularities in a material but from a general mechanism in which deterministic interactions of element displacements around a moving crack intrinsically generate randomness, as in a simple cellular automaton model.", "quote": "I nevertheless suspect that even when much more realistic models for specific materials are used, the fundamental mechanisms responsible for randomness will still be very much the same as in the extremely simple model shown here.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 8: Implications for Everyday Systems", "kind": "model-of-nature", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.511, "truth": 0.34, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.32 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.36 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.68, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA1gfMGT4DtwBWLcqTK1d6Tu0XigCHjggo7jWM5W_KpBs", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch08-06", "key": "2be9a68f46959a25", "label": "Conservation plus microscopic randomness yields universal fluid behavior", "statement": "Any system of particles that conserves quantities such as particle number and momentum and has sufficient microscopic randomness will show the same large-scale fluid behavior, so a discrete cellular automaton particle model can reproduce the flow of real fluids.", "quote": "so long as certain physical quantities such as particle number and momentum are conserved, then whenever there is sufficient microscopic randomness, it is almost inevitable that the same overall fluid behavior will be obtained.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 8: Implications for Everyday Systems", "kind": "model-of-nature", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.752, "truth": 0.835, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.83 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.84 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.78, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAl0sfrlaDuSLgxfTncVxHTiMUzoIhcbb5HRpGY6btCqQ", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch08-07", "key": "6b4b2819e605071e", "label": "Large-scale fluid flow shows little sensitive dependence on initial conditions", "statement": "In almost all cases, large-scale fluid behavior does not depend discernibly on the detailed initial conditions; small perturbations are damped out by viscosity, so sensitive dependence (chaos) is the exception rather than the rule.", "quote": "when it comes to large-scale fluid behavior, it seems to be true that in almost all cases there is no discernible difference between what happens with different detailed initial conditions.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 8: Implications for Everyday Systems", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.658, "truth": 0.19, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.22 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.16 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.725, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAaNRPx7DPcz4f55nSAViOBWFH5FPwu8UWh7n9nB5nHKo", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch08-08", "key": "163bc64aec9e3952", "label": "Turbulent randomness is intrinsically generated at the level of large-scale fluid motion", "statement": "The randomness seen in turbulent fluids is mostly neither inserted from outside nor inherited from molecular randomness, but is intrinsically generated by the dynamics of the large-scale fluid motion itself.", "quote": "Instead, what seems to be happening is that intrinsic randomness generation occurs directly at the level of large-scale fluid motion.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 8: Implications for Everyday Systems", "kind": "model-of-nature", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.608, "truth": 0.805, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.78 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.83 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.7, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA3qmbESzvE70vhS_dntmezt6Hd-pq16LfUN8094hyNZg", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch08-09", "key": "ac344e90becb25cf", "label": "Random-looking yet repeatable fluid flows should be producible", "statement": "Because turbulent randomness is generated intrinsically by large-scale motion, carefully prepared experiments should produce fluid flows that look random yet are essentially the same on every repeated run.", "quote": "with sufficiently careful preparation it should be possible to produce patterns of flow that seem quite random but that are nevertheless effectively repeatable—so that they look essentially the same on every successive run of an experiment.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 8: Implications for Everyday Systems", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.513, "truth": 0.26, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.3 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.22 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.71, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAz6hO42CFWR-Ac5HCLRvFKxCD0g7DArBT6AXgpzX-hvM", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch08-10", "key": "c72b18e067a39b87", "label": "Evolution cannot have found optimal solutions to complex fitness constraints", "statement": "Since iterative random search converges only for simple constraints, the roughly trillion generations of life on Earth are insufficient to find optimal solutions to complex constraints, so most features of organisms are merely good-enough solutions rather than optima.", "quote": "it is still completely implausible that the trillion or so generations of organisms since the beginning of life on Earth would be sufficient to allow optimal solutions to be found to constraints of any significant complexity.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 8: Implications for Everyday Systems", "kind": "general-principle", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.376, "truth": 0.62, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.76 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.48 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.655, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA7Emhamv5qbYFtupUfre4MMDjMGfVsBAmy2ikeBqHNlI", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch08-11", "key": "0f4c4aaadc167b3e", "label": "Most biological complexity comes from randomly chosen programs, not natural selection", "statement": "Most of the complexity seen in biological organisms originates from the abstract fact that many randomly chosen programs produce complex behavior, rather than from adaptation or careful optimization by natural selection.", "quote": "the vast majority of the complexity we see in biological systems actually has its origin in the purely abstract fact that among randomly chosen programs many give rise to complex behavior.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 8: Implications for Everyday Systems", "kind": "model-of-nature", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.278, "truth": 0.11, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.12 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.1 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.665, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAVqN2kKwT0L4EnqydwGblosHqDWwMAAAPmREl-S7s4Iw", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch08-12", "key": "eb408d0ecd76f858", "label": "Complexity of individual organism parts has been roughly constant for eons", "statement": "The complexity of individual parts of organisms, such as textures and other morphological features, was already present in early fossils and has not changed much in at least several hundred million years.", "quote": "there is every indication that the level of complexity of individual parts of organisms has not changed much in at least several hundred million years.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 8: Implications for Everyday Systems", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.524, "truth": 0.52, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.62 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.42 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.685, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAdKcv4RC07FZ_RWQBo47lCXSNNpirCRjvbmU8X0gEfM4", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch08-13", "key": "9dd51d6164c741e1", "label": "Genetic programs for complex pigment patterns are short", "statement": "The genetic programs that generate patterns such as those on mollusc shells are short, as indicated by the large variety of patterns within species, and molecular biology should be able to isolate them and confirm their brevity.", "quote": "Modern molecular biology should soon be able to isolate the specific programs responsible, say, for the patterns on mollusc shells, and see explicitly how long they are. But there are already indications that these programs are quite short.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 8: Implications for Everyday Systems", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.426, "truth": 0.5, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.66 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.34 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.7, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAP0yApYf7_i2wxX-8tfwvDRgcoPf0lywMBTMg0eO1ND0", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch08-14", "key": "262bac0316fbb036", "label": "Natural selection works meaningfully only on simple behavior", "statement": "The power of natural selection is limited: it can systematically optimize only systems or parts of systems whose behavior is simple, and achieves very little when behavior is complex.", "quote": "what I suspect is that in the end natural selection can only operate in a meaningful way on systems or parts of systems whose behavior is in some sense quite simple.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 8: Implications for Everyday Systems", "kind": "general-principle", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.336, "truth": 0.145, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.15 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.14 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.665, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RALs_BDEXhCEBKxqvbjdC9vAWpKu9ByBjcvSloOE8Ky9A", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch08-15", "key": "206ee47d345bd673", "label": "Natural selection makes organisms simpler and more engineering-like", "statement": "Rather than generating complexity, the main effect of natural selection is to make biological systems avoid complexity, favoring simple, somewhat independent components with smoothly adjustable properties, as in engineered systems.", "quote": "my strong suspicion is that in fact the main effect of natural selection is almost exactly the opposite: it tends to make biological systems avoid complexity, and be more like systems in engineering.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 8: Implications for Everyday Systems", "kind": "model-of-nature", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.351, "truth": 0.21, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.22 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.2 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.65, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAkLvG0rjALc0OPJox4x6S2pWtWJf_n7lQOtrJLPQNDrg", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch08-16", "key": "11fef68a025948eb", "label": "Features that change fastest between species are the most complex", "statement": "Among related species, the features that differ most rapidly (such as pigmentation and texture patterns) are the ones that show the most obvious complexity, while features under natural selection stay nearly constant.", "quote": "it is almost always those features which change most rapidly between species that show the most obvious signs of complexity.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 8: Implications for Everyday Systems", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.52, "truth": 0.34, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.38 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.3 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.675, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAkgdllKQSIZbslEFwBD5I0vr9qY8rPEkkF2M6XXj8gR0", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch08-17", "key": "d05dc7fe92a288ee", "label": "Convergent structures recur because they are common among programs, not optimal", "statement": "When similar complex structures arise independently in very different organisms, this is because those structures are common outputs of programs of certain kinds, not because they are optimal.", "quote": "the reason certain structures appear repeatedly is just that they are somehow common among programs of certain kinds", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 8: Implications for Everyday Systems", "kind": "model-of-nature", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.347, "truth": 0.21, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.24 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.18 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.67, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAnNFCbnCVvJ-xTSMH4gRZWdm_9KVM9GFKk9vE66z8-L4", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch08-18", "key": "d8b4646769290ebf", "label": "Natural selection does not inherently drive organisms toward more elaborate structure", "statement": "Natural selection does not inevitably produce progressively more elaborate organisms; increases in complexity in the fossil record come from random mutations that add features without fatal flaws, while selection's systematic effect is to simplify.", "quote": "It is certainly not the case—as is often assumed—that natural selection somehow inevitably leads to organisms with progressively more elaborate structures and progressively larger numbers of parts.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 8: Implications for Everyday Systems", "kind": "model-of-nature", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.484, "truth": 0.5, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.54 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.46 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.68, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAklxI9L0z1Y3BWnfdR9xn0yk8bKbbcBBBBf_1W8cN6Kg", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch08-19", "key": "fde3294a5fb61623", "label": "Plant branching patterns come from simple substitution-system growth rules", "statement": "The overall branching patterns of plants, from algae to ferns to trees and flowering plants, are produced by simple growth rules in which each stem tip repeatedly splits into smaller copies of itself at fixed relative lengths and angles.", "quote": "And no doubt it is from such simple rules of growth that most such overall branching patterns come.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 8: Implications for Everyday Systems", "kind": "model-of-nature", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.573, "truth": 0.75, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.76 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.74 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.7, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAL4JCJOqYCSJBojEMI7b6iYuLVHJKaaUlOAghArxXTAA", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch08-20", "key": "a0be295ba4e2192f", "label": "Leaf shapes arise from the same simple branching process as whole plants", "statement": "The shapes of leaves, from smooth to prickly to irregular, are produced by the same simple branching growth process that governs overall plant forms, and small changes in its parameters can change leaf shape greatly.", "quote": "I strongly suspect that in fact the very same simple process of branching is ultimately responsible both for the overall forms of plants, and for the shapes of their leaves.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 8: Implications for Everyday Systems", "kind": "model-of-nature", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.506, "truth": 0.35, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.42 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.28 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.68, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAOBmIUV0FvIxwSuB8feGGvndxjSJw8vntmNYpRHnwHJA", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch08-21", "key": "e466e4c79fb38bdb", "label": "The 137.5° phyllotaxis angle results from a simple inhibition growth process", "statement": "The near-universal 137.5° (golden-ratio) angle between successive plant organs is not an optimization found by natural selection but the inevitable result of a simple process where each new element forms where a chemical concentration is highest and depletes it nearby.", "quote": "And instead what I strongly suspect is that the patterns are just inevitable consequences of a rather simple process of growth not unlike one that was already discussed, at least in general terms, nearly a century ago.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 8: Implications for Everyday Systems", "kind": "model-of-nature", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [ { "id": "vogel-phyllotaxis", "relation": "models", "note": "Uses Douady-Couder's inhibitory-potential process, from which the 137.5 degree divergence emerges, implementing the claim that the golden angle results from a simple inhibition growth process.", "label": "Vogel (1979) & Douady–Couder (1992) Golden-Angle Phyllotaxis faithfully reproduces Helianthus annuus (sunflower capitulum) morphology", "organism": "Helianthus annuus (sunflower capitulum)", "verdict": "faithful", "score": 85.9, "thompson_verdict": null, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAcRE51tanrTbboavwB19UkoRpMpor9KW1tTj516GdcR0", "registry": "production", "report": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/morphoeval/kg/2026-10-18-phyllotaxis-audit-v2/REPORT.md" } ], "thumbnail": { "file": "docs/thumbs/vogel-phyllotaxis.jpg", "morpholib": "vogel-phyllotaxis", "source": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/docs/media/vogel_phyllotaxis_growth.gif" }, "testability": 0.621, "truth": 0.8, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.72 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.88 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.73, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAS_-q5gripoI5gSkmrIpWb05A_bId9MSS_bHCmA7PZ00", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch08-22", "key": "8f223aa134242e00", "label": "Simple growth-rate models generate essentially all mollusc shell shapes", "statement": "Mollusc shell shapes result from secreting material at different rates around the shell opening, and essentially every form produced by a simple growth model with a few parameters is found in some real mollusc.", "quote": "The remarkable fact illustrated on the next page is that essentially all of them are found in some kind of mollusc or another.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 8: Implications for Everyday Systems", "kind": "model-of-nature", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [ { "id": "raup-shell-coiling", "relation": "models", "note": "Raup's W/D/T/S generator is a simple few-parameter growth model that spans the mollusc shell morphospace, formalising the claim without measuring real shells.", "label": "Raup shell coiling morphospace faithfully reproduces Coiled molluscs in general; the six panels are labelled cf. Nautilus, Turritella, an ammonite, Conus, Cerithium, Helix (resemblance, not specimens) morphology", "organism": "Coiled molluscs in general", "verdict": "mostly faithful", "score": 64.1, "thompson_verdict": null, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA-CE9Qut4D5nyFV8zSUKYzAr6MT0gYPTsqlg_5eZwNTw", "registry": "unconfirmed", "report": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/morphoeval/kg/2026-10-17-raup-audit/REPORT.md" } ], "thumbnail": { "file": "docs/thumbs/raup-shell-coiling.jpg", "morpholib": "raup-shell-coiling", "source": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/docs/media/raup_shell_coiling.gif" }, "testability": 0.648, "truth": 0.805, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.85 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.76 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.725, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAmQ8vfOQx418Ofvp6iXf21Je43P1OwWtjGHWLNRq70hs", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch08-23", "key": "69f9b8f55866226e", "label": "Animal embryos develop hierarchically because of a fixed length scale", "statement": "Because regions of tissue a few tenths of a millimeter across subdivide into regions using different sections of the genetic program (controlled by chemical gradients and homeobox genes), embryos necessarily develop hierarchically, e.g. a leg region before a foot region.", "quote": "The existence of a fixed length scale at which such processes occur then almost inevitably implies that an embryo must develop in a somewhat hierarchical fashion.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 8: Implications for Everyday Systems", "kind": "model-of-nature", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.609, "truth": 0.63, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.58 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.68 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.735, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAj-2b8e8rbXrKsTK8Axoz_EcJ8DaDHAw3wAHwyHXvUUM", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch08-24", "key": "9064352688741bd4", "label": "Shape differences between related animals come from differing growth rates", "statement": "Differences in shape among related animals are largely due to different patterns of relative growth rates of their parts, so their shapes are related by simple smooth geometric transformations.", "quote": "differences between the shapes and forms of animals may often be due in large part merely to different patterns in the rates of growth for their different parts.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 8: Implications for Everyday Systems", "kind": "model-of-nature", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.626, "truth": 0.64, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.72 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.56 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.725, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAZGNVkMVA3B8M0HvZLcd9ExwMFa85PdpGhLVXIo-YVeU", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch08-25", "key": "ffe12d66c8c32c22", "label": "Diversity of plant and animal forms comes from different simple rules", "statement": "Most of the diversity and complexity in the forms of plants and animals arises because slightly different, essentially randomly picked simple growth rules lead to very different and often complex behavior.", "quote": "it is this basic phenomenon that I suspect is responsible for most of the diversity and complexity that we see in the forms of plants and animals.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 8: Implications for Everyday Systems", "kind": "model-of-nature", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.286, "truth": 0.235, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.25 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.22 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.665, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA79lCfrkrHi3Rz9HPfCAS-rOV-nZbVnup2TawwWMTpEQ", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch08-26", "key": "e84a2178be48d59b", "label": "Mollusc shell pigment patterns are generated like one-dimensional cellular automata", "statement": "Pigmentation patterns on mollusc shells are produced line by line by pigment-secreting elements whose new states depend on neighbors' previous states, so the range of shell patterns closely matches the patterns of the simplest symmetric one-dimensional cellular automata.", "quote": "comparing the patterns in these pictures with patterns on actual mollusc shells, one notices the remarkable fact that the range of patterns that occur in the two cases is extremely similar.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 8: Implications for Everyday Systems", "kind": "model-of-nature", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [ { "id": "wolfram-conus-textile-rule30", "relation": "models", "note": "Implements Conus textile pigmentation as a one-dimensional cellular automaton (Rule 30, Meinhardt-Klingler), the line-by-line mechanism the claim proposes.", "label": "Wolfram (1984) Rule 30 & Meinhardt–Klingler (1987) Conus textile Pigmentation faithfully reproduces Conus textile Linnaeus, 1758 (textile cone snail) morphology", "organism": "Conus textile Linnaeus, 1758 (textile cone snail)", "verdict": "faithful", "score": 87.3, "thompson_verdict": null, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA2G31b0Bg50syNWFhJ5Aj8U2-KZQ5QizNhMjRl1uSb_g", "registry": "unconfirmed", "report": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/morphoeval/kg/2026-10-18-conus-audit/REPORT.md" } ], "thumbnail": { "file": "docs/thumbs/wolfram-conus-textile-rule30.jpg", "morpholib": "wolfram-conus-textile-rule30", "source": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/docs/media/conus_textile_rule30.gif" }, "testability": 0.573, "truth": 0.755, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.74 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.77 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.72, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAY803rmHzdwC8VSw2Xyf0lCi8QWA8wJCn44l4xG-_VXk", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch08-27", "key": "04327d142e373700", "label": "Mollusc shell pattern rules are effectively random, not optimized", "statement": "The rules generating mollusc shell patterns are effectively chosen at random from the simplest possibilities rather than optimized against predators or for mates, as shown by many species whose patterns are hidden by opaque skin throughout life.", "quote": "these patterns are instead generated by rules that are in effect chosen at random from among a collection of the simplest possibilities.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 8: Implications for Everyday Systems", "kind": "model-of-nature", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.424, "truth": 0.36, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.3 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.42 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.67, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAdc1YiO7BeAgGweikpXVA7CYwVHY4x1uK_Tdc_YGBSEc", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch08-28", "key": "a7d77f717970ae91", "label": "Animal coat patterns arise from local activation and longer-range inhibition rules", "statement": "The few recurring kinds of animal pigmentation patterns (spots, labyrinths, stripes) are produced by a simple rule in which each element tends to match the average color of nearby elements and oppose that of elements further away, as in a two-dimensional cellular automaton.", "quote": "The idea is that when a pattern forms, the color of each element will tend to be the same as the average color of nearby elements, and opposite to the average color of elements further away.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 8: Implications for Everyday Systems", "kind": "model-of-nature", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [ { "id": "manukyan-ocellated-lizard-ca", "relation": "models", "note": "Produces the ocellated-lizard scale labyrinth with a Kondo-Asai activation-inhibition system reduced to a hexagonal outer-totalistic cellular automaton, the local-match/longer-range-oppose rule the claim proposes.", "label": "Manukyan et al. (2017) Nature hexagonal skin-scale border thickness reduction & outer-totalistic cellular automaton — 3D skin-volume reaction-diffusion (Pass 3) faithfully reproduces Ocellated / jeweled lizard (Timon lepidus) dorsal skin scale labyrinth morphology", "organism": "Ocellated / jeweled lizard (Timon lepidus) dorsal skin scale labyrinth", "verdict": "faithful", "score": 83.6, "thompson_verdict": null, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA8e10SxbeyH-WCW30aJZOgI0aMiHjux9vZ2AkoAv9Jyo", "registry": "production", "report": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/morphoeval/kg/2026-10-19-ocellated-lizard-ca-audit-v3/REPORT.md" }, { "id": "murray-mammalian-coat-markings", "relation": "models", "note": "Generates leopard spots/rosettes and tail rings from a short-range activation, long-range inhibition reaction-diffusion prepattern, the mechanism the claim proposes for coat patterns.", "label": "Murray (1981) Thomas substrate-inhibition reaction-diffusion pre-pattern, conical tail spot-to-ring transition & P1 surface-FEM felid body faithfully reproduces African leopard (Panthera pardus) coat rosettes and tapered tail markings morphology", "organism": "African leopard (Panthera pardus) coat rosettes and tapered tail markings", "verdict": "faithful", "score": 84.2, "thompson_verdict": null, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA1AHuKB_8LkikMxpnscZQXGybM7Ft3in55CdbkARRUL8", "registry": "production", "report": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/morphoeval/kg/2026-10-19-mammalian-coat-markings-audit-v3/REPORT.md" }, { "id": "nakamasu-zebrafish-three-cell-stripes", "relation": "models", "note": "Short-range melanophore-xanthophore repulsion with long-range support is a local-activation / longer-range-inhibition rule producing zebrafish stripes and the leopard spot-to-stripe morphospace.", "label": "Nakamasu et al. (2009) 3-variable zebrafish pigment-cell reaction-diffusion network + Volkening-Sandstede iridophore S/L agents on a growing flank, laser-ablation polarity & leopard (cx41.8) spot-to-stripe morphospace faithfully reproduces Zebrafish (Danio rerio) melanophore-xanthophore-iridophore flank stripes, juvenile (stage PB) to adult morphology", "organism": "Zebrafish (Danio rerio) melanophore-xanthophore-iridophore flank stripes, juvenile (stage PB) to adult", "verdict": "faithful", "score": 90.6, "thompson_verdict": null, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAESZVF8XopmJW2S0D8UXgWbI_OFIm_FVMo1cJAjFl6OM", "registry": "production", "report": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/morphoeval/kg/2026-10-19-zebrafish-three-cell-stripes-audit-v3/REPORT.md" }, { "id": "painter-chemotactic-stripe-splitting", "relation": "models", "note": "The Kondo-Asai activator-inhibitor kinetics are a local-activation, longer-range-inhibition rule producing animal stripe pigmentation, which is the mechanism this claim proposes for coat patterns.", "label": "Painter, Maini & Othmer (1999) Pomacanthus Turing-chemotaxis stripe doubling on a growing curved flank & Keller-Segel rippling with slime-trail tensor faithfully reproduces Pomacanthus semicirculatus juvenile pigment stripes (model target) & Myxococcus xanthus rippling cell populations (specimen) morphology", "organism": "Pomacanthus semicirculatus juvenile pigment stripes (model target) & Myxococcus xanthus rippling cell populations (specimen)", "verdict": "faithful", "score": 92.5, "thompson_verdict": null, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA7D6qW4GollGvBF4LbTWYp_1oqbHQbdxciNaCx-zCn0g", "registry": "production", "report": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/morphoeval/kg/2026-10-19-chemotactic-stripe-splitting-audit-v3/REPORT.md" }, { "id": "turing-gray-scott", "relation": "models", "note": "Reaction-diffusion with local activation and longer-range inhibition is the mechanism the claim proposes for animal spots and stripes, simulated here for fish skin.", "label": "Turing (1952), Pearson (1993) & Kondo-Asai (1995) reaction-diffusion morphogenesis faithfully reproduces Marine angelfish (Pomacanthus imperator) skin stripes, spotted boxfish (Ostracion meleagris) spots & Gray-Scott chemical patterns morphology", "organism": "Marine angelfish (Pomacanthus imperator) skin stripes, spotted boxfish (Ostracion meleagris) spots & Gray-Scott chemical patterns", "verdict": "faithful", "score": 85.5, "thompson_verdict": null, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAWduJefzfuvpurmEOEUlwPaB8ZDYtsxjP51oA6BtYuOk", "registry": "production", "report": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/morphoeval/kg/2026-10-19-turing-audit-v2/REPORT.md" }, { "id": "murray-bos-taurus-turing-wavelength", "relation": "tests", "note": "Holstein coat spotting is checked against the activator-inhibitor coat-pattern mechanism Wolfram says produces animal spots, and the hypothesis is reported as not supported.", "label": "Turing RD claim for Holstein coat spotting (tested negative hypothesis) faithfully reproduces Bos taurus (Holstein-Friesian, 10 specimens) morphology", "organism": "Bos taurus (Holstein-Friesian, 10 specimens)", "verdict": "mostly faithful", "score": 74.6, "thompson_verdict": null, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAtXAz-snj7Cj_FaWUUMcagskmw5GaJa2biZxCtyVyp5c", "registry": "production", "report": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/morphoeval/kg/2026-10-26-bos-taurus-turing-wavelength-audit-v7/REPORT.md" } ], "thumbnail": { "file": "docs/thumbs/manukyan-ocellated-lizard-ca.jpg", "morpholib": "manukyan-ocellated-lizard-ca", "source": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/docs/media/ocellated_lizard_ca_growth.gif" }, "testability": 0.569, "truth": 0.82, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.84 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.8 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.705, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAuE2VeD50EQqmQLJUBSRP2GKO326-iWbYxGii6FHzT14", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch08-29", "key": "c61b3e572069ae4f", "label": "Short-timescale market randomness comes from internal market dynamics", "statement": "Much of the apparent randomness in financial prices, especially on timescales of minutes or seconds, is generated by the internal dynamics of trading entities interacting with one another, not by external news or changes in the value of the asset.", "quote": "particularly on short timescales much of the randomness that one sees is purely a consequence of internal dynamics in the market, and has little if anything to do with the nature or value of what is being traded.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 8: Implications for Everyday Systems", "kind": "model-of-nature", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.617, "truth": 0.83, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.88 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.78 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.72, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAVATIKUXVMUgnJ3dglMsA5j2h1FSAb590Rr_gOqzb7kc", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch08-30", "key": "b8236c33fa78aca5", "label": "Simple cellular automaton markets generate random-looking price series", "statement": "In a market modelled as a one-dimensional cellular automaton of buy/sell agents reacting to neighbors, any rule that lets information eventually propagate to all agents makes the running buy-minus-sell total show significant randomness.", "quote": "as soon as the underlying rule for the cellular automaton is such that information will eventually propagate from one entity to all others—in effect a minimal version of an efficient market hypothesis—it is essentially inevitable that running totals of numbers of cells will exhibit significant randomness.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 8: Implications for Everyday Systems", "kind": "computational-observation", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "mixed", "evidence_kind": "computational", "data_test": { "verdict": "mixed", "confidence": 0.6, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "computational", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/wolfram-nks/wolfram2002-ch08-30/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered. Family: all 256 elementary CA rules (Wolfram numbering), two colours, nearest neighbours. Propagation test (per rule): 20 trials; lattice of 1601 cells (non-wrapping: cells outside are fixed to the random background and the lattice is wide enough that the perturbation cannot reach the edge in 400 steps), random initial condition with density 1/2 from a fixed seed, second copy with the centre cell flipped; after 400 steps the damage width w = (rightmost differing cell - leftmost differing cell + 1) is recorded (0 if no cell differs); a rule is 'propagating' if w >= 100 (= 0.25 x 400, i.e. the damaged region grows linearly rather than staying bounded or merely moving) in at least 10 of 20 trials. Price-series test (per rule): ring of N = 400 cells, random initial condition density 1/2 from a fixed seed, discard 1000 transient steps, record d(t) = (#black - #white) for W = 4096 further steps; d(t) is 'significantly random' if (R1) it is not exactly periodic with any period p <= W/2 within the window and (R2) the first differences D(t) = d(t+1) - d(t), stored as int16, have plug-in marginal entropy H >= 1 bit and lzma (preset 9|EXTREME) compressed size >= 0.5 x H bits per sample. Calibration on controls: i.i.d. binomial counts give ratio 1.35, an AR(1) series 1.40, a period-97 series 0.09, a noiseless sinusoid 0.47. The claim PASSES if at least 90% of propagating rules are significantly random. Reported, not decisive: the fraction of non-propagating rules that are significantly random, and the list of propagating-but-not-random rules.", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered. The claim FAILS if fewer than 75% of propagating rules are significantly random (several counterexamples to 'essentially inevitable' inside the stated family). Between 75% and 90% the verdict is 'mixed'. If fewer than 5 rules are propagating under the definition the test is underpowered (inconclusive).", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: eca-market-model-family", "inference_method": "analysis.py evaluates all 256 rules. Damage spreading: 20 seeded random initial conditions on a 1601-cell open lattice, centre cell flipped in a copy, damage width after 400 steps; propagating if width >= 100 in >= 10 trials. Price series: ring of 400 cells, seeded random initial condition, 1000 transient steps, d(t) = #black - #white for 4096 steps; exact-periodicity scan over periods <= 2048; lzma compression of the int16 first differences compared with their plug-in marginal entropy. Per-rule values in derived/rules.csv; runtime about 1 minute.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.817, "truth": 0.36, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.2 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.52 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.82, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAoQrqMU4yw1zIWhz_V2Yxg5Hm4dKHYrZFuESlVh1Q5os", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch09-01", "key": "170fb234eab11c8e", "label": "A very simple program may underlie all of physics", "statement": "Underneath the known laws of physics there may be a single very simple program from which all known laws, and all the complexity of the universe, emerge.", "quote": "Underneath the laws of physics as we know them today it could be that there lies a very simple program from which all the known laws—and ultimately all the complexity we see in the universe—emerges.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 9: Fundamental Physics", "kind": "physical-hypothesis", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.103, "truth": 0.385, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.42 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.35 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.82, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAcdH-DMDEpfonBuUnPOQzHfrhfWe-LXbqFWlmPIgnO2M", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch09-02", "key": "6fa200be49749919", "label": "Reversible rules are rare among cellular automata", "statement": "Reversibility is rare among simple cellular automaton rules: only 6 of the 256 elementary two-color nearest-neighbor rules are reversible, and only 1800 of the 7,625,597,484,987 three-color nearest-neighbor rules are.", "quote": "There are a total of 7,625,597,484,987 cellular automata with three colors and nearest-neighbor rules, and searching through these one finds just 1800 that are reversible.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 9: Fundamental Physics", "kind": "mathematical", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": true, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "supports", "evidence_kind": "computational", "data_test": { "verdict": "supports", "confidence": 0.97, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "computational", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/wolfram-nks/wolfram2002-ch09-02/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered. An exhaustive enumeration with an exact injectivity test (pair graph of the de Bruijn graph: a rule is injective iff the pair graph has no cycle through an off-diagonal node and no diagonal-to-diagonal path through off-diagonal nodes; used both as a sound pruning condition during depth-first assignment of the rule table and as the exact test at the leaves) yields exactly 6 reversible rules for k = 2, r = 1 and exactly 1800 for k = 3, r = 1. As a check of the method, the same program must give 62 for k = 2, r = 2 (NKS note 'Numbers of reversible rules'), and the 6 elementary rules must be {15, 51, 85, 170, 204, 240}. Also, every rule found must pass Wolfram's finite test (distinct successors for all periodic configurations of period <= 9, as his note says suffices for k = 3) and every rule not found that is sampled (10000 random balanced k = 3 rules) must fail it. 'Supports' requires the counts 6 and 1800 and the consistency checks.", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered. 'Refutes' if the exhaustive enumeration completes and gives a count other than 6 for k = 2, r = 1 or other than 1800 for k = 3, r = 1 (with the k = 2, r = 2 check giving 62, so the method is validated). If the k = 3 enumeration cannot be completed within the compute budget (about 1 hour), the verdict is 'mixed' or 'inconclusive' (reason: other) with the k = 2 result and a lower bound on the k = 3 count reported.", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: reversible-ca-enumeration-generator, nks-note-numbers-of-reversible-rules", "inference_method": "analysis.py compiles revca.c and runs the exhaustive depth-first enumeration of rule tables for (k,r) = (2,1), (2,2) and (3,1). Table entries are assigned in order of the period of their neighbourhood word; after each assignment the pair graph of the de Bruijn graph is built from definite edges (both labels assigned and equal) and the branch is cut if an off-diagonal cycle or a diagonal-to-diagonal path through off-diagonal nodes exists (both are sound: they witness two distinct configurations with the same image); the balance condition (each colour exactly k^(2r) times) also prunes. At a leaf the same test is exact. The 1800 rules found for k = 3 are then checked in Python with Wolfram's ReversibleQ (distinct successors of all cyclic configurations of length <= 9), 10000 random balanced k = 3 tables not in the list are checked to fail it, all 256 elementary rules are classified by both methods, and the k = 3 rules are grouped into symmetry families under colour permutations and reflection.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.912, "truth": 0.815, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.7 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.93 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.825, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA-yQpO49t5NAu3LOE5LjpiEEjVThLBD00k51Kx1cDyFY", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch09-03", "key": "b2d3a9a4798d7b43", "label": "Reversible systems can behave as complexly as any other", "statement": "Although only a tiny fraction of possible rules are reversible, reversible cellular automata can still produce behavior, including apparent randomness and localized structures, as complex as that of non-reversible systems.", "quote": "So in the end it seems that even though only a very small fraction of possible systems have the property of being reversible, such systems can still exhibit behavior just as complex as one sees anywhere else.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 9: Fundamental Physics", "kind": "computational-observation", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.766, "truth": 0.925, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.95 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.9 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.78, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAHrgRmE60oUH5CnGAdn3Su78Qix14OizkRFvohmNni6Y", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch09-04", "key": "6e819ca246b2f20b", "label": "Second Law holds because experiments cannot prepare randomness-decreasing states", "statement": "The Second Law of Thermodynamics is observed to hold because practical experiments can only set up initial conditions that are simple to describe and construct, and finding initial conditions of a reversible system that would lead to decreasing randomness requires computation as great as the system's own evolution.", "quote": "The consequence of this is that no reasonable experiment can ever involve setting up the kind of initial conditions that will lead to decreases in randomness, and that therefore all practical experiments will tend to show only increases in randomness.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 9: Fundamental Physics", "kind": "general-principle", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.462, "truth": 0.595, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.55 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.64 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.67, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAhkdn3cIB1LqTe1RKtSsgC3ENhdkWuGgWVaeXJlA_Dts", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch09-05", "key": "44471cd63bcafec7", "label": "Reversible rule 37R does not obey the Second Law", "statement": "The reversible cellular automaton rule 37R, even as a closed system, shows neither a systematic trend toward increasing randomness nor simple predictable behavior, but fluctuates indefinitely between more and less ordered states, so it does not obey the Second Law for practical purposes.", "quote": "There is, I believe, no choice but to conclude that for practical purposes rule 37R simply does not obey the Second Law.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 9: Fundamental Physics", "kind": "computational-observation", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.792, "truth": 0.58, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.48 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.68 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.79, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAnIcX7o_56WlMFRirtVVM0Cie2i2ecowm2UVoHVcuJhE", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch09-06", "key": "ddfc42133a1cb53f", "label": "Biological order arises from partitioning into separated compartments", "statement": "Biological systems can show increasing order despite the Second Law mainly because they partition into parts (cells, organisms) separated by membrane-like boundaries, within which organized behavior can occur while the boundary survives.", "quote": "This basic mechanism may well be the main one at work in many biological systems: each cell or each organism becomes separated from others, and while it survives, it can exhibit organized behavior.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 9: Fundamental Physics", "kind": "model-of-nature", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.426, "truth": 0.345, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.45 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.24 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.65, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAI30-6TJds4wEJc--4mP1dNlA29GJH769VMd_in6x_FM", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch09-07", "key": "3064d99e41f57f38", "label": "The Second Law is general but not universally valid", "statement": "The Second Law of Thermodynamics is an important and general principle but is not universally valid; many systems in nature behave like rule 37R and do not show a uniform trend toward increasing randomness.", "quote": "And indeed I strongly suspect that there are many systems in nature which behave in more or less the same way. The Second Law is an important and quite general principle—but it is not universally valid.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 9: Fundamental Physics", "kind": "general-principle", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.413, "truth": 0.28, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.28 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.28 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.65, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RATiFzZ6zGSipDsDDWdhwhWAuNKJmeWNE61NqZI_ODiYI", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch09-08", "key": "d3f0247106dc49df", "label": "Continuum behavior emerges from discrete randomizing conserving rules", "statement": "Smooth continuum behavior, such as diffusion of density, emerges from discrete systems whenever small-scale apparent randomness washes out individual details and conserved quantities constrain overall features, as shown by block cellular automata whose average density follows the diffusion equation.", "quote": "And much as in physical systems like fluids, what ultimately leads to this is the presence of small-scale apparent randomness that washes out details of individual cells or molecules—as well as of conserved quantities that force certain overall features not to change too quickly.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 9: Fundamental Physics", "kind": "computational-observation", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.761, "truth": 0.86, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.86 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.86 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.75, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAYJCWM3jrY17XcS-HEY25FrZCv0HEkWvoaRfR126tJuc", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch09-09", "key": "e02141f355c2b82e", "label": "The fundamental rule cannot be found by working backwards from known laws", "statement": "If the ultimate rule for the universe is simple, it cannot realistically be found by engineering it from observed features; the only practical method is to choose a straightforward representation and systematically search through large numbers of candidate rules.", "quote": "my guess is that the only realistic way to find the rule in the first place will be to start from some very straightforward representation, and then just to search through large numbers of possible rules in this representation.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 9: Fundamental Physics", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.146, "truth": 0.22, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.22 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.22 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.81, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAlq5cfTSOV2mkzjzAIe-fTTUqfgMj9Rf3OxOLyubB7h4", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch09-10", "key": "6ed9805de0a187d2", "label": "Space, gravity and quantum features are generic across many candidate rules", "statement": "Features such as seemingly continuous space and certain aspects of gravitation and quantum mechanics will emerge from many different underlying rules for the universe, whereas properties like the spectrum of particle masses, and perhaps the dimensionality of space, will be specific to particular rules.", "quote": "so also I suspect that properties such as the existence of seemingly continuous space, as well as certain features of gravitation and quantum mechanics, will emerge with many different possible underlying rules for the universe.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 9: Fundamental Physics", "kind": "physical-hypothesis", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.374, "truth": 0.22, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.18 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.26 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.62, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RArw1vo2vAj0f57ZAEe5nYdpTCGj9rjbmFLUfflYhb__Y", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch09-11", "key": "9752b7736ddf441e", "label": "Most known physical laws are emergent, not fundamental", "statement": "Most physical laws discovered so far are not fundamental but are emergent large-scale features of an underlying rule, so their simplicity says little about the simplicity of that rule.", "quote": "I strongly suspect that the vast majority of physical laws discovered so far are not truly fundamental, but are instead merely emergent features of the large-scale behavior of some ultimate underlying rule.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 9: Fundamental Physics", "kind": "general-principle", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.331, "truth": 0.605, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.63 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.58 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.68, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA5OdXN-uLXhvs3ogGFECiSF-F9bPNf5qZ-4ubanBXqvI", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch09-12", "key": "e223b05445a998f1", "label": "Space is discrete below the scales probed by experiment", "statement": "Space, though experimentally continuous down to about 10^-20 meters, is very likely made of discrete elements at still smaller scales, just as fluids and other seemingly continuous things have turned out to be.", "quote": "Particle physics experiments have shown that space acts as a continuum down to distances of around 10^(-20) meters—or a hundred thousandth the radius of a proton. But there is absolutely no reason to think that discrete elements will not be found at still smaller distances.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 9: Fundamental Physics", "kind": "physical-hypothesis", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.482, "truth": 0.275, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.25 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.3 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.795, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RArsDqbCrWLtaGXZQ3tQBMBNgUYd7D_hLXq6bZB2Rx5BE", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch09-13", "key": "17858536ff745304", "label": "Space and matter should be made of the same stuff", "statement": "In the simplest ultimate model of the universe there is no distinction between space and its contents: matter and everything else are made of the same underlying structure as space, unlike in a cellular automaton.", "quote": "But if the ultimate model for the universe is to be as simple as possible, then it seems much more plausible that both space and its contents should somehow be made of the same stuff—so that in a sense space becomes the only thing in the universe.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 9: Fundamental Physics", "kind": "physical-hypothesis", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.175, "truth": 0.33, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.42 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.24 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.745, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAmHq5ltPurF0WfHAYUfOAYT5LqXCsssiFdkybkiJodC4", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch09-14", "key": "5ca85780389f3f71", "label": "At the lowest level space is a network of nodes", "statement": "At the lowest level, space is most likely a giant network of nodes defined only by their connections (and it suffices to consider nodes with exactly three connections), with ordinary space emerging as a large-scale limit.", "quote": "And with this in mind I believe that what is by far the most likely is that at the lowest level space is in effect a giant network of nodes.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 9: Fundamental Physics", "kind": "physical-hypothesis", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.322, "truth": 0.14, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.12 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.16 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.625, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAUVrz7EVdIrY6WxGPbd5zHo21wXWFzKVy3911TcdmDWc", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch09-15", "key": "a0cbc3fae2b44e67", "label": "Network dimension is set by growth of node counts with distance", "statement": "A network corresponds to ordinary d-dimensional space exactly when the number of nodes within graph distance r of a node grows in a limiting sense like r^d; tree-like or randomly connected networks correspond to no finite dimension.", "quote": "in general the condition for a network to correspond to ordinary d-dimensional space is precisely that the total number of nodes that appear in it out to distance r grows in some limiting sense like r^d", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 9: Fundamental Physics", "kind": "mathematical", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": true, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "inconclusive", "evidence_kind": "computational", "data_test": { "verdict": "inconclusive", "confidence": 0.6, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "computational", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/wolfram-nks/wolfram2002-ch09-15/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered. Primary (necessity and the tree/random clause): for the hypercubic lattices Z^1, Z^2, Z^3, Z^4 the growth exponent, estimated as the ordinary-least-squares slope of log N(r) against log r over r in [R/2, R] (R = 32 for d <= 3, R = 20 for d = 4), lies within 0.15 of d; for the infinite 3-regular tree (R = 13) and for a random 4-regular graph on n = 300000 nodes (R = largest radius with N(R) <= n/10) the same slope estimated over r in [R/2, R] exceeds 5, and log N(r) is better fit (higher R^2) by a straight line in r than in log r. If every one of these six conditions holds the primary test passes. Secondary (sufficiency / 'precisely'): the Cayley graph of the discrete Heisenberg group with generators x, y and inverses is known not to be quasi-isometric to any Z^d (Pansu 1983), yet has polynomial growth of degree 4 (Bass 1972 / Guivarc'h 1973). If its measured slope over r in [12, 24] lies in [3.5, 4.5], then a network with r^d growth exists that does not correspond to ordinary d-dimensional space in the strict sense. Verdict rule: primary passes and secondary slope in [3.5, 4.5] -> 'mixed' (the necessity direction and the tree/random clause hold; the sufficiency direction holds only if 'corresponds to ordinary d-dimensional space' is read as 'has growth dimension d'); primary passes and secondary slope outside [3.5, 4.5] -> 'supports'.", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered. 'refutes' if any lattice exponent differs from d by more than 0.5, or if either the tree or the random 4-regular graph has a slope below 3 over the stated range (i.e. appears to have a small finite dimension), or if log N(r) for the tree or random graph is better fit by a straight line in log r than in r. Any other outcome (e.g. a lattice exponent off by between 0.15 and 0.5) -> 'inconclusive' with reason 'other'.", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: nks-ch09-15-graph-family-generator", "inference_method": "analysis.py generates each graph implicitly (lattices, tree, Heisenberg Cayley graph) or explicitly (configuration-model random 4-regular graph, n = 300000, numpy seed 20261031) and counts the closed ball N(r) around the origin by breadth-first search. The growth exponent is the OLS slope of log N(r) on log r over r in [R/2, R] with R = 32 (Z^1..Z^3), 20 (Z^4), 13 (tree), 8 (random graph; largest r with N(r) <= n/10) and 24 (Heisenberg). For the tree and random graph the fit of log N(r) linear in r is compared with the log-log fit by R^2. Exact closed-form ball sizes of Z^d were used post hoc to check the BFS counts and to show how the slope estimator converges.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.904, "truth": 0.79, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.78 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.8 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.82, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA070gGbLASBs5Eb3Y4MqeIxZR7_xOHbCTnF4XOd4_4OI", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch09-16", "key": "52dee3b69a95f2d2", "label": "Observers perceive time only through the causal network of events", "statement": "An observer embedded in a system such as a mobile automaton cannot see its individual update steps; all the observer can perceive is the network of causal relationships between updating events, so perceived time and spacetime derive purely from that causal network, and sequential updating can appear as synchronized parallel evolution.", "quote": "The most they will be able to tell is that a certain network of causal relationships exists—and their perception of time must therefore derive purely from the properties of this network.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 9: Fundamental Physics", "kind": "physical-hypothesis", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.592, "truth": 0.525, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.35 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.7 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.68, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA8LuCMNsMcxmL_Q1z5qqFA1GslFZ7L04_D9pMXYIk-yQ", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch09-17", "key": "9720246c3cc0e989", "label": "Non-overlapping replacement rules give update-order-independent causal networks", "statement": "A substitution system whose rules replace only blocks that can never overlap themselves or each other always yields the same causal network regardless of the order in which replacements are applied (the property Wolfram calls causal invariance).", "quote": "And any substitution system whose rules specify replacements only for blocks such as these is guaranteed to yield the same causal network regardless of the order in which replacements are performed.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 9: Fundamental Physics", "kind": "mathematical", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": true, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "supports", "evidence_kind": "computational", "data_test": { "verdict": "supports", "confidence": 0.93, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "computational", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/wolfram-nks/wolfram2002-ch09-17/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered: among all enumerated (rule set, initial string) pairs whose rule set is syntactically non-overlapping and which admit at least two distinct complete evolutions, 100% have exactly one causal-network isomorphism class (and one final string) over all complete evolutions; and at least 10% of the overlapping rule sets exhibit at least two non-isomorphic causal networks for some initial string (otherwise the test has no discriminating power and the verdict is 'inconclusive', reason 'not-operationalizable').", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered: at least one non-overlapping (rule set, initial string) pair whose complete evolutions produce two or more non-isomorphic causal networks.", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: shrinking-substitution-systems-2-letters-exhaustive", "inference_method": "analysis.py enumerates all 2305 one- and two-rule systems over {A,B} with lhs length 1-3 and strictly shorter rhs, classifies each syntactically as non-overlapping (37 systems; lhs sets {A}, {B}, {A,B}, {AB}, {BA}, {AAB}, {ABB}, {BAA}, {BBA}) or overlapping (2268), and for each of the 62 initial strings of length 1-5 generates every complete evolution by depth-first search over all possible replacement choices, tracking element identities so that each event is identified by (rule, consumed elements) and the causal network by its identity-labelled edges. Networks from different orders are compared first for identity and then, if they differ, up to isomorphism by brute force over event permutations. A supplementary (not pre-registered) run covers all 127 non-overlapping systems with lhs length up to 4 (which includes genuinely non-overlapping pairs such as {AAB, BBBA} and {AABB, BBAA}) from all 126 initial strings of length 1-6. Run time about 3 s.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.941, "truth": 0.895, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.91 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.88 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.885, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA7Nno0OVMcHbF95UTC1CpEa3WmHJ33d4e0BGE7uoG9Hg", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch09-18", "key": "b8834c58bd10dd19", "label": "The universe's rules likely yield a unique causal network", "statement": "Although the universe has no global clock and its rules may be applicable in arbitrary order, its actual rules most likely have the property of always yielding the same causal network, and so a unique perceived history.", "quote": "it still tends to be my suspicion that there is not—and that in fact the particular rules followed by the universe do in the end have the property that they always yield the same causal network.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 9: Fundamental Physics", "kind": "physical-hypothesis", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.29, "truth": 0.26, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.24 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.28 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.625, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RADLHXAZx9bnsWPXlkA7vdfMEtKMXenmen6_cvSGScbNs", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch09-19", "key": "acce409ac909458e", "label": "Small-scale randomness in the network makes space robustly 3D", "statement": "The ultimate rules for the universe will produce networks that look largely random at small scales, and this randomness is what allows a definite and robust dimensionality of 3 to emerge for space.", "quote": "my expectation is that they will give rise to networks that on a small scale look largely random. But this very randomness will most likely be what for example allows a definite and robust value of 3 to emerge for the dimensionality of space", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 9: Fundamental Physics", "kind": "physical-hypothesis", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.374, "truth": 0.11, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.1 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.12 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.635, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAoNX4xIpM_0sL1JSWmELqPEVik21p52WV60EXhBfEDtI", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch09-20", "key": "c6a5337426d1ae23", "label": "Elementary length and time are tiny and their ratio is light speed", "statement": "Each connection in the causal network of the universe corresponds to an identical elementary distance (perhaps about 10^-35 meters) and elementary time (perhaps about 10^-43 seconds), whose ratio is a fixed speed identified with the speed of light.", "quote": "One may guess that this elementary distance is around 10^(-35) meters, and that the elementary time interval is around 10^(-43) seconds. But whatever these values are, a crucial point is that their ratio must be a fixed speed, and we can identify this with the speed of light.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 9: Fundamental Physics", "kind": "physical-hypothesis", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.511, "truth": 0.275, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.19 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.36 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.75, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA3AZua6nNap2IAcbqsXdR2dDsE507fmsXbNhk7wUbseU", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch09-21", "key": "cb614fee09806962", "label": "Causal invariance yields special relativity", "statement": "If the underlying rules of the universe are causal invariant, then slices through the causal network at different angles, corresponding to different uniform velocities, are all governed by the same rules, so physics is the same regardless of uniform motion and the standard phenomena of special relativity such as time dilation follow.", "quote": "And the crucial point is that whenever the underlying system is causal invariant the exact same underlying rules will account for what one sees in slices at different angles. And what this means is that in effect the same rules will apply regardless of how fast one is going.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 9: Fundamental Physics", "kind": "physical-hypothesis", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.627, "truth": 0.42, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.52 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.32 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.69, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RATc31LSo4fjuR4pPWphtNvg-h8qS1YUeCO0WEakuqsZc", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch09-22", "key": "a6dc42f2eecd1924", "label": "Elementary particles are persistent localized structures in the network", "statement": "Elementary particles are analogs of the localized structures seen in class 4 cellular automata: persistent structures (such as tangles or non-planar cores) in the network of space, so that the fundamental rules need make no reference to particular particles.", "quote": "An immediate possibility that I suspect is actually not too far from the mark is that such particles are analogs of the localized structures that we saw earlier in this book in systems like the class 4 cellular automata shown below.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 9: Fundamental Physics", "kind": "physical-hypothesis", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.378, "truth": 0.215, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.27 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.16 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.68, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAa0CxaBDXjmj3Hx286cikz5SRvBW2BQPSSDo2WhRs4xM", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch09-23", "key": "0526b6fd1b269262", "label": "Fundamental particle masses may still have simple ratios", "statement": "Although observed elementary particle masses are not in simple ratios (unlike electric charges), truly fundamental particle masses may still have simple relations, because observed masses include varying amounts of interaction energy.", "quote": "But despite such results, it is still conceivable that there could in the end be simple relations between truly fundamental particle masses—since it turns out that the masses that have actually been observed in effect also include varying amounts of interaction energy.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 9: Fundamental Physics", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.625, "truth": 0.34, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.38 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.3 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.68, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAN_q1POYgTfF0SBbymRJ3HwuJs8aIcVw4W2IBEsUAo2s", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch09-24", "key": "fc0b358bc1a9880d", "label": "Network curvature appears in node counts via the Ricci scalar", "statement": "In a large network approximating d-dimensional space, the leading correction to the number of nodes reached within distance r is proportional to the Ricci scalar curvature times r^(d+1), so curvature can be determined purely from network connectivity.", "quote": "But in fact the leading correction to the number of nodes reached is always quite simple: it is just proportional to what is called the Ricci scalar curvature, multiplied by r^(d + 1).", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 9: Fundamental Physics", "kind": "mathematical", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": true, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "supports", "evidence_kind": "computational", "data_test": { "verdict": "supports", "confidence": 0.85, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "computational", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/wolfram-nks/wolfram2002-ch09-24/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered. Random geometric graphs with identical node density (3183 per unit area in d = 2, 7600 per unit volume in d = 3) and connection radius (geodesic epsilon = 0.045 in d = 2, 0.086 in d = 3, mean degree about 20) on: flat torus (R = 0), unit 2-sphere (R = 2), 2-sphere of radius 1.5 (R = 8/9), hyperbolic plane of curvature -1 (R = -2; sampled within hyperbolic radius 1.8, sources within 0.2 of the centre), flat 3-torus (R = 0) and unit 3-sphere (R = 6); 3 independent graphs per geometry, 500 BFS sources per graph. Let S_g(r) be the mean number of nodes at hop distance r, s(r) the mean geodesic distance of hop-r nodes measured in the flat graph of the same dimension, and Q_g(r) = S_g(r)/S_flat(r) - 1. Fit range: hops r with 0.25 <= s(r) <= 0.7. (a) Sign: Q_g(r) < 0 for every r in the fit range for the three positively curved geometries and > 0 for the hyperbolic plane. (b) Exponent: the least-squares slope of log|S_g(r) - S_flat(r)| against log r over the fit range lies within d+1 +/- 0.6 for every curved geometry. (c) Proportionality to R: the coefficient k_g of the through-origin fit Q_g(r) = k_g s(r)^2 over the fit range satisfies 0.7 <= k_g / (-R_g/(6d)) <= 1.3 for every curved geometry, and k(unit sphere)/k(sphere 1.5) is within 30% of 2.25. 'Supports' requires (a), (b) and (c).", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered. 'Refutes' if the sign in (a) is wrong for any geometry over the fit range, or if any exponent in (b) lies outside [d, d+2], or if any ratio in (c) lies outside [0.4, 2.5] (the correction is not proportional to the Ricci scalar with the continuum coefficient). Other combinations (e.g. correct sign and exponent but coefficient off by 30-60%) are 'mixed'.", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: rgg-constant-curvature-generator", "inference_method": "analysis.py builds, for 3 seeds each, random geometric graphs with density 3183 and epsilon 0.045 on the flat 2-torus (40000 nodes), unit 2-sphere (40000), 2-sphere of radius 1.5 (90000) and hyperbolic plane (curvature -1, disk of hyperbolic radius 2.2, 71356 nodes), and with density 7600 and epsilon 0.086 on the flat 3-torus and unit 3-sphere (150018 nodes each); runs BFS from 500 sources per graph (hyperbolic: sources within hyperbolic radius 1.0 of the centre), averages the shell counts S(r), measures on the flat graphs the mean geodesic radius s(r) of hop-r nodes, and over hops with 0.25 <= s(r) <= 0.7 computes the relative correction Q(r) = S_curved/S_flat - 1, its sign, the log-log slope of S_curved - S_flat against r, and the through-origin coefficient k in Q = k s(r)^2 compared with the continuum value -R/(6d).", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.912, "truth": 0.11, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.12 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.1 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.86, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAe9SDz0ZP50eC8Hn5rEmRoXlTw3ay4s6Kg9DXUPYSKhI", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch09-25", "key": "26d3b6faf7d1d78d", "label": "Causal invariant dimension-preserving network rules give Einstein equations", "statement": "Network replacement rules that are causal invariant and maintain a fixed number of dimensions will almost inevitably produce large-scale behavior close to the vacuum Einstein equations of general relativity, analogous to how Navier–Stokes behavior emerges from cellular automaton fluids.", "quote": "But I suspect that if one has replacement rules that are causal invariant and that in effect successfully maintain a fixed number of dimensions they will almost inevitably lead to behavior that follows something close to the Einstein equations.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 9: Fundamental Physics", "kind": "mathematical", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": true, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.455, "truth": 0.19, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.08 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.3 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.63, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAaTJMSPg3OeIIUZopH3cq0LxXboMdMQhWWJGz_lzjBp0", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch09-26", "key": "cf2bcc1b9fff5be2", "label": "Network-based programs will reproduce the key features of quantum theory", "statement": "Discrete network models of the universe with causal invariance will ultimately turn out to exhibit many if not all of the key features of quantum theory, even though they are not set up in terms of its standard formalism.", "quote": "And in fact it is my strong suspicion that the kinds of programs that I have discussed in the past few sections will actually in the end turn out to show many if not all the key features of quantum theory.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 9: Fundamental Physics", "kind": "physical-hypothesis", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.362, "truth": 0.2, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.18 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.22 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.62, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAzjW-_oJl2fFwGTZUjyj-_EDfA_wsZSYymtbB79iYZ5k", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch09-27", "key": "7869fb01432e84ee", "label": "Network threads let deterministic models produce quantum correlations", "statement": "The quantum correlations between distant particles usually taken to rule out definite underlying processes can arise in a deterministic network model, because particles created together stay linked by threads of connections that bypass ordinary three-dimensional space.", "quote": "And the basic reason for this is that if the universe is a network then it can in a sense easily contain threads that continue to connect particles even when the particles get far apart in terms of ordinary space.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 9: Fundamental Physics", "kind": "physical-hypothesis", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.563, "truth": 0.35, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.12 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.58 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.675, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAQ_6RDCMdANqynSZ_3hckKt5X20iOZberr5r4fTTEUY8", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch10-01", "key": "71ce342518eaf997", "label": "Perception and analysis are themselves carried out by simple programs", "statement": "The basic mechanisms underlying human perception and scientific analysis, like the mechanisms behind many natural processes, can be captured by simple programs based on simple rules.", "quote": "the evidence we have suggests that the basic mechanisms at work can once again successfully be captured by simple programs based on simple rules.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 10: Processes of Perception and Analysis", "kind": "general-principle", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.447, "truth": 0.49, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.56 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.42 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.605, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAqJ4I3ZNl2ApVDJ4CrmHWJjEU7Wb_vVFrZc3ulgMKb0c", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch10-02", "key": "0ccae5d3f9d0a32f", "label": "Recovering a simple rule from its complex output is usually very hard", "statement": "Although inferring the generating procedure from observed behavior is fairly easy for the rules of traditional mathematics, for general simple programs it is often extremely difficult, because their complex output shows no obvious trace of its simple origin.", "quote": "But for the more general rules that I discuss in this book it appears to often be extremely difficult. For even though the rules may be simple, the behavior they produce is often highly complex, and shows absolutely no obvious trace of its simple origins.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 10: Processes of Perception and Analysis", "kind": "computational-observation", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.693, "truth": 0.91, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.94 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.88 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.735, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA5bJ54HXSZ_ysEJFUtaugAqiilu7K4G34BVCZYBT9yqE", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch10-03", "key": "e78969d0e30de1ee", "label": "Randomness cannot usefully be defined only by the existence of short descriptions", "statement": "Defining something as random only when no short description of it exists at all is too restrictive and uncomputable (it would mean deterministic rules can never generate randomness), so any useful definition of randomness must refer to how short descriptions are to be found.", "quote": "Indeed, what I suspect is that ultimately no useful definition of randomness can be based solely on the issue of what short descriptions of something may in principle exist.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 10: Processes of Perception and Analysis", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.676, "truth": 0.68, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.68 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.68 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.73, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA1E8wdGR_xPpnqcfPMZmy_rISXGApnGkJNDTEETJSHZE", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch10-04", "key": "be78ec85f0e0a3d1", "label": "Something is random if essentially no simple program detects regularities in it", "statement": "Since essentially all standard methods of perception and analysis are based on simple programs, something should be considered random whenever essentially no simple program succeeds in detecting regularities in it.", "quote": "something should be considered to be random whenever there is essentially no simple program that can succeed in detecting regularities in it.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 10: Processes of Perception and Analysis", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.147, "truth": 0.66, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.56 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.76 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.85, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAtovL9Umqpb4Meev71b6_4rP7ObFib6GAlXnvBoJ0jAc", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch10-05", "key": "40e13874dd93ad05", "label": "If a few standard tests find no regularity, other simple programs rarely do", "statement": "Once a few simple programs corresponding to standard methods of perception and analysis have failed to detect regularities in some data, it is extremely rare for any other simple program to succeed, so the everyday judgment of randomness is in practice fairly unambiguous.", "quote": "For once a few simple programs corresponding to a few standard methods of perception and analysis have failed to detect regularities, it is extremely rare for any other simple program to succeed in detecting them.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 10: Processes of Perception and Analysis", "kind": "computational-observation", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.606, "truth": 0.21, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.12 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.3 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.685, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RARKGlt7UjZG_VFwCR_RGY375V0SJ1R5qfFV7XWVKvdjM", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch10-06", "key": "ae00a53ee865652d", "label": "Complexity means our perception and analysis fail to find a short description", "statement": "To call something complex is to say that our methods of perception and analysis have failed to find a short description of the features of it that we are interested in; complexity therefore depends on which features one chooses to capture.", "quote": "when we say that something seems complex, what we are effectively saying is that our powers of perception and analysis have failed on it.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 10: Processes of Perception and Analysis", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.126, "truth": 0.74, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.76 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.72 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.875, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAoh0O1Iks1LyxdwIOH41WAT3ypM_VEXKaYmisyd09dX8", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch10-07", "key": "b0d4d6566463d5df", "label": "Most engaging images mix simply describable and indescribable features", "statement": "People tend to lose interest in images with no simple features (such as perfectly random ones), and the images that hold attention and seem most aesthetically pleasing are those in which some features are simple to describe while others have no short description findable by human visual perception.", "quote": "the images that draw us in the most—and typically that we find the most aesthetically pleasing—are those for which some features are simple for us to describe, but others have no short description that can be found by any of our standard processes of visual perception.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 10: Processes of Perception and Analysis", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.489, "truth": 0.735, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.73 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.74 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.615, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAUrTePeC6XkOsZgHhCWwSqh6qooprm72cBTo44LqcqJM", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch10-08", "key": "1480549beaf7040e", "label": "Data compression methods all compress repetition and nesting but little else", "statement": "Structurally different lossless data compression methods (run-length, block/Huffman, pointer-based and two-dimensional schemes) have remarkably similar capabilities: they compress uniform regions, repetitive behavior and to some extent nested behavior, but achieve no substantial compression of more complex behavior even when it is generated by very short programs.", "quote": "Essentially every method, for example, will successfully compress large regions of uniform color. And most methods manage to compress behavior that is repetitive, and at least to some extent behavior that is nested—exactly the two kinds of simple behavior that we have noted many times in this book.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 10: Processes of Perception and Analysis", "kind": "computational-observation", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "mixed", "evidence_kind": "computational", "data_test": { "verdict": "mixed", "confidence": 0.75, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "computational", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/wolfram-nks/wolfram2002-ch10-08/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Across all six methods, uniform and repetitive windows compress to a small fraction of a density-matched random window, nested windows compress at least partly, and rule 30 and rule 45 windows compress by at most 15 %.", "disconfirming_observation": "Any generic method compressing a rule 30 or rule 45 window to less than 60 % of a density-matched random window, or the methods failing to compress both repetitive and nested patterns.", "admissible_datasets": "Patterns generated exactly from elementary CA rules by committed code, analysed in a window inside the light cone; generic compressors not tuned to any rule; density-matched seeded random references.", "inference_method": "Compressed size ratio r against a density-matched Bernoulli pattern for each (rule, method), compared with the pre-registered per-class thresholds.", "explicit": true }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.835, "truth": 0.51, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.18 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.84 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.81, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAKxH6bkCvcJU-tcDL95sfncbcc9YjVBq3bPuHHrHRo2M", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch10-09", "key": "f6288f726e11f298", "label": "Complex images lose recognizable features under lossy compression", "statement": "Under lossy compression by keeping only some basic forms (as in JPEG-like schemes), the relevant features of both simple and completely random images remain recognizable at high compression, whereas images normally considered complex need much lower compression, and reordering the basic forms does not change this substantially.", "quote": "But images that one would normally consider complex tend to have features that cannot be recognized except at significantly lower levels of compression.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 10: Processes of Perception and Analysis", "kind": "computational-observation", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.663, "truth": 0.42, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.2 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.64 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.68, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAt9cNzGVMhAAgkp5xYSQgr7XHvK56196v98hL6AUsfqA", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch10-10", "key": "eb4844946bb33739", "label": "Texture is perceived through densities of simple local features", "statement": "Human perception generally works by cells responding to specific fixed features and ignoring others; in vision, cortical cells act as templates for small local patterns, and textures are distinguished by the densities of such local features, much as colors are distinguished by densities of red, green and blue.", "quote": "I strongly suspect that it is density differences such as these that allow our visual system to distinguish textures.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 10: Processes of Perception and Analysis", "kind": "model-of-nature", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.639, "truth": 0.72, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.61 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.83 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.695, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RATFKnTF98ngFExsiosw7I81m8L4X4o_lZ8LporntMRDo", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch10-11", "key": "cc1476cae69533f5", "label": "Human vision easily detects repetition but generally fails to detect nesting", "statement": "Humans can readily see by eye that a two-dimensional pattern is purely repetitive, but generally cannot tell that a pattern is nested (unless it is dominated by large uniform areas), even though a simple two-dimensional pointer-based encoding recognizes the nesting.", "quote": "it is remarkably difficult for us to tell that the patterns are nested. And this can be viewed as a clear example of a limitation in our powers of visual perception.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 10: Processes of Perception and Analysis", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.556, "truth": 0.725, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.67 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.78 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.645, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAvNyOuTd9NVksoqUK5DWqaGCTqNfgBT-lwTC4_LE8DZs", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch10-12", "key": "0350588d6ceed21b", "label": "Hearing detects repetition at definite frequencies and essentially nothing else", "statement": "For sounds generated from sequences with fairly uniform properties, the human auditory system recognizes only exact or approximate repetition at definite frequencies; nested or other non-repetitive structure, beyond a few large spectral peaks, is heard as random noise.", "quote": "we readily recognize exact or approximate repetition at definite frequencies, and essentially nothing else.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 10: Processes of Perception and Analysis", "kind": "model-of-nature", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.542, "truth": 0.335, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.13 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.54 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.635, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAYMOePlByp0cHFuhbvbv1i3WryeNBHEkDip8irLZqsCM", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch10-13", "key": "56074cb76c4a40ef", "label": "Best-fit probabilistic models of deterministic data look more random than the data", "statement": "When probabilistic models such as block-frequency, Markov or probabilistic cellular automaton models are fitted to data generated by deterministic cellular automata, they reproduce the statistics used in fitting but their typical behavior is considerably more random and misses most detailed features of the data.", "quote": "In most cases, the typical behavior produced by the model looks considerably more random than the data.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 10: Processes of Perception and Analysis", "kind": "computational-observation", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.835, "truth": 0.85, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.84 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.86 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.825, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAEWe_Y1L21oa-jnAwcbwU7rTdpB602IpP0j0ldpUbDng", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch10-14", "key": "b76d528cffee0a95", "label": "Equal block frequencies of all lengths is not a universal randomness test", "statement": "Checking that all blocks of all lengths occur with equal frequency does not guarantee absence of regularity: sequences such as linear feedback shift register output or concatenated binary digits of successive integers have accurate block frequencies yet are non-random, as revealed for instance by an abnormally small spread of those frequencies.", "quote": "it has sometimes been thought that if one could just compute frequencies of blocks of all lengths one would have a kind of universal test for randomness. But sequences like (e) and (f) on the facing page make it clear that this is not the case.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 10: Processes of Perception and Analysis", "kind": "mathematical", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": true, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "mixed", "evidence_kind": "computational", "data_test": { "verdict": "mixed", "confidence": 0.8, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "computational", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/wolfram-nks/wolfram2002-ch10-14/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered: (1) LFSR (taps {2,11} as in NKS p. 594, period 2047, and a 20-bit register with period 2^20 - 1): over one full period every block of length L <= r - 1 (r = register length) occurs a number of times within 1 of the uniform expectation (N - L + 1)/2^L; Berlekamp-Massey linear complexity equals r (a random sequence of the same length has about N/2); and the chi-square statistic of its block counts for each L in 4..8 lies below the 1st percentile of 200 random sequences of the same length (the 'abnormally small spread'). (2) Binary Champernowne sequence, N = 2^20 bits: for every L <= 8 the maximum relative deviation of any block frequency from 2^-L decreases from the first N/4 bits to the first N/2 bits to all N bits and is <= 0.5 at N (coarse accuracy: every block within a factor 1.5 of uniform); its lzma compression ratio is <= 0.5 while that of the random reference is >= 0.95 (detectable regularity); and its bits agree with OEIS A030190 for every term in the b-file. Verdict 'supports' if (1) and (2) both hold; 'mixed' if (1) holds but (2) fails; 'refutes' if (1) fails.", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered: the LFSR block counts deviate by more than 1 from uniform for some L <= r - 1, or its chi-square spread is not below the 1st percentile of random sequences for some L in 4..8, or its linear complexity is not r; for Champernowne, a block frequency deviation that does not decrease with N or exceeds 0.5 at L <= 8, or a compression ratio above 0.9 (no regularity detected by compression).", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: lfsr-taps-2-11-full-period, lfsr-taps-3-20-full-period, binary-champernowne-2pow20, oeis-a030190-bfile, random-reference-pcg64", "inference_method": "analysis.py generates the two LFSR sequences over one full period (periods verified maximal: 2047 and 1,048,575), the first 2^20 bits of the binary Champernowne word (checked bit for bit against the 10,000 terms of OEIS A030190 after accounting for its leading n = 0 term) and seeded random references. For each sequence it counts all overlapping blocks of lengths 1..8 (1..r-1 for the LFSRs), reports the maximum absolute and relative deviation from uniform, the chi-square spread of block counts against the empirical distribution over 200 random sequences of the same length, the Berlekamp-Massey linear complexity of the first 4000 bits, and the lzma compression ratio of the packed bits. For Champernowne the maximum relative deviation is also computed on the first N/4 and N/2 bits. Run time about 17 s.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.945, "truth": 0.905, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.86 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.95 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.91, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAwoxhvqCKOEzaPraVl5kpfbJHcLNAGT5K_TpTb76Mom4", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch10-15", "key": "45535d5cf5fa0e7f", "label": "Rule 30 center column and digits of pi pass statistical tests for randomness", "statement": "The center column of the rule 30 cellular automaton and the base 2 digits of pi show no detectable deviation from randomness under block-frequency statistics or under analysis by simple cellular automata, even though both are generated by simple rules.", "quote": "statistical analysis, even with some generalization, cannot readily recognize that sequences like (g) and (h) are anything but completely random—even though at an underlying level these sequences were generated by quite simple rules.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 10: Processes of Perception and Analysis", "kind": "computational-observation", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "supports", "evidence_kind": "computational", "data_test": { "verdict": "supports", "confidence": 0.8, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "computational", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/wolfram-nks/wolfram2002-ch10-15/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Both sequences give block-frequency p-values consistent with uniformity (none < 1e-4, at most 2 of 24 < 0.01) and elementary-CA output statistics within 5 standard deviations of those for random input, while the CA analysis flags the Champernowne and Thue-Morse sequences.", "disconfirming_observation": "A block-frequency p-value below 1e-6, 4 or more below 0.01, or an elementary CA whose output density or compressibility on either sequence is more than 6 standard deviations from its value on random input.", "admissible_datasets": "The exact rule 30 centre column and binary digits of pi, generated by committed code and cross-checked against independent tabulations (OEIS); random references from a seeded standard PRNG; known non-random positive controls.", "inference_method": "NIST serial-test increments del-psi^2_L for L = 1..12 with chi-square p-values; z-scores of CA output density and zlib size against 100 random inputs for all 88 inequivalent elementary rules; thresholds and controls as pre-registered.", "explicit": true }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [ { "id": "wolfram-conus-textile-rule30", "relation": "tests", "note": "Runs block-frequency statistics on the Rule 30 center column, the quantity this claim asserts is statistically random.", "label": "Wolfram (1984) Rule 30 & Meinhardt–Klingler (1987) Conus textile Pigmentation faithfully reproduces Conus textile Linnaeus, 1758 (textile cone snail) morphology", "organism": "Conus textile Linnaeus, 1758 (textile cone snail)", "verdict": "faithful", "score": 87.3, "thompson_verdict": null, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA2G31b0Bg50syNWFhJ5Aj8U2-KZQ5QizNhMjRl1uSb_g", "registry": "unconfirmed", "report": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/morphoeval/kg/2026-10-18-conus-audit/REPORT.md" } ], "thumbnail": { "file": "docs/thumbs/wolfram-conus-textile-rule30.jpg", "morpholib": "wolfram-conus-textile-rule30", "source": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/docs/media/conus_textile_rule30.gif" }, "testability": 0.826, "truth": 0.785, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.7 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.87 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.83, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RASy-GGEHZpJLo7NtsWiSupJqzJ96L5a4UtLroTGMeC2s", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch10-16", "key": "70715b182cbee375", "label": "Rule 30 can serve as a cryptographic stream cipher as secure as any known", "statement": "Simple rules with complex behavior, such as the rule 30 cellular automaton sampled sparsely to give an encrypting sequence, can be used to build stream ciphers at least as secure against cryptanalysis as any known system, unlike additive cellular automata or linear feedback shift registers, whose keys are easily recovered.", "quote": "I strongly suspect that they can, and that in fact they allow one to construct systems that are at least as secure to cryptanalysis as any that are known.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 10: Processes of Perception and Analysis", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.599, "truth": 0.055, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.04 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.07 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.675, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAMO7_aBlKKDTJzBUB_g2qFe3tq2x7hAGQL4SFql7Pw68", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch10-17", "key": "79411f7efb5e9c71", "label": "Every nested pattern likely has a formula in generalized hypergeometric functions", "statement": "Although most nested patterns have no obvious relation to ordinary mathematical functions, a formula for the color of each cell of any nested pattern can probably be found in terms of suitably generalized hypergeometric functions or similar generalizations of traditional functions.", "quote": "it is my guess that in the end it will in fact turn out to be possible to get a formula for any nested pattern in terms of suitably generalized hypergeometric functions", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 10: Processes of Perception and Analysis", "kind": "mathematical", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": true, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.395, "truth": 0.35, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.24 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.46 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.625, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA-KFprUrLrmCQiq3wtysJJev9d3JHqF0UwLPGjaO86mg", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch10-18", "key": "6c7607b446c81a8d", "label": "No simple formula describes many steps of rule 30 evolution", "statement": "Minimal Boolean formulas (in disjunctive normal form or in Nand operations) for the outcome of rule 30 grow rapidly with the number of steps, unlike those for simple rules such as 90 and 254, indicating that no simple formula describes rule 30 evolution and that, in most cases, cellular automaton patterns have no simple mathematical formula.", "quote": "So even if one allows rather general structure, the evidence is that in the end there is no way to set up any simple formula that will describe the outcome of evolution for a system like rule 30.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 10: Processes of Perception and Analysis", "kind": "computational-observation", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.642, "truth": 0.77, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.71 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.83 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.74, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAVxiBBnus8BgeGYewQLYj5Fi6JEKRExYmNseCTJ9pPcY", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch10-19", "key": "40645f05467cad86", "label": "Human memory works like similarity-preserving hashing by layers of neurons", "statement": "Human memory likely retrieves data by a simple hashing-like mechanism in which successive layers of nerve cells, each responding to patterns in fixed random sets of inputs, produce representations that are the same for inputs differing by small changes, allowing retrieval by similarity.", "quote": "this basic mechanism provides a simple way to get a representation—and thus a hash code—that will tend to be the same for pieces of data that somehow have enough features that are similar.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 10: Processes of Perception and Analysis", "kind": "model-of-nature", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.474, "truth": 0.31, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.3 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.32 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.61, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAAlHVXjWsktwJh4Lg4QE28VsAfQhe-hL-2OU6HfOUkZI", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch10-20", "key": "2d42836b72f22b57", "label": "Memory retrieval, not logic, underlies almost all of human thinking", "statement": "Retrieval from memory on the basis of similarity underlies almost every major aspect of human thinking, including generalization, analogy and intuition, and logical reasoning is not fundamental but is itself carried out by retrieving learned patterns of argument from memory.", "quote": "My strong suspicion is that the use of memory is what in fact underlies almost every major aspect of human thinking.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 10: Processes of Perception and Analysis", "kind": "model-of-nature", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.409, "truth": 0.49, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.58 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.4 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.58, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAhcFBAQEENY_4l4HIRRkmm6th2VaxWu9d9yjSYzag40Q", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch10-21", "key": "3cb66c5bebb512dd", "label": "The core of human thinking is based on rather simple rules", "statement": "Despite the complicated construction of the brain, there is a core to human thinking that is largely independent of neural details and is based on rather simple rules, with nothing fundamentally special about the processes involved.", "quote": "I strongly suspect that there is a definite core to the phenomenon of human thinking that is largely independent of such details—and that will in the end turn out to be based on rules that are rather simple.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 10: Processes of Perception and Analysis", "kind": "model-of-nature", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.306, "truth": 0.43, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.48 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.38 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.64, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAp6TTEOtlw4S0_pkSwxyDYAWgspKJZXm_zLhGB8b8P7E", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch10-22", "key": "9ed36c7dbe04fb18", "label": "General human-like thinking is easier to reproduce than task-specific versions", "statement": "Because complex behavior from simple rules is hard to direct to specific tasks, it will likely be much easier to reproduce general human-like thinking than a special version of human-like thinking restricted to specific tasks; a recognizably human-like system would also need a human-like base of experience.", "quote": "most likely it will at some level be much easier to reproduce general human-like thinking than to set up some special version of human-like thinking only for specific tasks.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 10: Processes of Perception and Analysis", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.516, "truth": 0.275, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.33 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.22 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.6, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA4T-Oy0KKKfUawu3gzyElCZi9jAoiSfBw1bUFgzCrX2I", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch10-23", "key": "8558f5fa415a4d40", "label": "No method of perception or analysis can recognize all possible regularities", "statement": "No method of perception and analysis, however advanced, can in complete generality recognize all possible regularities and thus tell immediately whether a piece of data can be generated from some simple description, although higher methods could recognize some regularities current methods miss.", "quote": "My strong belief—as I will argue in Chapter 12—is that at least in complete generality this will never be possible.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 10: Processes of Perception and Analysis", "kind": "mathematical", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": true, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "supports", "evidence_kind": "computational", "data_test": { "verdict": "supports", "confidence": 0.7, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "computational", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/wolfram-nks/wolfram2002-ch10-23/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered. Generate six byte strings of 4096 bytes (32768 bits) each: (1) rule 30 centre column from a single black cell; (2) a linear congruential generator modulo 2^32 (a = 1664525, c = 1013904223, seed 1), 32-bit words little-endian; (3) xorshift32 (shifts 13, 17, 5, seed 2463534242), 32-bit words; (4) binary digits of pi after the binary point (Machin formula, exact integer arithmetic); (5) Thue-Morse sequence bits (positive control, obviously regular); (6) os.urandom bytes (baseline, no short description assumed). Generating source for (1)-(5) must be under 400 bytes each (recorded). A method 'recognizes' a string if: for a compressor, its output is at most 0.97 times the compressed size of the urandom baseline of the same length (3% gain); for Berlekamp-Massey, the linear complexity of the bit sequence is below one quarter of its length; for the affine recognizer, the recurrence x_{i+1} = a x_i + c mod 2^32 solved from the first three words holds for every remaining word. 'Supports' if ALL of the following hold: (a) each of the three compressors fails to recognize at least two of the four simple-description strings (1)-(4); (b) at least one of (1)-(4) is recognized by a specialized method but by none of the three compressors; (c) at least one of (1)-(4) is recognized by none of the five methods; (d) controls: all three compressors recognize (5) with output below 0.2 of the urandom size, and no method recognizes (6).", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered. The claim is a theorem (uncomputability of Kolmogorov complexity) and cannot be refuted by a finite computation; this test checks whether its concrete content is exhibited by actual methods. 'Mixed' if any compressor recognizes all four simple-description strings (the chosen simple descriptions are all perceptible to a standard method) or if any method recognizes the urandom baseline (false alarm, so 'recognition' is not meaningful at this length). 'Inconclusive' with reason 'construction-failed' if (b) or (c) fails, i.e. the chosen generators do not exhibit a regularity that some method misses while another catches, or none that every method misses.", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: simple-description-sequences-generator, os-urandom-baseline", "inference_method": "analysis.py holds the five generating programs as Python source strings (94-207 bytes each, all under the pre-registered 400), executes them to produce 4096-byte strings, draws 4096 bytes from os.urandom, and applies zlib level 9, bz2 level 9 and lzma preset 9 extreme (recognition = compressed size <= 0.97 x the compressed size of the urandom string), the Berlekamp-Massey algorithm over GF(2) on the 32768-bit sequence (recognition = linear complexity < 8192), and an affine-recurrence fit modulo 2^32 solved from the first three 32-bit words and verified on the remaining 1021 (recognition = exact fit). Sanity checks: the pi string starts with the known hex expansion 243F6A88..., Berlekamp-Massey returns 4 for a degree-4 LFSR, and the rule 30 column matches OEIS A051023 (checked by hand on the first 32 bits).", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.906, "truth": 0.96, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.98 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.94 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.88, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAkH-lfO4SWaS9gukRZAvxZqTXpLnAVkhq7TD73LKrHQE", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch10-24", "key": "513d300ee2253099", "label": "Practical perception and analysis methods recognize only repetition and nesting", "statement": "Essentially all methods of perception and analysis in practical use have similar capabilities, recognizing repetition and sometimes nesting but almost nothing more complex, possibly because only such regularities are both common and quickly recognizable, or because humans choose methods matching their built-in perception.", "quote": "Most of them, for example, recognize repetition, and some also recognize nesting. But almost none recognize anything more complex.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 10: Processes of Perception and Analysis", "kind": "general-principle", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.374, "truth": 0.18, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.08 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.28 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.66, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAmCjjJnBnyR7RIvo6rmFVNQvVMnd79XpjFaoY9pPIdy4", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch10-25", "key": "e5de19a87be4d54a", "label": "Extraterrestrial signals taken for noise could be meaningful messages", "statement": "Some extraterrestrial radio and other signals that are detected and assumed to be random noise could be meaningful messages encoded in a way recognizable only by higher forms of perception and analysis than those applied so far.", "quote": "it seems far from inconceivable that some of the extraterrestrial radio and other signals that we pick up and assume to be random noise could in fact be meaningful messages", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 10: Processes of Perception and Analysis", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.43, "truth": 0.38, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.12 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.64 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.675, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA8KZAoPAPZ2g6OAJPwOC8Ctiui4x5ln73D8FqE6NejaU", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch11-01", "key": "ef5b1e36704528c7", "label": "Computation is the central organizing idea of the new science", "statement": "The most important idea underlying Wolfram's new kind of science is computation: systems such as cellular automata should be viewed as computations, with initial conditions as input and later states as output, so that systems with entirely different rules can be discussed in a unified, abstract way.", "quote": "And in many respects the single most important idea that underlies this new science is the notion of computation.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 11: The Notion of Computation", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.052, "truth": 0.885, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.97 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.8 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.925, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RASZA1EhOuwbze1ZTEYGflgYBs6oJSYGqcWeboUBRxjCU", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch11-02", "key": "3bc317a9ba55f509", "label": "Any system can be viewed as performing a computation", "statement": "Any system whatsoever, not just a cellular automaton, can be viewed as performing a computation that determines what its future behavior will be.", "quote": "At some level, any cellular automaton—or for that matter, any system whatsoever—can be viewed as performing a computation that determines what its future behavior will be.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 11: The Notion of Computation", "kind": "general-principle", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.068, "truth": 0.88, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.88 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.88 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.905, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAgEbQtnJ2JSc2eMtMPM5G4swO6CHE8aXpZFCb7AROZHw", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch11-03", "key": "409d595d4fe68009", "label": "Universality is crucial for understanding complexity in natural systems", "statement": "Although universality has never before been seriously considered in natural science, it is crucial for finding general ways to characterize and understand the complexity seen in natural systems.", "quote": "But what I will show in this chapter and the next is that in fact universality is for example quite crucial in finding general ways to characterize and understand the complexity we see in natural systems.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 11: The Notion of Computation", "kind": "general-principle", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.172, "truth": 0.3, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.42 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.18 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.79, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA2ADvq-zn-m2C_VRSoGBScC6CMLU498J62CMquVBoIFw", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch11-04", "key": "caf41925795fc2f2", "label": "A universal system can produce arbitrarily complex behavior", "statement": "Because a universal system can emulate any other system, it can produce behavior as complex as that of any other system, so knowing a system is universal implies it can produce behavior that is in a sense arbitrarily complex.", "quote": "So knowing that a particular system is universal thus immediately implies that the system can produce behavior that is in a sense arbitrarily complex.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 11: The Notion of Computation", "kind": "general-principle", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "supports", "evidence_kind": "computational", "data_test": { "verdict": "supports", "confidence": 0.6, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "computational", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/wolfram-nks/wolfram2002-ch11-04/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered. analysis.py re-uses the published rule list (derived/uca_rule.txt copied from the ch11-06 test, or fetched live) and runs the universal automaton on a cyclic array of N = 128 encoded blocks for S = 128 emulated steps (128 x 53 = 6784 universal steps) from a single black cell, for targets: elementary rules 250 (uniform growth), 90 (nested), 110 (localised structures), 30 (random), and one random two-colour range-1 rule drawn with seed 20261104 from rules with f(000) = 0. For each target: rho_dec = 8 * lzma bytes / cells of the decoded S x N binary pattern; rho_ref = the same measure for the directly computed target pattern; rho_raw = 8 * lzma bytes / (cells * log2 19) of the universal automaton's raw S x 20N checkpoint array (rows at multiples of 53 steps). 'supports' if (i) rho_dec equals rho_ref for every target (the universal system's decoded behaviour is exactly as complex as the emulated system's) and (ii) rho_raw(250) < rho_raw(90) < rho_raw(30) with rho_raw(30) >= 2 * rho_raw(250), i.e. the universal system's own pattern spans a wide range of complexity set only by the initial condition. Thresholds fixed before running.", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered. 'refutes' if some decoded pattern differs from the target pattern (then the universal system does not reproduce the emulated behaviour and (i) fails). 'mixed' if (i) holds but (ii) fails, meaning the emulated complexity is visible only after decoding and the universal system's own pattern is dominated by its fixed scaffolding. 'inconclusive' with reason 'data-unavailable' if the rule text is unavailable.", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: nks-notes-11-4-universal-cellular-automaton, nks-ch11-04-uca-complexity-generator", "inference_method": "analysis.py imports the parser, lookup-table builder, encoder and stepper from the ch11-06 test, fetches the published rule list (same page, SHA-256 recorded), and runs the fixed 19-colour rule on a cyclic array of 128 encoded blocks (2560 cells) for 128 emulated steps (6784 universal steps) from a single black cell, with the encoded target being rule 250, 90, 110, 30 or the seed-drawn rule 10. At each 53-step checkpoint the decoded colour cells were compared with the directly computed target, and lzma compressibility was measured for the decoded 128 x 128 pattern (rho_dec), the direct target pattern (rho_ref) and the raw 128 x 2560 universal-automaton checkpoint array (rho_raw, normalised by log2 19). All decoded patterns equal the targets (0 mismatches), so rho_dec = rho_ref exactly: 0.10 (250), 0.15 (90), 0.52 (110), 0.97 (30), 0.06 (10). Raw: 0.0022 (250) < 0.0029 (90) < 0.0172 (110) < 0.0208 (30); ratio 30/250 = 9.32, above the pre-registered 2.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.861, "truth": 0.91, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.97 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.85 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.845, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RASrytdmgkq6pPLLcERTYaHewYVGPOXN-UG7CbENrLBpg", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch11-05", "key": "c6288341c337c00f", "label": "Universality is widespread and occurs in many systems in nature", "statement": "Contrary to the assumption that universality is rare and found only in systems specifically constructed to have it, universality is a widespread phenomenon that also occurs in a wide range of important systems found in nature.", "quote": "But one of the results of this chapter is that in fact universality is a much more widespread phenomenon. And in the next chapter I will argue that for example it also occurs in a wide range of important systems that we see in nature.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 11: The Notion of Computation", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.364, "truth": 0.425, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.37 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.48 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.72, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAosTf9phsqL-e4sn42LhLkhmMz8JYWNroLpkfxjEeNyw", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch11-06", "key": "a03e2f1f2d4a4264", "label": "A fixed universal cellular automaton can emulate any cellular automaton", "statement": "A single cellular automaton with fixed rules (Wolfram's 19-color, next-nearest-neighbor construction) can, given suitable initial conditions, emulate any cellular automaton whatsoever, regardless of how many colors or neighbors its rules involve, including rules more complicated than its own.", "quote": "And the conclusion is therefore that the universal cellular automaton can ultimately emulate a cellular automaton with absolutely any set of rules, regardless of how many neighbors and how many colors they may involve.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 11: The Notion of Computation", "kind": "mathematical", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": true, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "supports", "evidence_kind": "computational", "data_test": { "verdict": "supports", "confidence": 0.85, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "computational", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/wolfram-nks/wolfram2002-ch11-06/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered. analysis.py fetches the NKS online note 'Universal cellular automaton' (https://www.wolframscience.com/nks/notes-11-4--universal-cellular-automaton/), records byte size and SHA-256 of the page, and parses the published rule list (Mathematica replacement rules on 5-cell neighbourhoods, first matching rule applies; the arrow glyphs are lost in the HTML text, so each rule is read as 'pattern in braces' followed by 'output expression') and the published block encoding Flatten[{Transpose[{Join[{4, 18(1-a), 6}, Table[9, {2^(2r+1)-3}]], 10 - 3 rtab}], Table[{9, 1}, {r}], 9, 13}] with rtab in Wolfram's standard order (outcome for all-ones neighbourhood first). The universal automaton is run on a cyclic array of N blocks (N cells of the target automaton with cyclic boundaries) for S * P steps, where P = (3r+2) 2^(2r+1) + 3r^2 + 7r + 3 is the published period (53 for r = 1, 285 for r = 2). After each P steps, each block must equal the encoding of the directly computed target configuration (strict block-level check, which also verifies the decoded colours). Tests: (a) all 256 elementary rules, N = 16, S = 8, two random initial conditions each (seed 20261106); (b) 30 random two-colour range-2 rules (32-entry tables), N = 10, S = 4, one random initial condition each. 'supports' if the total number of mismatching universal-automaton cells over all checks is 0.", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered. 'refutes' if, with the rule list and encoding exactly as published, some target rule's evolution is not reproduced (one or more mismatching cells at a checkpoint). If mismatches occur, the first action is to re-check the transcription of the published text (lost arrows, exponent formatting); a correction that makes the parse agree with the published text is a harness fix and is disclosed in caveats; any remaining mismatch is a refutation. 'inconclusive' with reason 'data-unavailable' if the note cannot be retrieved and no verifiable copy is at hand; 'inconclusive' with reason 'other' if the cyclic-boundary set-up turns out to be incompatible with the construction in a way that cannot be resolved from the published description (for example if the construction requires a special terminator block that the note does not specify).", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: nks-notes-11-4-universal-cellular-automaton, nks-ch11-06-uca-generator", "inference_method": "analysis.py fetched the NKS online note (86,136 bytes), extracted the published rule list (65 replacement rules on 5-cell neighbourhoods, arrow glyphs decoded from the HTML entity, first matching rule applies) and the block encoding, compiled the rules into a complete 19^5-entry lookup table (every neighbourhood covered), and ran the universal automaton on a cyclic array of encoded blocks. For all 256 elementary rules (16 cells, 2 random initial conditions, 8 emulated steps of 53 universal steps each) and 30 random two-colour range-2 rules (10 cells, 4 emulated steps of 285 universal steps each; 70-cell blocks), the array after each period was compared cell-for-cell with the encoding of the directly computed cyclic target configuration: 0 mismatches in 1,394,720 cells. Checks that the harness is not vacuous: encoding rule 30 but comparing against rule 110 gives 309 mismatches in 6 steps; within one 53-step period up to 208 of 320 cells differ from the resting form before the array returns to it with exactly the colour cells changed; the decoded rule-30 evolution from one black cell shows the rule-30 pattern.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.886, "truth": 0.91, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.96 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.86 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.875, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAfSftot8-8_vONF-T6GuN3_DoLmXLlYVzs6BNcSP9zqw", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch11-07", "key": "d73145329e456845", "label": "Cellular automata can emulate nearly all other system types, even computers", "statement": "Cellular automata can be set up to emulate almost every type of system considered in the book—mobile automata, Turing machines, substitution systems, sequential substitution and tag systems, register machines, arithmetic systems, logic circuits and random-access memory—and in principle a practical computer in its entirety.", "quote": "But what I will show in this section is that in fact this is not the case, and that in the end cellular automata can actually be made to emulate almost every single type of system that we have discussed in this book.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 11: The Notion of Computation", "kind": "mathematical", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": true, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "supports", "evidence_kind": "computational", "data_test": { "verdict": "supports", "confidence": 0.75, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "computational", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/wolfram-nks/wolfram2002-ch11-07/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered. Five system types are tested with the rule lists given in the NKS notes, transcribed into analysis.py (first matching rule wins, as in Mathematica). (1) Mobile automata (MAToCA, 4 colours, range 2): all 65536 two-colour mobile automata in Wolfram's {colours, displacements} numbering, from the all-white initial condition and from one seeded random initial condition each; 60 steps; exact if at every step the CA colours mod 2 equal the mobile automaton's cells and the unique dark cell sits at the active position. (2) Turing machines (TMToCA, k(s+1) colours, range 1): all 4096 machines with s = 2, k = 2 and 4096 seeded random machines for each of (s,k) = (3,2), (2,3), (4,2), (3,3), each from a blank tape and from a seeded random tape; 60 steps; exact if tape, head position and head state agree at every step. (3) Substitution systems (SSToCA, 12 colours): all 36 neighbour-independent systems on {0,1} whose two blocks have length 1 or 2, from initial strings {0} and {1}; the CA is run until it has produced 8 'sweep-start' configurations (exactly one r cell, no p or m[0|1] cells), whose decoded strings must equal the substitution system's strings at steps 0..7; a run exceeding 3000 CA steps or reaching the array edge counts as not exact. (4) Register machines (RMToCA, m+7 colours): 300 seeded random programs with m = 2..6 instructions over two registers (i[r], d[r,q]) and initial registers a, b in 0..3, keeping only programs that run at least 20 steps without halting (the construction has no colour for a program counter past the end); the sequence of distinct decoded CA states (program-counter colour, r1 = #(m+2) + 2#(m+3), r2 = #(m+5) + 2#(m+6)) must equal the register machine's trajectory for up to 40 steps. Both the published construction and a one-rule repair described below are run. (5) Logic circuits (the 5-colour rule of p. 1112): 400 seeded random And/Or/Not expressions of depth <= 4 over constants, encoded with the published initial-condition rule and run for the published number of steps; exact if the final configuration has a single non-zero cell equal to 2 for false and 4 for true. The measured value is the number of system types (out of 5) for which 100% of tested instances are emulated exactly, using for register machines the repaired construction. The claim PASSES if the value is 5 and additionally at least 4 of the 5 published constructions are exact as printed.", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered. If some system type has fewer than 95% exact instances even with the repaired construction the verdict is 'inconclusive' (a failing construction does not show that no construction exists, so an existence claim cannot be refuted this way; reason: construction-failure). If every type is >= 95% but not all are 100%, or if two or more of the published constructions are not exact as printed, the verdict is 'mixed'.", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: nks-emulation-constructions, emulation-test-instances", "inference_method": "analysis.py transcribes the five rule lists into a generic ordered-pattern compiler (first matching rule wins) that produces full lookup tables, then runs the CA and an independent direct simulator of each emulated system side by side. Mobile automata (65536 rules) and Turing machines (4096 + 4 x 4096 rules) are run fully vectorised in numpy; substitution systems, register machines and logic circuits are run one instance at a time. Decodings: MA colour mod 2 and the unique dark cell; TM colour mod k and the unique cell >= k (state = colour div k); SS string read at the start of each replacement sweep; RM (program-counter colour, #(m+2) + 2#(m+3), #(m+5) + 2#(m+6)) with consecutive duplicates removed; logic circuit single surviving cell 2/4. Per-instance tables in derived/*.csv, full summary in derived/summary.json; runtime about 1 minute.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.818, "truth": 0.955, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.98 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.93 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.825, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAydv4cjouFPimDKBjfjsbyCaCoK-tSiH9J63dcjyflBM", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch11-08", "key": "88f7b85c0211565d", "label": "Cellular automata cannot emulate substitution systems step for step", "statement": "Unlike mobile automata or Turing machines, substitution systems cannot in general be emulated one step per cellular automaton step, because the number of elements in a substitution system can be multiplied by a factor each step while a cellular automaton pattern can grow only by a fixed amount per step; progressively more cellular automaton steps are needed per substitution step.", "quote": "That this must ultimately be the case one can see from the fact that the total number of elements in a substitution system can be multiplied by a factor from one step to the next, while in a cellular automaton the size of a pattern can only ever increase by a fixed amount at each step.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 11: The Notion of Computation", "kind": "mathematical", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": true, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "supports", "evidence_kind": "computational", "data_test": { "verdict": "supports", "confidence": 0.85, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "computational", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/wolfram-nks/wolfram2002-ch11-08/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered. (A) Light-cone bound: for all 128 elementary rules with quiescent background (000 -> 0), 10 random finite seeds of 20 cells each, 300 steps on a lattice wide enough never to reach the edge, the width of the non-zero region (rightmost minus leftmost black cell plus one) never increases by more than 2 in one step; likewise never by more than 4 for 50 random radius-2 two-colour rules with quiescent background (seeds 0-49), 5 seeds each, 200 steps. (B) Multiplicative growth: among all 225 two-colour neighbour-independent substitution systems with blocks of length 0-3, at least 50% have Perron root lambda > 1 of their 2x2 growth matrix, and for every system the lengths L_t for t <= 12 from a single black cell equal the matrix prediction exactly. (C) Growing cost: for every system with lambda > 1, the number of radius-1 cellular-automaton steps needed to contain L_12 cells starting from L_0 = 1, ceil((L_12 - L_0)/2), exceeds 12 (more than one CA step per substitution step on average), and the per-step requirement c_t = ceil((L_t - L_{t-1})/2) at t = 12 is at least 4 times c_t at t = 4 (progressively more steps). (D) Contrast with Turing machines: a radius-1 cellular automaton with k(s+1) colours (cell = tape colour x {no head, head state}) built mechanically from the Turing-machine rule reproduces the tape and head of 20 random 2-colour, 2-4-state Turing machines exactly at every one of 200 steps. 'Supports' requires A-D.", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered. 'Refutes' if A is violated for any rule, seed and step (the fixed-growth premise is false), or if any system with lambda > 1 has ceil((L_12 - L_0)/2) <= 12 (one CA step per substitution step is not excluded by the bound), or if D fails for any machine (Turing machines cannot be emulated step for step either, so the contrast is false). Other combinations are 'mixed'.", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: eca-substitution-tm-generator", "inference_method": "analysis.py: (A) evolves every quiescent elementary rule (128) from 10 random 20-cell seeds for 300 steps and 50 random quiescent radius-2 rules from 5 seeds for 200 steps on zero-padded lattices, recording the largest one-step increase of the non-zero region's width; (B) enumerates the 225 two-colour substitution systems with blocks of length 0-3, iterates each 12 times from a single black cell, compares the lengths with the growth-matrix prediction and computes the Perron root; (C) for growing systems computes the minimal number of radius-1 CA steps needed to accommodate the length, ceil((L_t - L_s)/2), over the whole run and over early and late windows; (D) builds, for 20 random 2-colour Turing machines, the radius-1 CA on 2(m+1) colours whose table is generated mechanically from the machine's rule, and compares the CA configuration with the machine's tape and head after each of 200 steps.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.914, "truth": 0.915, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.91 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.92 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.92, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAGsIYo_3JSZu-5W3zmVy4JfYxjgBXo6c2a_IEdbv52Oc", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch11-09", "key": "77254d7d64013d61", "label": "Neighbor-independent substitution systems cannot emulate cellular automata", "statement": "Neighbor-independent substitution systems can only generate repetitive or nested patterns, so they cannot emulate cellular automata such as rule 30, whereas neighbor-dependent substitution systems can emulate cellular automata straightforwardly.", "quote": "For as we discussed on page 83, neighbor-independent substitution systems can generate only patterns that are either repetitive or nested—so they can never yield the more complicated patterns that are, for example, needed to emulate rule 30.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 11: The Notion of Computation", "kind": "mathematical", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": true, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "supports", "evidence_kind": "computational", "data_test": { "verdict": "supports", "confidence": 0.85, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "computational", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/wolfram-nks/wolfram2002-ch11-09/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered. For each of the 196 two-colour rules {0 -> w0, 1 -> w1} with |w0|, |w1| in {1,2,3} and each of the 1728 three-colour rules with block lengths in {1,2}, start from a single cell of colour 1 and iterate until the word has >= L = 131072 symbols (or 60 steps if it never does), truncate to L, and compute the number p(n) of distinct length-n factors for n = 1..14. For rule 30 from a single black cell compute p(14) of (i) the central 40001 cells of the row at step 20000 and (ii) the first 65536 cells of the centre column. Build the neighbour-dependent substitution system whose rule maps each cell to one new cell given by the elementary-CA table of its (left, self, right) neighbourhood, and run it for 1000 steps from a single black cell. PASS (supports) if (a) every neighbour-independent rule has p(14) <= 225 = (14+1)^2 (eventually periodic words are those with p(14) = p(13); the rest are counted as nested), (b) both rule 30 sequences have p(14) >= 2000, and (c) the neighbour-dependent systems for rules 90 and 30 reproduce the cellular-automaton rows exactly at every one of the 1000 steps.", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered. FAIL (refutes) if any neighbour-independent rule in the family has p(14) >= 2000 (rule-30-like complexity), or if the neighbour-dependent construction does not reproduce rule 90 or rule 30. If some neighbour-independent rule has 225 < p(14) < 2000 the result is 'mixed' and the rule is reported with its complexity profile.", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: substitution-systems-and-rule30-generator", "inference_method": "analysis.py enumerates all 196 two-colour (blocks 1-3) and 1728 three-colour (blocks 1-2) neighbour-independent substitution rules, iterates each from a single cell of colour 1 until the word has 131072 symbols (or 60 steps), and counts distinct factors of length 1..14 with a sorted rolling-code method. It generates rule 30 from a single black cell with big-integer bit operations, taking the central 40001 cells of row 20000 and the first 65536 centre-column cells, and applies the same count. It also measures what share of the centre column's length-14 factors appear in any binary substitution word, and runs the one-cell-per-cell neighbour-dependent substitution systems for rules 90 and 30 against the direct CA for 1000 steps. Runtime about 19 s.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.845, "truth": 0.825, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.81 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.84 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.805, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAL3n0KW7qIoRV31OuMKa8gq_dZoOq-mL8F4DcJGuwy1g", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch11-10", "key": "fad85fcdf71d1ff8", "label": "Any system type that can emulate every cellular automaton has universal members", "statement": "Since a universal cellular automaton exists, any type of system shown capable of emulating any cellular automaton—including mobile automata, Turing machines, neighbor-dependent and sequential substitution systems, tag systems, cyclic tag systems, symbolic systems and register machines—must contain universal examples.", "quote": "And as soon as one knows that any particular type of system is capable of emulating any cellular automaton, it immediately follows that there must be examples of that type of system that are universal.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 11: The Notion of Computation", "kind": "mathematical", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": true, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "supports", "evidence_kind": "computational", "data_test": { "verdict": "supports", "confidence": 0.7, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "computational", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/wolfram-nks/wolfram2002-ch11-10/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered. analysis.py builds, for a given (k, r, rule table), a Turing machine whose tape holds the cellular-automaton configuration on W cells between two end-marker symbols, and whose head performs one left-to-right sweep (reading each old cell value once, carrying the last 2r old values in its state, stepping back r cells to write the new value) followed by a return to the left end, so that one round trip equals one cellular-automaton step with fixed white (0) boundaries. The machine must be a genuine finite table: every (state, symbol) pair reachable in the runs has exactly one transition writing one symbol and moving one cell. Tests: (a) all 256 elementary rules (k = 2, r = 1), W = 48, 40 steps, two random initial conditions each (seed 20261110); (b) 100 random 3-colour radius-1 rules (k = 3, r = 1), same W and steps; (c) 50 random 2-colour radius-2 rules (k = 2, r = 2); (d) 20 random 4-colour radius-1 rules and 10 random 3-colour radius-2 rules. After every round trip the tape between the markers is compared cell-for-cell with the directly computed cellular-automaton configuration (fixed-0 boundary). 'supports' if the total number of mismatching cells over all runs is 0 and the rule-110 machine is produced with a finite, fully specified state table (its state count and transition count reported).", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered. 'refutes' if any run produces a mismatch (one or more cells differing from the direct evolution) that cannot be traced to a bug in the harness rather than the construction; since the construction is uniform in (k, r, rule), a single irreparable mismatch shows the uniform construction does not emulate every cellular automaton. 'inconclusive' with reason 'other' if the harness cannot complete the runs within the time budget.", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: nks-ch11-10-tm-emulation-generator", "inference_method": "analysis.py builds, from any (k, r, rule table), an explicit finite Turing-machine transition table: states ('scan', B, j) carry the last 2r old cell values B during a left-to-right sweep, step back r cells to write each new value, finish the last r cells at the right end-marker with virtual zero reads, and return to the left marker, so one round trip is one cellular-automaton step with fixed-0 boundaries. The machine for each rule was run on W = 48 cells for 40 steps from two random initial conditions (seed 20261110) and the tape compared cell-for-cell with direct evolution after every step: all 256 elementary rules, 100 random k=3 r=1 rules, 50 random k=2 r=2 rules, 20 random k=4 r=1 rules and 10 random k=3 r=2 rules (436 rules, 1,674,240 cell comparisons). A mutation check (machine for rule 110 compared with rule 124) produced 225 mismatches in 10 steps, confirming the harness detects disagreement.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.898, "truth": 0.945, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.99 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.9 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.89, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA0irJOdZRexwqvms8I5wR45flDyiUUUQ9gmmwadRZieM", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch11-11", "key": "3ebb048a41fd341a", "label": "Simple arithmetic systems based on remainders can be universal", "statement": "A system that repeatedly takes a whole number, computes its remainder modulo a constant and applies an arithmetic operation chosen by that remainder can emulate a register machine, and is therefore universal; given how widespread universality is, arithmetic supporting it is unsurprising.", "quote": "The picture below shows that such a system can be set up to emulate a register machine. And from the fact that register machines are universal it follows that so too are such arithmetic systems.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 11: The Notion of Computation", "kind": "mathematical", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": true, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "supports", "evidence_kind": "computational", "data_test": { "verdict": "supports", "confidence": 0.9, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "computational", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/wolfram-nks/wolfram2002-ch11-11/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered. analysis.py compiles each register machine into the remainder-selected arithmetic map, then runs machine and map side by side. Test set: (a) all 200 register machines drawn with numpy seed 20261111 from the family with L = 5 and two registers (instruction type, register and jump target uniform), each from the state (1, 0, 0) and from one random state with registers in [0, 20], for 10000 steps; (b) three hand-written programs with L in {3, 5, 7} that move or copy register contents so that the registers grow without bound, 20000 steps each. 'supports' if at every step of every run the decoded (i, a, b) equals the directly simulated register-machine state (0 mismatches out of all compared steps) and, as a check that the comparison can fail, a deliberately perturbed map (one branch's additive constant changed by 1) produces a mismatch within 10000 steps on at least one of the hand-written programs. Universality of the arithmetic systems then follows from the universality of two-register machines (Minsky 1967), which is cited, not tested.", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered. 'refutes' if any run of the correctly compiled map disagrees with the register machine at any step. 'inconclusive' with reason 'other' if the perturbation check fails to produce a mismatch (the comparison would then be too weak to count).", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: nks-ch11-11-register-machine-compiler", "inference_method": "analysis.py compiles each two-register machine (program length L) into a table of 6L branches (p, q, s), one per residue n mod 6L, of the form n -> (p*n + q)/s with p, s in {1, 2, 3}: increments multiply the 2^a 3^b part by 2 or 3, decrements of a nonzero register divide it by 2 or 3 (the residue mod 6L tells whether the register is nonzero), and the additive constant moves the program position. Register machine and arithmetic map were run side by side in exact Python integers: 200 random L = 5 programs (numpy seed 20261111) from two starting states each for 10000 steps, and three hand-written growth programs (L = 3, 5, 7; moduli 18, 30, 42) for 20000 steps. At every step the integer n was compared with the encoding i + L * 2^a * 3^b of the simulated machine state (equivalent to decoding, since the encoding is injective). A perturbed map with one additive constant changed by one was run as a check that the comparison can fail.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.899, "truth": 0.945, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.96 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.93 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.885, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAAwetRZiF1c_TO4KTXhI79rdRDmofoTlKlMhFs46t26E", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch11-12", "key": "dd435e98140a9f17", "label": "Structurally different systems are computationally equivalent", "statement": "Because essentially all the kinds of systems studied (cellular automata, Turing machines, substitution systems, register machines and others) can emulate each other, a wide variety of systems with very different underlying structures are fundamentally equivalent in the computations they can perform, so computation can be studied abstractly with results applying across systems.", "quote": "In a sense its most important consequence is that it implies that from a computational point of view a very wide variety of systems, with very different underlying structures, are at some level fundamentally equivalent.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 11: The Notion of Computation", "kind": "general-principle", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.808, "truth": 0.91, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.96 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.86 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.825, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RATDN6-xx8nu_4JjwXb9EF2F1W9b5jxc8c4bEKv1WFN9U", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch11-13", "key": "f4dfc7557a36c4e5", "label": "Past the threshold of universality, more complex rules add no capability", "statement": "As systems of a given type are given progressively greater computational capabilities they eventually pass a threshold of universality, after which the set of computations they can perform is always the same, so more sophisticated rules gain nothing further and a universal system's capabilities are independent of the details of its construction.", "quote": "But the phenomenon of universality implies that this is not the case, and that as soon as one has passed the threshold of universality, nothing more can in a sense ever be gained.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 11: The Notion of Computation", "kind": "general-principle", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.823, "truth": 0.8, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.86 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.74 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.83, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA_oZ9kBXI4Pv5Ogwhn5_REZ2ayOkhjgKxVyTZVaWeX2Q", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch11-14", "key": "52a843f8c1248df3", "label": "Elementary cellular automaton rule 110 is universal", "statement": "Rule 110, a two-color nearest-neighbor elementary cellular automaton, is universal: by arranging its naturally occurring localized structures as components, it can be made to emulate any cyclic tag system, and hence any Turing machine.", "quote": "And indeed in the case of rule 110 it took several years of work to develop the necessary ideas and tools. But finally it has turned out to be possible to show that the rule 110 cellular automaton is in fact universal.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 11: The Notion of Computation", "kind": "mathematical", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": true, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "inconclusive", "evidence_kind": "computational", "data_test": { "verdict": "inconclusive", "confidence": 0.9, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "computational", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/wolfram-nks/wolfram2002-ch11-14/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered: simulate rule 110 on rings of 1200 cells from 60 uniformly random initial rows (numpy default_rng seed 20261031) for 4000 steps. Ether cells are those whose 7 x 14 neighbourhood is invariant under the lattice translation (t, x) -> (t + 1, x - 4). In rows t = 3000..3900 (every 100 steps), maximal runs of non-ether cells of width <= 60 are 'structures'. For each structure, search for the smallest temporal period P <= 100 and shift |s| <= 50 such that the window (structure plus 14 cells of ether on each side) reappears exactly at (t + P, x + s). Component premise confirmed if: (1) the ether, i.e. the (3,2)/(4,-2) lattice, covers more than 50% of the cells at t >= 3000 in every run; (2) at least 90% of structures resolve to a period, and every resolved period (P, s) is a positive integer combination of Cook's A and B periods that coincides with one of Cook's tabulated glider periods (allowing the period to be a positive integer multiple of a tabulated one, for packets such as A^n); (3) the classes A, B, C, D, E and E-bar are each observed at least once. Because the test replays only the glider inventory and not the cyclic-tag-system emulation, the verdict when all three conditions hold is pre-declared as 'inconclusive' with reason 'not-operationalizable' (universality is settled by proof, not by this computation), with the component results reported as supporting evidence.", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered: 'refutes' if the standard ether does not form (condition 1 fails in a majority of runs), or if the A, C or E-bar classes (the data carriers of Cook's construction) are never observed in 60 random runs, or if resolved structures have space-time periods incompatible with Cook's table (a period that is not an integer combination of (3, 2) and (4, -2) would contradict his lattice argument). Such results would undermine the published construction that the claim cites and would be reported as 'refutes' of the component premise with confidence <= 0.6, since a construction could in principle use rarer gliders.", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: rule110-random-soup-gliders, cook2004-glider-table", "inference_method": "analysis.py runs rule 110 from 60 random rows on 1200-cell rings for 4208 steps. In rows 3000..3900 (every 100 steps) it marks ether cells by invariance of their 7 x 14 neighbourhood under the ether lattice translation (t, x) -> (t+1, x-4), extracts maximal non-ether runs (structures) of width <= 60, keeps those with 14 cells of ether on each side (isolated), and for each searches the smallest space-time period (P <= 100, |s| <= min(50, P)) at which the structure and its margins recur twice. Each minimal period is compared with the (time, displacement) periods of Cook's Figure 5 (exact match, or an integer multiple for packets) and checked to be a non-negative integer combination of the A period (3, 2) and the B period (4, -2). Two refinements were added after a trial run: |s| <= P (matches with faster-than-light displacement are neighbouring identical gliders, not periods) and recurrence at two consecutive periods. Run time about 15 s including the PDF download.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.935, "truth": 0.985, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.99 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.98 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.945, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAhaUntasg-MxhwGbeNuQh4iyeu_T-0OTNrop7xp_HPvQ", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch11-15", "key": "78f970192ad6ad84", "label": "Universality should be common, including among very simple rules", "statement": "The universality of rule 110, one of the simplest possible cellular automaton rules, implies that universality is far more common than previously thought and should occur in a very wide range of systems, including many with rather simple rules.", "quote": "But knowing that a system like rule 110 is universal, the whole picture changes, and now it seems likely that instead universality should actually be seen in a very wide range of systems, including many with rather simple rules.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 11: The Notion of Computation", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.422, "truth": 0.65, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.57 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.73 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.705, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAQFXpY8If0ktFVBiET1SWU-TGgygqL3y7FwMB99PyV2U", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch11-16", "key": "d196da7b11d141e9", "label": "Complexity of behavior saturates soon after the simplest rules", "statement": "As rules become progressively more complicated, overall behavior grows more complex only until the threshold of universality is reached, and since that threshold is very low, behavior beyond the very simplest rules of any kind should quickly become as complex as it will ever be—consistent with the Chapter 3 survey.", "quote": "So what this means is that if one looks at a sequence of systems with progressively more complicated rules, one should expect that the overall behavior they produce will become more complex only until the threshold of universality is reached.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 11: The Notion of Computation", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.532, "truth": 0.41, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.22 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.6 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.705, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAA8-6uej2ci2cNnmnSa14OUtorv1yn4CkK-zcbdCIYl0", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch11-17", "key": "4492cb565220d71d", "label": "All class 4 cellular automata are expected to be universal", "statement": "Any cellular automaton showing class 4 behavior (localized structures moving and interacting in complicated ways) will, like rule 110, turn out to be universal, because such rules eventually yield localized structures rich enough to support universality.", "quote": "I strongly suspect that it is true in general that any cellular automaton which shows overall class 4 behavior will turn out—like rule 110—to be universal.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 11: The Notion of Computation", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.432, "truth": 0.4, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.38 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.42 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.75, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAhuyrRia0saDYcEKd-UJN61_yvbJgycxbgjhEdLZISZk", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch11-18", "key": "ca37219d05bc0586", "label": "Rule 110 and its reflections are the only clear elementary class 4 rules", "statement": "Among the 256 elementary cellular automata, the only clear immediate example of class 4 behavior is rule 110 together with its left-right and black-white equivalents (rules 124, 137 and 193), while class 4 behavior is common once more colors or neighbors are allowed, even for totalistic rules.", "quote": "Among the 256 so-called elementary cellular automata that allow only two possible colors for each cell and depend only on nearest neighbors, the only clear immediate example is rule 110—together with rules 124, 137 and 193 obtained by trivially reversing left and right or black and white.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 11: The Notion of Computation", "kind": "computational-observation", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.808, "truth": 0.845, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.83 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.86 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.79, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAiDEF-Sh71ocjOEgcFQ9Q2lMsYIqnG_qYiTx8J-CkJzU", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch11-19", "key": "5703d9203e78a6fd", "label": "Class 1 and 2 cellular automata cannot be universal", "statement": "Cellular automata that produce only uniform or repetitive patterns (class 1 and class 2) can never be universal, because they transmit information only over limited distances and so support only processes involving a limited number of cells.", "quote": "In a sense the fundamental reason for this—as we discussed on page 252—is that such class 1 and class 2 cellular automata never allow any transmission of information except over limited distances.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 11: The Notion of Computation", "kind": "mathematical", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": true, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "mixed", "evidence_kind": "computational", "data_test": { "verdict": "mixed", "confidence": 0.7, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "computational", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/wolfram-nks/wolfram2002-ch11-19/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered. Family: all 256 elementary CA rules. For each rule, 10 trials: ring of N = 800 cells, random initial condition with density 1/2 (numpy default_rng seed 20261033), evolve 1000 steps to configuration C; the trial is 'settled' if C recurs within the next 64 steps (temporal period <= 64, which includes uniform and shifted-periodic states). A rule is 'operational class 1/2' if >= 9 of 10 trials settle. In every settled trial, flip one cell of C (the cell at index 400) and evolve both copies 400 further steps on the ring (N = 800 > 2 x 400, so the damage cannot wrap); record the damage width w = rightmost - leftmost differing cell + 1 (0 if none). A rule is 'bounded' if w <= 20 in all of its settled trials, 'spreading' if the median w over settled trials >= 100 (linear growth), otherwise 'intermediate'. The claim PASSES if 100% of operational class 1/2 rules are 'bounded'. Validation (reported, not decisive): the rules Wikipedia cites as Wolfram's class 1 and 2 examples (0, 32, 160, 232; 4, 108, 218, 250) must be operational class 1/2 and the class 3 and 4 examples (22, 30, 126, 150, 182; 110, 54) must not be; and the fraction of non-settled rules that are 'spreading' is reported.", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered. The claim FAILS if any operational class 1/2 rule is 'spreading' (a settled rule that nevertheless transmits a perturbation over a linearly growing region). If some class 1/2 rules are 'intermediate' but none 'spreading', the verdict is 'mixed'. If the Wikipedia example rules are misclassified by the operational definition, that is reported as a caveat on the mapping to Wolfram's phenomenological classes but does not change the verdict.", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: eca-settled-state-perturbation, wikipedia-eca-class-examples", "inference_method": "analysis.py runs all 256 rules: 10 seeded random initial conditions on an 800-cell ring, 1000 steps, period detection up to 64 steps, then a single-cell flip of the settled configuration and 400 further steps for both copies; damage width = rightmost - leftmost differing cell + 1. Operational class 1/2 = >= 9/10 trials settled; bounded = max width <= 20; spreading = median width >= 100. The Wikipedia page is fetched for its checksum and the example rules per class are checked against the operational classification. Per-rule values in derived/rules.csv (including a post-hoc width at step 200), fetch record in derived/wikipedia.json; runtime about 50 s.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.754, "truth": 0.84, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.88 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.8 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.76, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA_H4GspD6mtyRuHPOxXvzLkazj_WE51E01U9PuAI29CA", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch11-20", "key": "2c2fb1abeae710cd", "label": "Nested-pattern and additive cellular automata cannot be universal", "statement": "Cellular automata whose information transmission is highly constrained so that patterns are essentially nested, and additive rules such as rules 90 and 150 whose states after a power-of-two number of steps are simple superpositions of shifted copies of the initial condition, cannot be universal.", "quote": "And since there are many kinds of behavior that do not return to such predictable forms after any limited number of steps, one must conclude that additive rules cannot be universal.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 11: The Notion of Computation", "kind": "mathematical", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": true, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "supports", "evidence_kind": "computational", "data_test": { "verdict": "supports", "confidence": 0.6, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "computational", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/wolfram-nks/wolfram2002-ch11-20/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered. (a) For each of the eight linear rules, each cyclic lattice size N in {1023, 2048}, 20 seeded random initial conditions of density 1/2 plus the single-cell initial condition, and each k = 0..10, the configuration after 2^k steps equals bit-for-bit the XOR of the initial condition shifted by d*2^k over the offsets d in the rule's support (the support is read off the rule table as the cells on which the one-step response to a single 1 is nonzero). (b) An additivity screen T(x xor y) = T(x) xor T(y) on 200 seeded random pairs at N = 256 identifies exactly the eight linear rules, and the affine screen T(x xor y) = T(x) xor T(y) xor T(0) exactly the eight linear plus the eight complementary rules (255, 195, 165, 153, 105, 85, 51, 15). (c) For each of the eight control rules 18, 22, 30, 45, 54, 73, 110, 122 and each k = 0..8, the 2^k-step map fails additivity on at least one of 50 seeded random pairs at N = 256 (so the state after 2^k steps is not a superposition of shifted copies of the initial condition for generic initial conditions). (d) The number of nonzero cells in row t of the single-cell pattern of rule 90 (t = 0..T) equals term t of OEIS A001316 and that of rule 150 equals term t of A071053, for every term available in the OEIS b-files up to t = 4095 (the b-files are fetched and their sha256 recorded). PASS (supports the claim's checkable premise) if (a), (b), (c) and (d) all hold. The non-universality conclusion itself is a proof-type statement (a map that is linear over GF(2) at every power-of-two step cannot emulate the non-linear behaviour an arbitrary computation requires under the encodings the book considers) and is not decided by this test; its evidential weight is recorded in the confidence.", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered. FAIL (refutes the premise) if (a) fails for any linear rule, k, lattice size or initial condition (the stated superposition property is false), or if (d) fails for rule 90 or rule 150 (the single-cell patterns are not the nested patterns the claim describes). MIXED if (a) and (d) hold but (b) or (c) fails (the superposition property is true of rules 90 and 150 but does not cleanly separate additive from complex rules as the book's argument requires). INCONCLUSIVE with reason data-unavailable only for part (d) if the OEIS b-files cannot be retrieved; (a)-(c) are then still reported and the verdict rests on them with reduced confidence.", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: elementary-ca-additivity-generator, oeis-A001316, oeis-A071053", "inference_method": "analysis.py implements elementary CA rules on cyclic lattices. (a) For each of the eight GF(2)-linear rules it reads the support offsets off the rule table and checks, for N = 1023 and 2048, 20 seeded random initial conditions plus a single cell, and k = 0..10, that the configuration after 2^k steps equals the XOR of the initial condition shifted by d*2^k over the support (462 checks per rule). (b) It screens all 256 rules for additivity T(x xor y) = T(x) xor T(y) and affinity on 200 random pairs at N = 256. (c) For the eight class-3/4 control rules it counts, for k = 0..8, how many of 50 random pairs violate additivity of the 2^k-step map. (d) It computes the row populations of the single-cell patterns of rules 90 and 150 for 4096 rows and compares them term by term with the OEIS b-files of A001316 and A071053 fetched over HTTPS (sha256 recorded). Runtime 15 s.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.824, "truth": 0.9, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.93 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.87 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.835, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA0pl9LhGu5oI6it9mR1tP79lGQj9KADHU-tMVqqkB8a0", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch11-21", "key": "f2c4fbdb2322da57", "label": "Rule 54 shows only repetitive or nested forms in 100 million initial conditions", "statement": "Rule 54, a possible class 4 elementary cellular automaton, shows only repetitive or nested behavior in its first hundred million initial conditions, leaving it uncertain whether rule 54 is universal.", "quote": "And as one continues one sees various other repetitive and nested forms. But at least up to the hundred millionth initial condition one sees nothing that is fundamentally any more complicated.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 11: The Notion of Computation", "kind": "computational-observation", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "supports", "evidence_kind": "computational", "data_test": { "verdict": "supports", "confidence": 0.6, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "computational", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/wolfram-nks/wolfram2002-ch11-21/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered. Family: initial conditions n = 1..65536 (16 bits), cell values = binary digits of n placed on an infinite white background (validated against the figure: n = 1 single cell, n = 3 two cells, n = 291 nested); rule 54 run for T = 256 steps on a lattice wide enough that the light cone never reaches the edge. Classifier (frozen before the census): the number D of distinct 6 x 6 space-time tiles whose top-left corner lies in rows 128..250 and inside the light cone (plus 2 cells) of the pattern. Calibration on controls outside the family, disclosed: repetitive and nested rules give D <= 1007 (rule 90 single cell 115, random 14-bit seeds 267-395; rule 150 single 316, random seeds 804-1007; rule 22 single 119; rule 18 random 309-602; rules 250, 108, 184, 62, 41 random 1-178), while class 3/4 controls give D >= 1094 (rule 110 random 14- and 30-bit seeds 1094-1553; rule 30 6801-7166; rule 45 6338-6401), with a few class-3 rules from narrow seeds in between (rule 106: 462 and 2912; rule 126: 130-402; rule 146: 371-413; rule 73: 64-774). The eight rule-54 patterns shown in the book's figure (n = 1, 3, 75, 259, 291, 787, 803, 56549) give D = 10, 37, 315, 315, 286, 391, 391, 370, and a batch of 256 random 14-bit seeds gave max 391. Threshold: D > 1050 (geometric midpoint of 1007 and 1094) = 'more complicated'. Also recorded per initial condition: exact temporal periodicity (period <= 16) of the pattern's core over steps 128..256 ('repetitive'). The claim PASSES if 0 of the 65536 initial conditions has D > 1050. Reported, not decisive: the distribution of D, the fraction that is exactly periodic, the number with D > 700 (a stricter threshold that still clears all rule-54 book examples), and for any initial condition above threshold a re-run with T = 512.", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered. The claim FAILS if at least one initial condition n <= 65536 has D > 1050 and the T = 512 re-run also gives D > 1050 (sustained local complexity comparable to the class 3/4 controls). If some exceed 1050 at T = 256 but not at T = 512 the verdict is 'mixed' (transient complexity). The census is 1/1526 of the book's 10^8 initial conditions; a pass is consistent with the claim but far from exhausting it.", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: rule54-initial-condition-census", "inference_method": "analysis.py evolves rule 54 for 256 steps from every initial condition n = 1..65535 (binary digits of n on white; batches of 512 vectorised in numpy on a lattice wide enough that the light cone never reaches the edge), encodes every 6 x 6 space-time tile with top-left in rows 128..250 inside the light cone as a 36-bit integer and counts distinct tiles D; patterns with D <= 400 are also tested for exact temporal periodicity (period <= 16) of the light-cone core over steps 128..256. The 20 initial conditions with the largest D are re-run for 512 steps. Per-initial-condition values in derived/census.csv.xz; runtime about 3 minutes.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.759, "truth": 0.49, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.34 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.64 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.755, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAEAN5VW-darkOjNBXqZqhT0bcbs_lNaRzom86o_GSkv0", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch11-22", "key": "d2049d51952e2f1e", "label": "Any non-repetitive, non-nested system is expected to be universal", "statement": "More or less any system whose behavior is not fundamentally repetitive or nested will in the end turn out to be universal, so there is a close connection between universality and the appearance of complex behavior, though proving it will be far easier for some systems (such as rule 110) than others.", "quote": "As I will discuss in the next chapter, my general expectation is that more or less any system whose behavior is not somehow fundamentally repetitive or nested will in the end turn out to be universal.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 11: The Notion of Computation", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.329, "truth": 0.185, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.11 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.26 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.75, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RArlQO6aCGPkjPuK2fD-Osl_6yoZqAAX4t3GPjopvap6Q", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch11-23", "key": "6d7118d47b2ed4a6", "label": "Uncontrolled information flow in class 3 rules hinders universality proofs", "statement": "Universality proofs proceed by building components from localized structures, which requires controlled transmission of information; in class 3 systems a change to a single cell eventually spreads to all cells, making it very hard to identify definite components and hence to prove universality.", "quote": "And this kind of uncontrolled transmission of information makes it very difficult to identify pieces that could be used as definite components in a construction.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 11: The Notion of Computation", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.463, "truth": 0.815, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.75 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.88 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.675, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAsPLAF9z1YIi1Y0-Mo5PzrPriV_M7mjHxpfnPfpfOfY0", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch11-24", "key": "4ff287ca5e4c2451", "label": "Rules 30 and 45 are expected to be universal", "statement": "Although the localized structures found in rules 30 and 45 on repetitive backgrounds all move at the same speed and so cannot interact, preventing a rule 110-style proof, rules 30 and 45 will nevertheless turn out to be universal.", "quote": "So although this means that the particular type of approach we used to demonstrate the universality of rule 110 cannot immediately be used for rule 30 or rule 45, it certainly does not mean that these rules are not in the end universal.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 11: The Notion of Computation", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.484, "truth": 0.3, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.24 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.36 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.795, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAivP-vOKwhVJ7fxZ2QgOXdjmOgc5ddlRUmT0PeVgtlBo", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch11-25", "key": "159b1c7abdd0b335", "label": "Complex elementary rules can emulate one step of every elementary rule", "statement": "Using block encodings, elementary rules with complex behavior such as rules 22, 30 and 110 can be made to emulate a single step of all 256 elementary cellular automata, whereas rules with simple behavior such as 90 and 184 can emulate only a few; this supports the idea that complex-looking cellular automata can do arbitrarily sophisticated computations.", "quote": "But for underlying rules that have more complex behavior—like rules 22, 30, or 110—it turns out that in the end it is always possible to emulate all 256 elementary rules.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 11: The Notion of Computation", "kind": "computational-observation", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "inconclusive", "evidence_kind": "computational", "data_test": { "verdict": "inconclusive", "confidence": 0.5, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "computational", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/wolfram-nks/wolfram2002-ch11-25/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered. Scheme: the initial condition is periodic with period w+1: one input cell x[i] in {0,1} followed by a fixed background block B in {0,1}^w. The underlying rule f is run for t steps with w+1 <= t <= 2w+2 and the output for cell i is read at offset d in 0..w to the right of x[i]'s position. For each (w, B, t, d) the output is computed for all 32 assignments of (x[i-2], ..., x[i+2]) in a window padded on both sides with t+2 further background cells (input positions in the padding set to 0; they lie outside the light cone). If the output depends only on (x[i-1], x[i], x[i+1]) (the 4 assignments of the outer inputs agree for each of the 8 inner triples), the induced 3-input truth table is an elementary rule g that f emulates for one step at width w. E(f, W) = the set of g realised for some w <= W. Widths searched: W = 1..6. 'supports' if |E(f, 6)| = 256 for each f in {22, 30, 110} and |E(f, 6)| <= 32 for each f in {90, 184}.", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered. 'refutes' if |E(90, 6)| >= 128 or |E(184, 6)| >= 128 (a 'simple' rule emulates at least half of all elementary rules), or if min over f in {22, 30, 110} of |E(f, 6)| is smaller than max over f in {90, 184} of |E(f, 6)| (the contrast is reversed). 'inconclusive' with reason 'other' if neither condition holds, e.g. because 22, 30 or 110 do not reach 256 within W = 6 under this scheme: Wolfram's figure uses a scheme whose exact readout and width conventions are not fully recoverable from the online text, so a shortfall under the reconstructed scheme does not refute the claim. In every case the counts for all 256 underlying rules at W = 6 are reported.", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: nks-ch11-25-single-step-emulation-search", "inference_method": "analysis.py builds, for each underlying rule f, each background width w = 1..6 and each of the 2^w background blocks, a periodic initial condition with one input cell per period, runs f for t = w+1..2w+2 steps on all 32 assignments of five consecutive inputs (numpy, vectorised over assignments), reads the output at each offset d = 0..w below the central input, and records the induced 3-input truth table whenever the output is independent of the two outer inputs. The cumulative number of distinct elementary rules so obtained was computed for all 256 underlying rules (25 s). After seeing that the counts were still rising at w = 6, the same search was continued post hoc to w = 12 for rules 22, 30, 45, 90, 110 and 184 (a further 2 minutes).", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.877, "truth": 0.71, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.72 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.7 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.835, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RABnbb3uysHArGudXtvCvpWd4cY_juqKb3zTtHR849DBY", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch11-26", "key": "e9df864809fe9a04", "label": "Perhaps as many as 27 of the 256 elementary rules are universal", "statement": "Since elementary cellular automata whose behavior looks complex can do computations as sophisticated as desired, they are expected to be universal, so perhaps as many as 27 of the 256 elementary rules are universal.", "quote": "And this suggests that such cellular automata will in the end turn out to be universal—with the result that out of the 256 elementary rules one expects that perhaps as many as 27 will in fact be universal.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 11: The Notion of Computation", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.499, "truth": 0.25, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.2 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.3 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.755, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAg52HnTw_Uh-iXkrEL8RLzMgX7uLES-pZpqrOEuuOs3c", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch11-27", "key": "4558743344837cec", "label": "A 2-state 5-color Turing machine is universal via rule 110", "statement": "A Turing machine with just 2 states and 5 colors, far simpler than the 7-state 4-color machine that had long been the simplest known, is universal because it emulates rule 110 by sweeping back and forth and updating all cells by one rule 110 step per sweep.", "quote": "And in fact, by using the universality of rule 110 it turns out to be possible to come up with the vastly simpler universal Turing machine shown below—with just 2 states and 5 possible colors.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 11: The Notion of Computation", "kind": "mathematical", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": true, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "supports", "evidence_kind": "computational", "data_test": { "verdict": "supports", "confidence": 0.9, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "computational", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/wolfram-nks/wolfram2002-ch11-27/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered. Using the rule table transcribed from the p. 707 figure (10 cases; the transcription is recorded in derived/tm25-rule.json), for the single-cell initial list and for 40 random binary lists of length 10-60 (numpy default_rng seeds 0..39), with a fixed integer offset c determined once from the single-cell run and then held fixed, the k-th new-rightmost snapshot decoded as above equals rule-110 iterate k-c of the initial list for every k from c to c+199, on every cell of the window spanning the full rule-110 pattern (100% of 41 x 200 snapshot comparisons). 'Supports' if this holds.", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered. 'Refutes' if for any initial list some snapshot differs from the corresponding rule-110 iterate, or if no fixed offset makes the single-cell run match; 'inconclusive / not-operationalizable' if the rule table cannot be read unambiguously from the published figure.", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: nks-p707-fig-a-tm25-rule, nks-note-rule110-turing-machines, cook2004-rule110-universality", "inference_method": "The 10 rule icons of the p. 707 figure were transcribed by grey level and arrow geometry (derived/tm25-rule.json). analysis.py simulates the machine on a tape of colour-1 cells, a 0, the rule-110 list encoded as 4*list, and 0's, with the head on the first 0 right of the data in state 1 (as in the figure), records the tape each time the head reaches a new rightmost position, decodes colour 4 as black, and compares snapshot k with rule-110 iterate k of the list (time offset and spatial shift fixed once from the single-cell run: both 0). This is done for the single-cell list and 40 random lists of length 10-60, 200 snapshots each. The pre-registration's guessed start (head on the prepended 0) is also run and reported.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.92, "truth": 0.92, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.98 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.86 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.905, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA7lxM3B9mJWK8gY_W9e6BhDqO33PS4ubyJ8WqUMK630w", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch11-28", "key": "994ba83a68ae7bfd", "label": "No 2-state 2-color Turing machine can be universal", "statement": "All 4096 Turing machines with 2 states and 2 colors have behavior too simple to support universality.", "quote": "If one looks at the 4096 Turing machines with 2 states and 2 colors it is fairly easy to see that their behavior is in all cases too simple to support universality.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 11: The Notion of Computation", "kind": "computational-observation", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "supports", "evidence_kind": "computational", "data_test": { "verdict": "supports", "confidence": 0.75, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "computational", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/wolfram-nks/wolfram2002-ch11-28/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered. For each of the 4096 machines and each initial condition in the set I = {every binary tape string of length 1-7 with the head on each of its cells, in each of the 2 states} (1284 initial conditions per machine) plus 100 random tapes of length 16-32 per machine (seeded), simulate on an infinite blank (0) tape for up to 10000 steps and classify the evolution exactly as (A) eventually periodic modulo translation: the head-relative configuration (state, tape between the outermost non-zero cells, head offset) recurs exactly, which implies periodic evolution forever; or (B) escaping: the head is beyond all non-zero cells, moving outward over blank cells, and the same state occurs twice during that outward run, which implies it moves outward forever. 'Supports' if 100% of the (machine, initial condition) pairs are classified as (A) or (B) within 10000 steps, and the largest period found is at most 1000 steps. The symmetry-reduced count of distinct machines (state relabelling, colour swap, reflection) is also computed and compared with Wolfram's 560 as a consistency check on the enumeration.", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered. The test cannot establish universality, so 'refutes' is not reachable by this computation alone. 'Mixed' if any (machine, initial condition) pair is unclassified after 10000 steps (unbounded non-periodic behaviour within the tested inputs, which would be at least consistent with the complexity universality needs) or if periods above 1000 steps occur. 'Supports' otherwise.", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: tm-2-2-enumeration-generator, nks-note-turing-machine-enumeration", "inference_method": "analysis.py writes the random initial tapes, compiles tm22.c with gcc and runs it over all 4096 machines x 3176 initial conditions (13,008,896 runs, 10000-step limit). Each run is classified exactly as (A) eventually periodic modulo translation (the head-relative configuration recurs) or (B) escaping, with two exact escape tests: B1 as pre-registered (head beyond all non-zero cells moving outward with a repeated state) and B2 (two successive new-extreme head positions with identical state and identical non-zero tape, the head farther from the tape than the time between them, so the motion repeats verbatim on blank tape). Runs that are neither are put through three post-hoc heuristic classes added after the first full run showed 16% of runs growing their tape: (C) regular linear growth, where the last 16 events at which the head reaches a new extreme position (sampled with stride 1-3) have constant second time differences, constant state and tape contents S_{n+1} = P + S_n[:o] + B + S_n[o:] + Q with fixed P, B, Q, o; (D) the same with event gaps obeying g_{n+1} = a g_n + b, a >= 2 (binary-counter growth); (E) a counter certificate for runs whose tape never grows: at >= 8 returns of the head to one end of its range, in a fixed state, the tape read as a binary number changes by the same non-zero amount. C/D stop the run early once 16 events fit; as a check the program is also run without early stopping (full 10000 steps) on machines 256-319 and 2048-2111 and the class counts compared. Symmetry-distinct machines are counted under state relabelling, colour swap and reflection.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.907, "truth": 0.955, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.97 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.94 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.875, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAULaSYq-MJJw_ipPQOzWiTIpF4PJKUFCGd1pgjBuiQcc", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch11-29", "key": "7afdf90b55b23506", "label": "Complex behavior is rare but present in small Turing machine spaces", "statement": "Starting from a blank tape, roughly one in 50,000 2-state 4-color Turing machines and one in 200,000 4-state 2-color machines show complex behavior, and 14 essentially equivalent machines among the 2,985,984 with 2 states and 3 colors do so.", "quote": "Among such 2-state 4-color Turing machines perhaps one in 50,000 shows complex behavior when started from a blank tape.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 11: The Notion of Computation", "kind": "computational-observation", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.69, "truth": 0.785, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.8 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.77 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.72, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAapCgGgFbh2v1T9XJu_RZsOk1mqqViyXk3-iUuWyQz3g", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch11-30", "key": "779ae17142facb0c", "label": "A complex 2-state 3-color Turing machine is likely the simplest universal one", "statement": "The 2-state 3-color Turing machine numbered 596,440, which yields complicated behavior from a blank tape, is likely universal, and if so would by most measures be the simplest universal Turing machine.", "quote": "And although it will no doubt be very difficult to prove, it seems likely that this Turing machine will in the end turn out to be universal. And if so, then presumably it will by most measures be the very simplest Turing machine that is universal.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 11: The Notion of Computation", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.568, "truth": 0.44, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.08 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.8 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.77, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA4UQZ0K0rU8za5i6xuQYh4xoqAoZ19uECftTYGZLrEpc", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch11-31", "key": "abbfdf193620f0b7", "label": "All 3-state 2-color Turing machines behave simply from blank tape", "statement": "With blank initial conditions all 2,985,984 Turing machines with 3 states and 2 colors quickly produce simple repetitive or nested behavior, and even with more complicated initial conditions their behavior eventually seems to resolve into a simple form.", "quote": "With 3 states and 2 colors it turns out that with blank initial conditions all of the 2,985,984 possible Turing machines of this type quickly evolve to produce simple repetitive or nested behavior.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 11: The Notion of Computation", "kind": "computational-observation", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.698, "truth": 0.705, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.73 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.68 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.745, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAt586B1FHiNzyGTT1I3BJty9RG3JXbhcdbt09osowbrc", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch11-32", "key": "b74bbaf5ecb16984", "label": "Combinators show highly complex behavior despite simple rules", "statement": "Combinators, symbolic systems long known to be universal, show highly complex behavior despite simple rules—for example a length-8 initial expression grows exponentially with seemingly random internal structure—and they can emulate rule 110, suggesting their universality is just associated with general complex behavior.", "quote": "But from pictures like the ones on the facing page it is rather clear that despite their fairly simple underlying rules, the behavior of combinators can be highly complex.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 11: The Notion of Computation", "kind": "computational-observation", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "supports", "evidence_kind": "computational", "data_test": { "verdict": "supports", "confidence": 0.8, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "computational", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/wolfram-nks/wolfram2002-ch11-32/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered. (A) Growth: evolve s[s[s]][s][s][s][s] for 40 steps, each step = one ReplaceAll pass of {s[x][y][z] -> x[z][y[z]], k[x][y] -> x} (outermost subexpression first, no re-scan of replaced parts, heads and arguments visited); PASS-A if no fixed point is reached and a least-squares fit of log2(LeafCount) against step over steps 10..40 has slope in [0.45, 0.55] (book: growth like 2^(t/2)) with R^2 >= 0.99. (B) Census (reported, not decisive): evolve all 109,824 size-8 S/K expressions for up to 60 steps or until LeafCount > 20,000; record how many reach a fixed point, how many exceed 20,000 leaves (unbounded/exponential candidates), and the remainder; the book reports 49 with exponential growth. (C) Emulation: implement ToC bracket abstraction, p, num, inc, cr and w exactly as printed in the note; encode every binary list of length 3, 4 and 5 (56 lists) with p[num[Length]][Fold[p[Nest[s,k,#2]][#1]&, p[k][k], list]] fully normalised; apply w once, twice and three times (full normalisation by iterated ReplaceAll after each application); decode by applying the pair selectors (p[a][b][s[k]] -> a, p[a][b][k] -> b) and normalising; PASS-C if for all 56 lists and all t in 1..3 the decoded list equals t steps of rule 110 applied to the list padded with one 0 on each side per step (length n + 2t). The claim PASSES if PASS-A and PASS-C both hold (the growth and the emulation components, which are what the book presents as evidence); the census (B) and any descriptive statistics of internal structure are reported only.", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered. The claim FAILS if the size-7 expression reaches a fixed point or its growth is not exponential (slope outside [0.45, 0.55] or R^2 < 0.99), or if the published w combinator does not reproduce rule 110 for every tested list and step count. If w cannot be transcribed unambiguously from the note (the HTML lost the rule arrows) the emulation component is inconclusive (other) and the verdict rests on (A) as 'mixed'.", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: nks-combinator-constructions-p1121", "inference_method": "analysis.py implements hash-consed S/K terms with a memoised one-pass ReplaceAll step (whole expression first, then head and argument, replaced parts not re-scanned) and full normalisation by iterating passes to a fixed point. It (A) evolves s[s[s]][s][s][s][s] for 40 steps and fits log2 LeafCount on steps 10-40; (C) implements ToC bracket abstraction, p, inc, num, cr, the rule-110 cell combinator f (size 62, book: 61) and the step combinator w (size 674) from the note, encodes all 56 binary lists of length 3-5, applies w up to three times and decodes with the pair selectors; (B) runs the exhaustive census of the 109,824 size-8 expressions (60 steps or LeafCount > 20,000) and, as validation of the rewrite semantics, the 16,896 size-7 expressions, comparing with the counts printed in the note 'Combinator properties'. Full output in derived/census.json; runtime about 8 s.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.813, "truth": 0.9, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.92 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.88 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.805, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA7qO5Mouc0MlgfwD1ckyrRiOGTyaVNFwlu1trwHXLT_I", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch12-01", "key": "c236055486ffec7e", "label": "Every process, natural or artificial, can be viewed as a computation", "statement": "Any process that follows definite rules, including processes in nature governed by physical law as well as processes constructed by humans, can be viewed as a computation, giving a uniform framework for comparing very different processes.", "quote": "all processes, whether they are produced by human effort or occur spontaneously in nature, can be viewed as computations.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 12: The Principle of Computational Equivalence", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.073, "truth": 0.91, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.92 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.9 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.885, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAE_-IjKF7egNkCxWFCj6eLMAmgHadWBZqjptc3oij5zE", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch12-02", "key": "3b071b7d6b6d1459", "label": "Principle of Computational Equivalence: one maximal level of sophistication", "statement": "Almost all processes whose behavior is not obviously simple correspond to computations of equivalent sophistication; there is essentially a single highest level of computational sophistication, and almost all such processes reach it regardless of how simple their rules or initial conditions are.", "quote": "the most general is just to say that almost all processes that are not obviously simple can be viewed as computations of equivalent sophistication.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 12: The Principle of Computational Equivalence", "kind": "general-principle", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.307, "truth": 0.26, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.14 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.38 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.73, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAjB0GIklyBTe7e_3Csaoz-QgjAxwRCjMKMDG92-mg8Iw", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch12-03", "key": "3517be2173069354", "label": "No physical system can compute beyond cellular automata and Turing machines", "statement": "As a law of nature, no system that can actually be constructed in our universe can carry out explicit computations more sophisticated than those of universal systems such as cellular automata and Turing machines; imaginable hypercomputers (e.g. with infinite tables of results) cannot be built.", "quote": "no system can ever carry out explicit computations that are more sophisticated than those carried out by systems like cellular automata and Turing machines.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 12: The Principle of Computational Equivalence", "kind": "physical-hypothesis", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.408, "truth": 0.785, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.77 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.8 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.685, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAt3Y60hYNFgm_4a1JAmk0yR3P0_OTmoz32S7f7AnoJ8o", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch12-04", "key": "ebe6bcca855a7d75", "label": "An overwhelming fraction of non-simple rules are universal", "statement": "Among all possible rules of a given type (such as cellular automata) whose behavior is not obviously simple, i.e. not repetitive or nested, the overwhelming majority are computationally universal, so universality is extremely common rather than a rare engineered property.", "quote": "among all possible systems with behavior that is not obviously simple an overwhelming fraction are universal.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 12: The Principle of Computational Equivalence", "kind": "mathematical", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": true, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.376, "truth": 0.185, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.09 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.28 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.745, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAywL6rvA0TuZUCF26Hcj5pwbBIy-iTwiBgwxKKZTTeCo", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch12-05", "key": "a2d5de68f44642f7", "label": "Rules occurring in nature are typically not specially selected", "statement": "When no constraint such as engineering design or natural selection forces simple behavior, the rules that operate in nature are effectively selected in no special way apart from tending to be structurally simple, so they behave like randomly chosen rules and are almost always universal when their behavior is not obviously simple.", "quote": "most rules that appear in nature can be viewed as being selected in no special way—save perhaps for the fact that the structure of the rules themselves tends to be fairly simple.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 12: The Principle of Computational Equivalence", "kind": "model-of-nature", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.262, "truth": 0.22, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.1 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.34 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.67, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA2dfRGBojaony-KNLYFduYI3bvABm6SiU7pV6hBrCb4M", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch12-06", "key": "9638d91969cea15a", "label": "Rule 30 from a single cell contains every possible block", "statement": "The pattern generated by the rule 30 cellular automaton from a single black cell appears to contain every possible block of cells eventually, so that essentially any possible computation exists somewhere within this single pattern.", "quote": "So far as I can tell, all possible blocks eventually appear, potentially letting the pattern serve as a kind of directory of all possible computations.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 12: The Principle of Computational Equivalence", "kind": "computational-observation", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.688, "truth": 0.51, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.35 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.67 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.825, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAk-e51w7W-J99tvA5TMOCoCehHuyFSerfOMQNjSFgK2M", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch12-07", "key": "645e93149c7db44e", "label": "Complicated molecules generally do not reach minimum-energy configurations", "statement": "Although simple molecules may settle into minimum-energy configurations, complicated molecules typically do not; they explore configurations by an explicit evolution process, so nature does not actually solve hard constraint-satisfaction problems as traditional models idealize.", "quote": "while in simple cases complicated molecules may for example arrange themselves in configurations that minimize energy, the evidence is that in more complicated cases they typically do not.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 12: The Principle of Computational Equivalence", "kind": "model-of-nature", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.56, "truth": 0.785, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.84 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.73 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.695, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA6fe3uHu3KMxTBOq9y_RrR2MuCTPzgWStycYCIdoepIQ", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch12-08", "key": "2867ac804a73d951", "label": "Continuous systems cannot exceed discrete computation in practice", "statement": "Continuous systems, including analog computers, systems described by continuous equations, and even idealized perfectly continuous systems under reasonable assumptions, cannot perform computations fundamentally more sophisticated than discrete systems like cellular automata; continuity is largely an idealization.", "quote": "even idealized perfectly continuous systems will never in fact be able to perform fundamentally more sophisticated computations.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 12: The Principle of Computational Equivalence", "kind": "general-principle", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.543, "truth": 0.76, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.75 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.77 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.685, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA0ccvri2IaB4FY_KOLWmY31hGpUp7ika2jv30636X0Dg", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch12-09", "key": "4c4635a492ab6d68", "label": "Equations with trigonometric functions can encode infinite computations", "statement": "Whereas solving pure polynomial equations allows no computation beyond that of ordinary discrete systems, once trigonometric functions are allowed one can construct equations whose solution is equivalent to finding the outcome of infinitely many steps of a system like a cellular automaton.", "quote": "as soon as one even allows trigonometric functions, for example, it turns out that it becomes possible to construct equations for which finding a solution is equivalent to finding the outcome of an infinite number of steps in the evolution of a system like a cellular automaton.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 12: The Principle of Computational Equivalence", "kind": "mathematical", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": true, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.826, "truth": 0.805, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.82 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.79 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.795, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAS09Pq07xlvRgP6Cwmdp-PZK0U0JWzYsWNL_GFL5xg48", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch12-10", "key": "e55c28276cd287f6", "label": "Human thinking rests on rather simple computational processes", "statement": "The basic mechanisms of human thinking will turn out to correspond to rather simple computational processes, so human thought does not perform computations beyond the level allowed by the Principle of Computational Equivalence.", "quote": "the basic mechanisms of human thinking will in the end turn out to correspond to rather simple computational processes.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 12: The Principle of Computational Equivalence", "kind": "model-of-nature", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.36, "truth": 0.425, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.45 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.4 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.65, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAmLSFFfSPPkSPYRin9YNE35LkIrMIJOuWVydd53XQ-lw", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch12-11", "key": "cb384fd7e6f256b1", "label": "No hidden regularity beyond repetition and nesting in rule-30-like systems", "statement": "There is no hidden regularity in any large class of systems with complex behavior such as rule 30; beyond systems with obvious regularities like repetition and nesting, most systems are universal and computationally equivalent.", "quote": "I have gradually come to the conclusion that there is no hidden regularity in any large class of systems, and that instead what the Principle of Computational Equivalence suggests is correct", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 12: The Principle of Computational Equivalence", "kind": "general-principle", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.383, "truth": 0.205, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.08 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.33 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.745, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAlIlG-Ciw6pWfy5mtemiM-O7-Xzt1CAB20trdYWEzulo", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch12-12", "key": "c1112200a46b2a9c", "label": "Complexity arises because observers are computationally equivalent to systems", "statement": "Systems with simple rules appear complex because, once a low threshold is passed, their evolution is as computationally sophisticated as any process of perception or analysis used to study them, and this holds for any method of perception and analysis that can actually be used.", "quote": "observers will tend to be computationally equivalent to the systems they observe—with the inevitable consequence that they will consider the behavior of such systems complex.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 12: The Principle of Computational Equivalence", "kind": "general-principle", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.292, "truth": 0.385, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.21 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.56 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.675, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAVTXexHi8TxTKQJiemu2JSDhmGWivcY8x-7eAxyjHacM", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch12-13", "key": "893e8fa0c8a31d7d", "label": "Computational irreducibility blocks shortcuts to predicting behavior", "statement": "For computationally irreducible systems, even with complete knowledge of rules and initial conditions, there is no way to predict the behavior except by performing almost as many computational steps as the system's own evolution.", "quote": "there can be no way to predict how the system will behave except by going through almost as many steps of computation as the evolution of the system itself.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 12: The Principle of Computational Equivalence", "kind": "general-principle", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.317, "truth": 0.925, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.95 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.9 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.78, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAOjqxMpR-EQtP2c-OL27K_kvA-6vkMj4sef1fGEkpJag", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch12-14", "key": "02fc41196190d0f5", "label": "Only obviously simple behavior is reducible; nearly all else is irreducible", "statement": "Behavior that is obviously simple, such as repetitive or nested behavior, is always computationally reducible, while in practically all other cases behavior is computationally irreducible.", "quote": "If the behavior of a system is obviously simple—and is say either repetitive or nested—then it will always be computationally reducible. But it follows from the Principle of Computational Equivalence that in practically all other cases it will be computationally irreducible.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 12: The Principle of Computational Equivalence", "kind": "general-principle", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.454, "truth": 0.255, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.14 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.37 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.71, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAcO2asmEy_vui-LqyZv0NclsSvTu5sLBtW2p1j_RfFtI", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch12-15", "key": "17dfd086f057166c", "label": "Traditional theoretical science fails where irreducibility is present", "statement": "Traditional theoretical science, including its use of mathematical formulas, relies on computational reducibility, which is the fundamental reason it has made little progress with systems whose behavior is not quite simple and why it has tended to restrict its domain to reducible phenomena.", "quote": "this, I believe, is the fundamental reason that traditional theoretical science has never managed to get far in studying most types of systems whose behavior is not ultimately quite simple.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 12: The Principle of Computational Equivalence", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.242, "truth": 0.315, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.35 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.28 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.725, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAoaDatYEojnDHkxs9zbXLkTD4MC7o668Z-B7rmVc7Z-0", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch12-16", "key": "7d8a3d666d0ba67c", "label": "Many common systems can only be understood by explicit simulation", "statement": "Computer simulation is not merely a convenient substitute for mathematical formulas: there are many common systems whose behavior can be determined only by something like explicit simulation, and there can be no easy theory for almost any behavior that seems complex.", "quote": "there are many common systems whose behavior cannot in the end be determined at all except by something like an explicit simulation.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 12: The Principle of Computational Equivalence", "kind": "general-principle", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.506, "truth": 0.465, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.55 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.38 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.695, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAG0nymTIPGWZ58ImmBFUdBJWwDWJTcktMcNHncpL3osI", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch12-17", "key": "1a2931ee07849860", "label": "Nested cellular automaton patterns can be computed in logarithmic time", "statement": "For cellular automata with nested behavior such as elementary rules 60 and 188, the color of a cell after t steps can be found in about log2(t) steps from the base-2 digits of its position, rather than by tracing all t steps.", "quote": "In general, to find the color of a cell after t steps of rule 188 or rule 60 evolution takes about Log[2, t] steps.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 12: The Principle of Computational Equivalence", "kind": "computational-observation", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "supports", "evidence_kind": "computational", "data_test": { "verdict": "supports", "confidence": 0.95, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "computational", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/wolfram-nks/wolfram2002-ch12-17/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered, for each of rules 60 and 188: (i) the number of distinct 2-kernel elements A(2^k t + r, 2^k x + s), compared on a 64 x 64 window, saturates: the cumulative count over levels k <= 5 equals the cumulative count over all levels k <= K - 6 of a 2^K x 2^K pattern with K = 11 (i.e. no new element appears beyond level 5), and that count is at most 64; (ii) the finite automaton whose states are those kernel elements and whose transitions on a digit pair (dt, dx) go from element (k, r, s) to (k+1, r + 2^k dt, s + 2^k dx) is consistent (every representative of a state yields the same target state for each digit pair) and, run on the least-significant-first binary digits of (t, x), reproduces 100% of the cells of an independently evolved 2^12 x 2^12 pattern (t < 4096), three quarters of which lie outside the K = 11 construction range; (iii) the number of automaton steps for a cell at time t equals the number of binary digits of t, i.e. floor(log2 t) + 1.", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered: for rule 60 or rule 188 the kernel count keeps growing beyond level 5 (no saturation) or exceeds 64, or the automaton is inconsistent, or any cell of the 2^12 x 2^12 pattern disagrees with the automaton's output. Control rules 30 and 110 (not nested) are expected to fail (i) and (ii); if they passed, the test would be too weak and the verdict would be 'inconclusive' with reason 'not-operationalizable'.", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: eca-60-188-single-cell-4096-steps, eca-controls-30-110-90-150-single-cell-4096-steps", "inference_method": "analysis.py evolves each rule from a single black cell to a 4096 x 4096 array A(t, x). (i) For levels k = 0..7 it extracts every 2-kernel element A(2^k t + r, 2^k x + s) on a 32 x 32 window and counts cumulative distinct elements. (ii) From the 2048 x 2048 sub-pattern it builds the automaton whose states are the distinct 64 x 64 kernel windows (levels k <= 5), with transition (k, r, s) -> (k+1, r + 2^k dt, s + 2^k dx) on digit pair (dt, dx), checks that no state has conflicting or undefined transitions, then runs the automaton on the least-significant-first binary digits of (t, x) for all 16,777,216 cells of the 4096 x 4096 array (12 digit pairs) and compares with A; it also stops the automaton after bitlen(t) digit pairs and compares on the 8,390,656 cells with x <= t. Controls 30, 110 (mirrored), 90 and 150 (right halves) are treated identically. Run time about 30 s.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.952, "truth": 0.87, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.88 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.86 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.935, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA5-yqPRBnKVkWFUcroSLVZRR9jtIbWoOdRa6ShVJPufU", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch12-18", "key": "f15186af384773b5", "label": "Complex-looking yet computationally reducible systems are very rare", "statement": "Systems whose behavior looks complex but is nevertheless computationally reducible, such as the cellular automaton that generates digits of powers of 2, are very rare; in the vast majority of cases complex-looking behavior in nature and elsewhere is computationally irreducible.", "quote": "I strongly suspect that systems like this are very rare, and that in the vast majority of cases where the behavior that we see in nature and elsewhere appears to us complex it is in the end indeed associated with computational irreducibility.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 12: The Principle of Computational Equivalence", "kind": "general-principle", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.4, "truth": 0.28, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.2 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.36 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.69, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAzM5P97Y4IpJVFX5znphCpDDimWppMilQbwAx-_pg9vc", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch12-19", "key": "aec064dac1c20b0c", "label": "Apparent free will stems from irreducible brain computation", "statement": "The apparent freedom of human will arises because, although brain components follow definite laws, the brain's overall behavior is an irreducible computation whose outcome cannot be found by reasonable laws; no external influence, chaos, or quantum randomness is needed.", "quote": "even though all the components of our brains presumably follow definite laws, I strongly suspect that their overall behavior corresponds to an irreducible computation whose outcome can never in effect be found by reasonable laws.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 12: The Principle of Computational Equivalence", "kind": "model-of-nature", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.244, "truth": 0.195, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.15 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.24 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.71, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RASiSazi_f2Z7iBLk09j-zllqbTHdcPkT-taG7oq6FBRA", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch12-20", "key": "9da275f598775156", "label": "Undecidability shows up with very simple rules and initial conditions", "statement": "Undecidability has obvious effects even in a very simple system: in a 4-color totalistic cellular automaton (code 1004600) started from simple initial conditions, some patterns die out only after over a thousand steps while others are still growing after ten million steps with no indication of their final outcome.", "quote": "undecidability can have quite obvious effects even with a very simple underlying rule and very simple initial conditions.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 12: The Principle of Computational Equivalence", "kind": "computational-observation", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.766, "truth": 0.73, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.78 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.68 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.82, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAiAvin-k_Wg0uZyUjkwx7xPvP66ICpA1VfN8onwVT13Y", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch12-21", "key": "a554a0266b1d885c", "label": "Infinite-time questions about complex systems are almost always undecidable", "statement": "For almost any system whose behavior seems complex, almost any non-trivial question about its behavior after infinitely many steps (e.g. whether a pattern dies out, becomes repetitive, or ever produces a given arrangement) is undecidable, and such undecidability should be widespread in nature.", "quote": "for almost any system whose behavior seems to us complex almost any non-trivial question about what the system does after an infinite number of steps will be undecidable.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 12: The Principle of Computational Equivalence", "kind": "mathematical", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": true, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.406, "truth": 0.25, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.18 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.32 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.7, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA5Gg7SovHRlhJFHnwusnu9AIkmtR9ZHsB2WCwdt6Ctx8", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch12-22", "key": "4903472a05abea06", "label": "Post Correspondence Problem with three pairs is likely undecidable", "statement": "Whether a set of upper/lower block pairs can be concatenated to give identical strings (the Post Correspondence Problem) is straightforward for two pairs, but already with three pairs there is computational irreducibility, making the question undecidable in general.", "quote": "I strongly suspect that even with just three pairs there is already computational irreducibility", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 12: The Principle of Computational Equivalence", "kind": "mathematical", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": true, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.708, "truth": 0.175, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.03 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.32 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.79, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA3zcPcWDo_NVxTtOOeXY6wqD7yw9bEXacoh3myqzGE8c", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch12-23", "key": "223a10f14adabfc3", "label": "Exhaustive search of 2-state 2-color Turing machines finds three growth rates", "statement": "Enumerating all 4096 Turing machines with 2 states and 2 colors shows that the maximum number of steps to finish a computation grows with input length only linearly, quadratically, or exponentially, and every exponential case has another such machine computing the same function in bounded steps.", "quote": "it turns out that the only rates of growth that one ever sees are linear, square and exponential.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 12: The Principle of Computational Equivalence", "kind": "computational-observation", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "refutes", "evidence_kind": "computational", "data_test": { "verdict": "refutes", "confidence": 0.4, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "computational", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/wolfram-nks/wolfram2002-ch12-23/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered. Conventions from NKS pp. 761 and 1143: tape cells i = 1, 2, ... hold the binary digits of x with the least significant digit at i = 1 (x = 0 is the single digit 0), all other cells 0; head starts at i = 1 in state 1; a step applies the rule (new state, new colour, displacement d) and moves the head to i - d; the computation is complete at the first step t at which i = 0; the output f(x) is the tape read as a binary number. Machines are numbered with the NKS scheme (p. 888). Inputs x = 0..1023 (lengths n = 1..10). Non-halting is established by (i) a cycle of states that keeps moving left on blank cells once the head is left of every visited cell, (ii) exact repetition of the configuration (Brent's algorithm), or (iii) a cutoff of 20000 steps. For each machine and each distinct (f, t) pair over x = 0..1023, T(n) = max t(x) over halting x of length n. Growth class on n = 3..10, requiring halting inputs at >= 5 of these lengths (otherwise 'insufficient'): exact fit (max residual < 1e-9) tried in the order constant, linear a+bn (b>0), quadratic a+bn+cn^2 (c>0), exponential a*2^n+b (a>0); if none is exact, the lowest-complexity of linear, quadratic, exponential (a*c^n+b, c in {2,3,4}) whose relative RMS residual over n = 3..10 is <= 0.15; else 'other'. PASS (supports) if (a) no (f, t) pair with sufficient data is classed 'other', and (b) for every exponential pair the same function f (as a map on x = 0..1023 including where it is undefined) is computed by at least one machine whose pair is classed constant. The book's census numbers (748 never halt / 3348 sometimes / 1683 always; 351 functions, 149 total; 492 (f,t) pairs; 164 constant, 295 linear, 27 quadratic, 6 exponential; machines 378, 1953, 2289 exponential with total functions; the formulas for machines 3279, 1285, 3333, 261, 1447, 1953, 1969, 3517, 3246, 3374) are recorded as cross-checks of the implementation and do not decide the verdict.", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered. FAIL (refutes) if some (f, t) pair with sufficient data has a growth class other than constant, linear, quadratic or exponential and this is confirmed when the machine is rerun on x up to 2^14 - 1 with cutoff 2^20 steps (e.g. a cubic or super-exponential fit is best), or if some exponential pair has no constant-time partner computing the same function. MIXED if 'other' pairs exist but on the extended inputs fit one of the four classes within tolerance, or if the cross-check numbers disagree with the book in a way that indicates a convention mismatch.", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: nks-2state-2colour-halting-census-generator", "inference_method": "analysis.py enumerates all 4096 two-state two-colour machines with the NKS numbering (p. 888) and runs each on x = 0..1023 under the one-sided convention of pp. 761/1143 (binary digits of x on cells 1, 2, ... with the least significant digit at cell 1, head starting at cell 1 in state 1, halting when the head reaches cell 0, output read from the tape); non-halting is established by a left-runaway state cycle, Brent cycle detection on full configurations, or a 20000-step cutoff. The runner is vectorised over (machine, input) pairs and is checked against a scalar reference on 32 machines x 256 inputs. For every machine and every distinct (function, halting-time) pair it takes T(n) = max halting time over inputs of length n = 3..10 and classifies growth by the pre-registered exact-then-approximate fits; the 61 machines classed 'other' are rerun on x = 0..16383 (n <= 14) with cutoff 2^17 (the pre-registered 2^20 was reduced for memory and time; the longest halting time seen is 303). Supplementary, non-pre-registered analyses: a parity-aware classifier (odd and even n fitted separately, first two lengths dropped), and for exponential pairs computing partial functions a search for machines agreeing with them on every input where they halt. Book census numbers are recorded as cross-checks. Runtime about 10 minutes.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": { "verdict": "not-representative", "assessors": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "verdict": "not-representative", "confidence": 0.97, "file": "test-data/claim-tests/wolfram-nks/wolfram2002-ch12-23/faithfulness.json" }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "verdict": "not-representative", "confidence": 0.77, "file": "test-data/claim-tests/wolfram-nks/wolfram2002-ch12-23/faithfulness.grok.json" } ], "status": "agreed" } }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.827, "truth": 0.725, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.72 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.73 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.81, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA0s90q3vFAJSQU1_ibUYRpYjFCuIxN9Edavu_jbup5ws", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch12-24", "key": "ec2d07fdf4923ebc", "label": "Some simple Turing machine computations require exponential effort", "statement": "Exhaustive search of all roughly 4 billion 4-state 2-color Turing machines shows certain computations by such machines cannot be sped up by any machine of that size, suggesting that some computations specified by very simple rules require effort growing exponentially with input length.", "quote": "there are indeed Turing machine computations that cannot actually be carried out except by spending an amount of computational effort that can increase exponentially with the length of input.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 12: The Principle of Computational Equivalence", "kind": "computational-observation", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.564, "truth": 0.485, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.42 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.55 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.71, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAy_R4VKrXwQ3OdFxNX5u81GFpNM2AxjGiODhPNY8qVCY", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch12-25", "key": "764d89f9565c44b4", "label": "Diverse computational systems emulate each other with comparable step counts", "statement": "Almost all the varied systems considered (cellular automata, Turing machines, substitution and other systems) can emulate each other in a comparable number of steps, typically with at most polynomial overhead such as t^2 or t^(d+1), so rates of computation do not differ greatly across systems, including presumably those in nature.", "quote": "almost all the very varied systems in this book can actually be made to emulate each other in a quite comparable number of steps.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 12: The Principle of Computational Equivalence", "kind": "general-principle", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.559, "truth": 0.625, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.68 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.57 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.69, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAD_xM5ZyfqUuMJYMEjZuKut5XTegT-4ZyUk9UVnQLt9c", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch12-26", "key": "83b83de0e7abf857", "label": "P is likely different from NP", "statement": "It is likely that in most meaningful senses there is no general way to determine whether any path of a multiway or non-deterministic system yields a given outcome in a number of steps growing only polynomially, i.e. P is not equal to NP.", "quote": "And although it has never been established for certain it seems by now likely that in most meaningful senses there is not.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 12: The Principle of Computational Equivalence", "kind": "mathematical", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": true, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.508, "truth": 0.9, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.94 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.86 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.87, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA5Jof3VFe5Ezx7-guUcwb4xABr0aqf_iJj1D8h8vc6f8", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch12-27", "key": "94cd14aab61126e5", "label": "Inverse problems for rule 30 are likely NP-complete", "statement": "Even for the rule 30 cellular automaton, deciding whether initial conditions exist that produce a given outcome after t steps (such as a vertical black stripe of a given height in the center column) is expected to be NP-complete, illustrating that simple instances of NP-complete problems are common.", "quote": "my expectation is that asking about possible outcomes of t steps of evolution will already be NP-complete even for the rule 30 cellular automaton", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 12: The Principle of Computational Equivalence", "kind": "mathematical", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": true, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.583, "truth": 0.43, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.38 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.48 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.75, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAKtsPMCu8zouipaTKl0udD2pYszEYbAqb6QXUeEU-ioY", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch12-28", "key": "7958daff835fc018", "label": "Quantum computing's exponential speedups are likely an idealization artifact", "statement": "Although the usual formalism of quantum mechanics allows constructing quantum computers that could solve some problems exponentially faster than ordinary Turing machines, this will likely not reflect ultimate physical reality but only idealizations in current models.", "quote": "I strongly suspect that even if this is formally the case, it will still not turn out to be a true representation of ultimate physical reality", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 12: The Principle of Computational Equivalence", "kind": "physical-hypothesis", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.436, "truth": 0.14, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.12 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.16 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.68, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA1VcGVxw2g3QSkEIcfs9i2SgrLAQj_QrW0Gi4XAIJBBw", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch12-29", "key": "0ecdde23bce47078", "label": "Inverse problems are exponentially harder than forward evolution", "statement": "In almost any system whose behavior seems complex there is, in a fundamental sense, an almost exponential gap between the effort needed to compute behavior from given initial conditions and the effort needed to determine which initial conditions, if any, produce given behavior.", "quote": "there really can in some fundamental sense be an almost exponential difference in the amount of computational effort needed to find the behavior of a system with given particular initial conditions, and to solve the inverse problem of determining which if any initial conditions yield particular behavior.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 12: The Principle of Computational Equivalence", "kind": "general-principle", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.485, "truth": 0.33, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.28 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.38 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.7, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RABlyNM_mDZtdmbpLHONBQUGfu95TpCN1H6FxvpiNUlCM", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch12-30", "key": "708549d6f7cae2fc", "label": "Computational irreducibility makes short theorems with only long proofs inevitable", "statement": "Because the proof processes of almost every area of mathematics are computationally irreducible, adding axioms cannot remove the problem: there will essentially always be theorems that are short to state but whose shortest proofs are very long.", "quote": "But I suspect that ultimately there is almost always computational irreducibility, and this makes it essentially inevitable that there will be short theorems that only allow long proofs.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 12: The Principle of Computational Equivalence", "kind": "mathematical", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": true, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.611, "truth": 0.795, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.82 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.77 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.725, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA5O83uMG2u7b6eu2Xjv5KTss1pltzC3cMmWwZrVpV2Tg", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch12-31", "key": "df0e232cff79b717", "label": "An irreducible multiway system cannot be both complete and consistent", "statement": "If questions about the long-run evolution of a multiway system (an idealized axiom system) are undecidable, then the system cannot be both complete and consistent, because completeness plus consistency would give a procedure that always terminates to decide whether a string is reached.", "quote": "So the result of this is that if the evolution of a multiway system is computationally irreducible—so that questions about its ultimate behavior are undecidable—the system cannot be both complete and consistent.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 12: The Principle of Computational Equivalence", "kind": "mathematical", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": true, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.828, "truth": 0.885, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.9 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.87 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.835, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAuSF8UaIKEvWjRvG0UK6B8WEBtu5aME6mQK5L5ejVbSE", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch12-32", "key": "5f5f5c1600a6e000", "label": "Every axiom system used in current mathematical research is universal", "statement": "Basic logic and pure predicate logic are not universal, but adding a function or relation with more than one argument gives universality; arithmetic, set theory, group theory and ring theory are universal, and every axiom system actually used in current mathematical research is known to be universal, while heavily constrained systems such as commutative group theory and simplified real algebra and geometry are not.", "quote": "But of the axiom systems actually used in current mathematics research every single one is now known to be universal.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 12: The Principle of Computational Equivalence", "kind": "mathematical", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": true, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.624, "truth": 0.13, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.08 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.18 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.715, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAsuqkKCaVDfW4M8__lvzGut1PeVs707iuG4Qy3PTMzAc", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch12-33", "key": "571923b9adfcb8f6", "label": "Beyond a low threshold almost every axiom system should be universal", "statement": "The Principle of Computational Equivalence implies that, beyond a low threshold of complexity, almost any axiom system (including very simple ones) should be universal, and so should exhibit undecidability and have no general upper limit on proof length.", "quote": "And indeed the Principle of Computational Equivalence implies that beyond some low threshold almost any axiom system should be expected to be universal.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 12: The Principle of Computational Equivalence", "kind": "general-principle", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.388, "truth": 0.25, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.2 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.3 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.695, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAK2IO3SluNK94ymzEIOxAYLgytX8oSw8vLaZP0XGOsdA", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch12-34", "key": "9471953628b4e379", "label": "Gödel's Theorem follows from the universality of arithmetic, shown via rule 110", "statement": "An integer (exponential Diophantine) equation can be built whose solutions emulate the rule 110 cellular automaton; since rule 110 is universal, the axioms of arithmetic support universality, which implies Gödel's Theorem that arithmetic contains statements that cannot be proved true or false. Wolfram presents Gödel's Theorem as a consequence of the Principle of Computational Equivalence.", "quote": "And with the cellular automaton being a universal one such as rule 110 this implies that the axioms of arithmetic can support universality.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 12: The Principle of Computational Equivalence", "kind": "mathematical", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": true, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.817, "truth": 0.76, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.76 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.76 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.82, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAY5M7Fns3b9pa7d850-RhRnKQ4emi5AqU4xXbk9zlD7E", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch12-35", "key": "e29b3623c1702e92", "label": "Simple integer equations should exist whose lack of solutions is unprovable", "statement": "Although known universal integer equations are very complicated (the simplest having 9 variables and an immense number of terms), there should be much simpler integer equations for which the absence of solutions can never be proved from the standard axioms of arithmetic.", "quote": "so that in fact there are in the end rather simple integer equations for which the absence of solutions can never be proved from the normal axioms of arithmetic.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 12: The Principle of Computational Equivalence", "kind": "mathematical", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": true, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.554, "truth": 0.85, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.9 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.8 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.715, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RADghxleAwqBdZeBsQzw1Wu2P9q3KJhAYn_s-3pRT_zZQ", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch12-36", "key": "68a16289e219d729", "label": "Many open number-theory problems may be unprovable from arithmetic's axioms", "statement": "A fair fraction of the unsolved problems seriously studied in number theory will turn out to be questions that cannot be answered using the standard axioms of arithmetic.", "quote": "And it is my strong suspicion that in fact of all the current unsolved problems seriously studied in number theory a fair fraction will in the end turn out to be questions that cannot ever be answered using the normal axioms of arithmetic.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 12: The Principle of Computational Equivalence", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.341, "truth": 0.165, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.15 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.18 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.68, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAF5wwRJpHe0YG7vEAUyXmqMS1CoiPSHYgjSDc1zZf3lo", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch12-37", "key": "22a143d06f3c072b", "label": "Undecidability appears in almost any area of mathematics beyond easy questions", "statement": "Undecidability and unprovability will begin to occur in practically any area of mathematics almost as soon as one goes beyond questions that are always easy to answer, as a consequence of the Principle of Computational Equivalence.", "quote": "And indeed from the Principle of Computational Equivalence I strongly believe that in general undecidability and unprovability will start to occur in practically any area of mathematics almost as soon as one goes beyond the level of questions that are always easy to answer.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 12: The Principle of Computational Equivalence", "kind": "general-principle", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.384, "truth": 0.265, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.25 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.28 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.675, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAmL3SthYD0qrnuEf2e3zEqFijS1dt7jgExg2IbtEywDw", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch12-38", "key": "3c87f0521d803c66", "label": "Mathematics avoids undecidability by choosing questions its methods can answer", "statement": "Undecidability and unprovability have seemed rare in mathematics because mathematics, shaped by its history, has defined itself around the questions and systems that proof-based methods can address, concentrating on limited patches of computational reducibility; so present-day mathematics is a small and uncharacteristic sample of what is possible.", "quote": "it is that like most other fields of human inquiry mathematics has tended to define itself to be concerned with just those questions that its methods can successfully address.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 12: The Principle of Computational Equivalence", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.3, "truth": 0.54, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.62 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.46 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.725, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RALm8nnEykPbT4QOMZq6nw7v8S7azN6UShRX348k6Z7LA", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch12-39", "key": "85c9bdbb9998083e", "label": "Complete and consistent means exactly half of all strings are generated", "statement": "For a multiway system serving as an axiom system, with negation any length-preserving involution on strings, the system is complete and consistent exactly when half of all possible strings of each length are eventually generated from the string representing true; more than half implies inconsistency and less than half implies incompleteness.", "quote": "the criterion for whether a system is complete and consistent is simply that exactly half the possible strings of a given length are eventually generated if one starts from the string representing \"true\".", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 12: The Principle of Computational Equivalence", "kind": "mathematical", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": true, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "mixed", "evidence_kind": "computational", "data_test": { "verdict": "mixed", "confidence": 0.9, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "computational", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/wolfram-nks/wolfram2002-ch12-39/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered. Part 1 (sets): for length n = 3, enumerate all 764 involutions of the 8 strings and all 256 subsets S; for n = 4, take 300 pseudo-random involutions of the 16 strings (numpy seed 20261031, including the complement map, reversal and the identity-on-some-strings cases) and all 65536 subsets. For each (involution, S) record complete, consistent, |S| versus half. Part 2 (multiway systems): enumerate all multiway systems over {A,B} with one or two rules lhs -> rhs, |lhs| in {1,2}, |rhs| in {|lhs|, |lhs|+1} (length-non-decreasing so that the set of generated strings of each length <= 6 stabilises and can be computed exactly), started from the string 'A' taken to represent true; for each system and each length n = 2..6 record the exactly generated set, under negation = complement and under negation = reversal. PASS (supports) if in Part 1 and Part 2 there is no counterexample to either direction of the biconditional (complete and consistent <=> exactly half) for any involution.", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered. REFUTES if the biconditional fails in both directions, or if either of the book's two directional arguments (more than half => inconsistent; less than half => incomplete) has a counterexample. MIXED if the three implications the book argues for (more than half => inconsistent; less than half => incomplete; hence complete and consistent => exactly half) hold without exception but the converse (exactly half => complete and consistent) has counterexamples both among arbitrary sets and among stabilised generated sets of actual multiway systems. The number of counterexamples and the role of involution fixed points are reported.", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: multiway-half-criterion-generator", "inference_method": "analysis.py enumerates all 764 involutions of the 8 binary strings of length 3 against all 256 subsets, and for length 4 the complement, reversal and identity maps plus 300 seeded random involutions against all 65536 subsets, recording for each (involution, set) whether the set is complete, consistent and of size exactly half. It then enumerates all 1485 multiway systems with one or two length-non-decreasing rules (|lhs| 1-2, |rhs| = |lhs| or |lhs|+1) over {A,B}, computes the exact closure of 'A' restricted to strings of length <= 6, and evaluates the same quantities at each length 2-6 under complement and reversal negation. Runtime 2 s.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.845, "truth": 0.26, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.3 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.22 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.855, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAaBnXDA59uRj9ds_k8us_gDxBzduNKxBu0p7NWTtrOmA", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch12-40", "key": "11dadf3700c4a6d3", "label": "Axiom systems used in mathematics are usually close to complete", "statement": "The axiom systems widely used in mathematics, though usually incomplete, are typically close to complete, because they were built to describe definite kinds of objects; as a result, the alternative objects (nonstandard models) that also satisfy them, such as those for standard arithmetic, differ only in obscure ways.", "quote": "For if one looks at axiom systems that are widely used in mathematics they almost all tend to be complete enough to prove at least a fair fraction of statements either true or false.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 12: The Principle of Computational Equivalence", "kind": "mathematical", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": true, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.44, "truth": 0.33, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.3 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.36 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.655, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA5mV2JCr3EgwSrUQuNYEcpVjo_2XcWswo4bfh-7MN4Nw", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch12-41", "key": "dbc5d786c22c2b22", "label": "Most simple axiom systems admit many different operator forms", "statement": "Enumerating simple axiom systems for a binary operator shows that the vast majority allow operators of many different forms (many models), so they are not about any one particular operator and are far from complete; only a few, such as those for logic, force essentially a single form.", "quote": "But what the pictures on the next two pages [804, 805] show is that the vast majority of axiom systems actually allow operators with all sorts of different forms.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 12: The Principle of Computational Equivalence", "kind": "computational-observation", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "refutes", "evidence_kind": "computational", "data_test": { "verdict": "refutes", "confidence": 0.45, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "computational", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/wolfram-nks/wolfram2002-ch12-41/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered. Family: all single-equation axiom systems lhs == rhs where lhs and rhs are terms built from one binary operator and variables, with a total of n = 1..4 operator occurrences in the equation, variables named canonically in order of first occurrence (a, b, c, ...) reading lhs then rhs, excluding equations with lhs identical to rhs, and identifying an equation with its side-swapped twin (so each unordered pair of sides is counted once). For each axiom system and each k in {2, 3}, enumerate all k^(k^2) operator tables (16 and 19,683), keep those satisfying the equation for every assignment of the variables, and count the models up to isomorphism (relabelling of the k elements by any permutation): m2 and m3. Definitions: 'many forms' = m3 >= 3; 'single form' = m2 <= 1 and m3 <= 1 and m2 + m3 >= 1; 'no non-trivial form' = m2 = m3 = 0 (only the one-element model). The claim PASSES if the fraction of axiom systems with 'many forms' is >= 0.80 and the fraction with 'single form' is <= 0.05. Reported, not decisive: the same fractions restricted to n = 4; the list of 'single form' systems; the systems whose k = 2 model set is exactly {Nand, Nor} (operators 7 and 1 in Wolfram's numbering) or {Xor, Xnor} (6 and 9); and, as a validation of the model-finding code against the note 'Properties of operators from axioms' (p. 1171), the k = 2 model sets of all lhs == a systems with up to 6 operators under this canonical labelling, listing how many allow only {6, 9} and only {1, 7} (the note reports 32,004 and 964 for its family of 274,499 systems; the family definition in the note is not fully specified, so this is a plausibility check, not a decisive comparison).", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered. The claim FAILS if fewer than 50% of the axiom systems have 'many forms', or if more than 20% force a 'single form'. Between those bounds and the pass thresholds the verdict is 'mixed'. If the enumeration cannot be completed for k = 3 within the run-time budget the verdict is inconclusive (underpowered).", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: single-equation-axiom-systems-n-le-4", "inference_method": "analysis.py enumerates all binary-tree term shapes with up to 4 operator occurrences split between the two sides, labels variables canonically (restricted-growth strings over the leaves of lhs then rhs), drops lhs == rhs and side-swapped duplicates (4692 systems), and for k = 2 and 3 evaluates every one of the 16 and 19,683 operator tables on every variable assignment with numpy, keeping the models and counting isomorphism classes via the canonical (minimal) table number over all permutations of the k elements. Validation family (lhs == a, up to 6 operators, k = 2 only) and the supplementary runs S1 (Wolfram's lhs == a family over {a, b} with up to 3 operators, k = 2, 3 exact plus a capped 4-element search) and S2 (capped 4-element search for the 2792 main-family systems not already 'many forms' at k = 3; --k4 flag, about 25 minutes) are described in interpretation and caveats. Default run about 2 minutes; derived/axioms.csv.gz (gzip, without the k2 model-set column) and derived/supplementary.json are from the --k4 run.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": { "verdict": "not-representative", "assessors": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "verdict": "not-representative", "confidence": 0.98, "file": "test-data/claim-tests/wolfram-nks/wolfram2002-ch12-41/faithfulness.json" }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "verdict": "faithful-with-narrower-scope", "confidence": 0.63, "file": "test-data/claim-tests/wolfram-nks/wolfram2002-ch12-41/faithfulness.grok.json" } ], "status": "contested" } }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.754, "truth": 0.75, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.78 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.72 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.78, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RATcyR1F2A_GHgXkhGNgIa_2Tm1_fPBWkQ9Pbj5NUjh9w", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch12-42", "key": "ddfef4dd681a4d2a", "label": "Very short single-axiom systems for logic exist among the simplest axiom systems", "statement": "Propositional logic can be axiomatized in terms of Nand by a single axiom with only six Nands (found by searching small axiom systems), far shorter than textbook systems, so an axiom system for logic is likely to be found among the simplest few thousand axiom systems.", "quote": "So what this means is that if one were just to go through a list of the simplest few thousand axiom systems one would already be quite likely to find one that represents logic.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 12: The Principle of Computational Equivalence", "kind": "mathematical", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": true, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "mixed", "evidence_kind": "computational", "data_test": { "verdict": "mixed", "confidence": 0.85, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "computational", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/wolfram-nks/wolfram2002-ch12-42/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered. Enumerate all Nand expression trees X with k Nands (k+1 leaves) over variables a, b, c and consider (I) single axioms {X = a} for k <= 6 (34488 systems for k <= 5, 288684 for k = 6, plus the 16896 two-variable systems for k = 6) and (II) two-axiom systems {X = a, a.b = b.a} with k = 4 (3402 systems, 6 Nands in total). Screen each system against all 16 binary operations on {0,1}, all 19683 on {0,1,2} and, by backtracking search, all operations on {0,1,2,3}; a system 'works up to n values' if its models on each domain of size <= n are exactly the operation tables isomorphic to the Nand (or, on 2 elements, Nand or Nor) of a Boolean algebra of that size, i.e. {Nand, Nor} on 2, none on 3, the 12 tables isomorphic to Nand_4 on 4. PASS (supports) if (a) the published axiom works up to 4 values; (b) no single axiom {X = a} with k <= 5 over <= 3 variables works up to 3 values; (c) at least one system of family (II) works up to 4 values, and the number of systems of forms (I) and (II) with at most 6 Nands in total that precede it in the enumeration (fewer Nands first) is below 10000. The book's counts (0 of 16896 two-variable six-Nand systems up to 3 values; 296 of 288684 up to 3 values and 100 up to 4 values; 32 of 3402 in family II) are recorded as cross-checks and do not decide the verdict. If the 4-value search over all 3-value survivors of (I) exceeds 20 minutes it is applied only to the published axiom and to family (II), and the 100-count cross-check is dropped and reported.", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered. FAIL (refutes) if the published six-Nand axiom has a model on 3 elements or a non-Boolean model on 4 elements (then it does not axiomatise Boolean logic), or if no system with at most 6 Nands in total passes the screens up to 4 values (then nothing 'among the simplest few thousand' is a candidate). MIXED if (a) holds but (b) fails (a shorter single axiom survives the screens, undermining 'as short as possible'), or if (c) fails only on the count bound.", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: nand-axiom-enumeration-generator", "inference_method": "analysis.py enumerates every full binary Nand tree with k internal nodes and every leaf labelling over {a,b,c} (or {a,b}), builds the single-axiom systems {X = a} for k = 1..6 (34488 systems for k <= 5, 288684 for k = 6, 16896 two-variable systems for k = 6) and the two-axiom systems {X = a, a.b = b.a} with k = 4 (3402 systems), and screens each against all 16 binary operations on {0,1} and all 19683 on {0,1,2}; survivors of the 3-valued screen (and the published axiom) are then checked on {0,1,2,3} by backtracking over the 4^16 operation tables. A system 'works up to n values' if its models are exactly {Nand, Nor} on 2 elements, none on 3, and (for n = 4) exactly the 12 tables isomorphic to the Nand of the 4-element Boolean algebra. The published axiom ((a.b).c).(a.((a.c).a)) = c is rewritten with the variable on the right as (((b.c).a).(b.((b.a).b))) = a. Runtime about 11 minutes, of which 587 s is the 4-valued check of the 296 six-Nand survivors.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.838, "truth": 0.895, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.92 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.87 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.835, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAkoLDZuR7gczbcTi3FZu36crDvGmg7R8mJCvtFzsOFLs", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch12-43", "key": "8b851cb04800d2a8", "label": "Traditional axiom systems are not fundamentally special; others could found new fields", "statement": "Apart from history, nothing fundamentally distinguishes the axiom systems traditionally used in mathematics (logic included), and many other axiom systems, often simple ones, could serve as foundations for new fields of mathematics as rich as the traditional ones.", "quote": "So this leads to the conclusion that there is in a sense nothing fundamentally special about the particular axiom systems that have traditionally been used in mathematics", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 12: The Principle of Computational Equivalence", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.177, "truth": 0.465, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.55 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.38 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.805, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA1UoA-V8wCh76Q1cGGkhCQPuXNIZ_weaZF-U5dmjPtIg", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch12-44", "key": "e5d789c4609732a7", "label": "Named textbook theorems of logic are those not derivable from simpler ones", "statement": "If the theorems of basic logic are listed in order of increasing complexity, the ones that cannot be derived from simpler theorems earlier in the list are almost exactly the ones traditional textbooks single out and name as interesting.", "quote": "And remarkably enough what I have found is that these theorems are almost exactly the ones highlighted on the previous page that have traditionally been identified as interesting.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 12: The Principle of Computational Equivalence", "kind": "computational-observation", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.707, "truth": 0.57, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.58 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.56 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.74, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA2SpDpcQohO6T0rJbED_UPT-GYaC_xOU98BP8HPU9-BQ", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch12-45", "key": "0f7db025c916e223", "label": "Judgments like deep or powerful reflect the structure of the theorem network", "statement": "Mathematicians' intuitive descriptions of theorems (difficult, powerful, surprising, deep) reflect features of the network of statements connected by theorems, and fields regarded as more successful should have more compact networks while fields full of isolated facts, such as elementary number theory, should have sparser networks.", "quote": "And my suspicion is that our intuitive characterizations of theorems are in effect just reflections of our perception of various features of the structure of this network.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 12: The Principle of Computational Equivalence", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.424, "truth": 0.4, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.48 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.32 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.625, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAaNU5e-XZR9WTlFUVzFVZX5X5EmID6BGNTIe9fMaTGWk", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch12-46", "key": "b0d7691df2532043", "label": "No general definition of intelligence independent of human details", "statement": "General features proposed as marks of intelligence (learning and memory, adaptation, abstraction) occur in systems such as simple cellular automata and fluids, so there is no workable general definition of intelligence; any usable one must be tied to specific details of human intelligence.", "quote": "My guess is that ultimately there is not, and that in fact any workable definition of what we normally think of as intelligence will end up having to be tied to all sorts of seemingly rather specific details of human intelligence.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 12: The Principle of Computational Equivalence", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.256, "truth": 0.285, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.35 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.22 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.765, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RArv5c0o9gGrldcTQNfiwQtQUyWuf8WPmn_QRFmIqLioU", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch12-47", "key": "110123e33644a204", "label": "Proposed general features of life occur in many simple-rule systems", "statement": "Almost any general feature proposed to characterize life, including self-organization, self-reproduction and complexity, occurs even in many systems with very simple rules, so life can only be recognized by specific shared details with life on Earth.", "quote": "Indeed, following the discoveries in this book I have come to the conclusion that almost any general feature that one might think of as characterizing life will actually occur even in many systems with very simple rules.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 12: The Principle of Computational Equivalence", "kind": "general-principle", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.496, "truth": 0.31, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.32 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.3 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.71, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RArR4J6zI624jxCnQpZ5Cj3K-BjwRz7ZioYgJu8vFVfuk", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch12-48", "key": "f696d49c38ddea6e", "label": "Human artifacts look simple because engineering requires predictability", "statement": "Human-made artifacts tend to look simpler than natural objects because engineers need to foresee what their systems will do, which requires computational reducibility, whereas nature has no such constraint and many natural systems are computationally irreducible.", "quote": "And I believe the basic answer to this has to do with the fact that when we as humans set up artifacts we usually need to be able to foresee what they will do—for otherwise we have no way to tell whether they will achieve the purposes we want.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 12: The Principle of Computational Equivalence", "kind": "general-principle", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.409, "truth": 0.67, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.72 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.62 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.63, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAUfasGo5Ri-H9pgiFAxoXaa4ab0VaBHWyBElcIXYIyD4", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch12-49", "key": "dc8e0cc0ac5bf31d", "label": "A minimal rule for a feature hints that a system was made for a purpose", "statement": "Since purposes can always be reinterpreted as mechanisms, purpose cannot be identified for certain from behavior; the best criterion is that a system is the minimal or optimal one producing a given feature, which suggests it was built for that purpose, as advanced technology should increasingly use minimal systems.", "quote": "finding out that the rule for the system is the minimal or optimal one for producing that feature may make it seem more likely that at least with sufficiently advanced technology the system might have specifically been created for the purpose of exhibiting that feature.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 12: The Principle of Computational Equivalence", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.262, "truth": 0.38, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.42 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.34 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.71, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA-K_Tpl1DqMcEuG0VtldtrDcsiQJcG3yczBCRHJLgE88", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch12-50", "key": "7de99ea5b02d4026", "label": "Efficient extraterrestrial communications would show no detectable regularities", "statement": "Signals used for communication by an advanced extraterrestrial civilization would likely be compressed to the point of showing essentially no detectable regularities, so they would look like random radio noise, and searches for sharply defined carrier frequencies would miss them; only beacons meant to be noticed would need recognizable regularities.", "quote": "my guess is that they will exhibit essentially no detectable regularities. For any such regularity represents in a sense a redundancy or inefficiency that can be removed by the sender and receiver both using appropriate data compression.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 12: The Principle of Computational Equivalence", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.363, "truth": 0.58, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.45 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.71 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.71, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAfPVBJbKBpgg9twjqWyovN8cdphJctEldVHRzHVpVEVM", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch12-51", "key": "e5f0364a0c1e317d", "label": "Sophisticated computation, or primes, are not signs of intelligence", "statement": "Producing a signal by sophisticated computation is no evidence of intelligence, because such computation is common in ordinary physical processes; for instance, turbulence in the gas around a star quickly does more computation than all of human intellectual history, and sequences such as the primes can be generated by many non-intelligent systems.", "quote": "And indeed it seems likely that for example an ordinary physical process like fluid turbulence in the gas around a star should rather quickly do more computation than has by most measures ever been done throughout the whole course of human intellectual history.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 12: The Principle of Computational Equivalence", "kind": "general-principle", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.347, "truth": 0.34, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.28 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.4 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.68, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAV7itcfEW6yfLYUsoB1pHcVWIgr1pRA74x41VaDDubdk", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch12-52", "key": "c8898bccf22e0e1d", "label": "Recognizing extraterrestrial intelligence depends on similarity to humans", "statement": "The difficulty in finding extraterrestrial intelligence is not finding systems that compute in sophisticated ways, which are common, but finding ones whose details are similar enough to humans that we would recognize them as intelligent; somewhat generalized intelligence is likely to exist but to behave in bizarrely unhuman ways.", "quote": "that the basic issue is not finding systems that perform sophisticated enough computations, but rather finding ones whose details happen to be similar enough to us as humans that we recognize what they do as showing intelligence.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 12: The Principle of Computational Equivalence", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.167, "truth": 0.455, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.58 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.33 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.74, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAbzycbPuT9O3dfeI2IZ3sHPMq4arBojpZ78sa8YeHvUY", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch12-53", "key": "f966fc9e896cc04e", "label": "Engineering has explored only a tiny unrepresentative fraction of possible systems", "statement": "Traditional engineering has used only a tiny and unrepresentative fraction of possible systems and processes, those simple enough to predict, and using simple-rule systems with complex behavior will make a vast amount of new technology possible.", "quote": "And indeed one of the things that emerges from this book is that traditional engineering has actually considered only a tiny and quite unrepresentative fraction of all the kinds of systems and processes that are in principle possible.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 12: The Principle of Computational Equivalence", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.333, "truth": 0.53, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.62 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.44 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.625, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA4i2Q--4KzpAGPB90zZ8gw1S5_WzKbP8OIsOcGf3KaIk", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch12-54", "key": "54b85bad8b25ca85", "label": "Simple universal rules like rule 110 could be built into computers from atoms", "statement": "Since very simple rules such as the rule 110 cellular automaton are universal, computers could be built from many kinds of components, and a simple chemical process could plausibly assemble a rule 110-like computer at the atomic scale, with one or a few atoms per cell.", "quote": "For while it is quite implausible that some simple chemical process could successfully assemble a traditional computer out of atoms, it seems quite plausible that this could be done for something like a rule 110 cellular automaton.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 12: The Principle of Computational Equivalence", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.456, "truth": 0.45, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.48 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.42 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.675, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAftqExqs5J_yj36AcTjZBzhZp2Wp4GzZ5q5UB3ayOozg", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch12-55", "key": "31732b02fe2a25e2", "label": "Exhaustive search is the only reliable way to find programs with given behavior", "statement": "Because simple programs can do so many unexpected things, and computational irreducibility can make finding a behavior take irreducible work, the only reliable way to find a simple program with a desired behavior is essentially exhaustive search, so building a library of basic knowledge about simple programs is a better route to technology.", "quote": "ultimately the only way to find what one wants is essentially just to do an exhaustive search of all possibilities.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 12: The Principle of Computational Equivalence", "kind": "general-principle", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.504, "truth": 0.215, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.18 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.25 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.69, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAcLzIpBVnXwDd52kkYyE0oPyAoQBYGniMs-Z6KYIqRnA", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch12-56", "key": "c5df91baaa053925", "label": "Humans are not computationally more sophisticated than other systems in nature", "statement": "By the Principle of Computational Equivalence, human brains, turbulent fluids, simple cellular automata and the universe as a whole all achieve the same level of computational sophistication, so humans are not fundamentally special in intelligence or complexity.", "quote": "So this means that there is in the end no difference between the level of computational sophistication that is achieved by humans and by all sorts of other systems in nature and elsewhere.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 12: The Principle of Computational Equivalence", "kind": "general-principle", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.319, "truth": 0.21, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.22 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.2 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.72, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RACDrGz-hd2p9oR3EEqgWQoXVePX7EdqVBWllouNnbR0Q", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "wolfram2002-ch12-57", "key": "ebb07d275c3217cc", "label": "Computational irreducibility puts permanent limits on scientific prediction", "statement": "The Principle of Computational Equivalence and computational irreducibility show that science will never predict everything: even if the universe follows simple rules, there is in general no way to know all their consequences except by watching them unfold.", "quote": "But the Principle of Computational Equivalence—and the phenomenon of computational irreducibility—now shows that this will never happen.", "thinker": "Stephen Wolfram", "year": 2002, "work": "A New Kind of Science", "chapter": "Ch. 12: The Principle of Computational Equivalence", "kind": "general-principle", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.397, "truth": 0.81, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.88 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.74 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.67, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAtNWeWCpjsnxnKQ6ErSoacL0OBvqUeCFjwA9Sfymd5is", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2015-place-01", "key": "73b62b493b52587f", "label": "Self-assembly emerges from cells sharing a common model of organismal form", "statement": "In simulations based on variational free-energy minimization (active inference), cells that share a common genetically and epigenetically specified model of the organism's form self-assemble into that form, offering a proof of principle that self-assembly can be an emergent property of such cells.", "quote": "Here, we offer a proof of principle that self-assembly is an emergent property of cells that share a common (genetic and epigenetic) model of organismal form.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2015, "work": "Knowing one's place: a free-energy approach to pattern regulation", "chapter": "Friston K 2015, Knowing one's place: a free-energy approach to pattern regulation › Abstract", "kind": "simulation-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "mixed", "evidence_kind": "computational", "data_test": { "verdict": "mixed", "confidence": 0.6, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "computational", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/levin-papers/levin-2015-place-01/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "After 32 steps of free-energy descent from a common undifferentiated start, most seeded runs place cells within half a target spacing of the target form (RMS, best assignment) with at least 7/8 correct cell types, and ensemble free energy falls.", "disconfirming_observation": "In most seeded runs the cells do not reach the target configuration or do not differentiate into the encoded types, or free energy does not fall.", "admissible_datasets": "The generative model, target morphology (8 cells, head-body-tail) and parameters as specified by the paper and its public SPM implementation. MATLAB is unavailable, so an independent Python re-implementation is used: same generative model (target locations, signal codes, softmax identities, monoexponential signal decay, exogenous linear gradients, time-increasing extracellular sensitivity, precisions), integrated by gradient descent on the Laplace-approximated free energy for internal states and action (prediction-error-closing signal expression, gradient-driven migration). If the current SPM file defaults to 16 cells, the 8-cell head-body-tail target of the paper (from the SPM12 file if it encodes it) is used.", "inference_method": "Count of passing seeds out of 20 against the 16 (pass) and 10 (fail) thresholds; free energy at step 32 versus step 1 per run.", "explicit": true }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [ { "id": "pezzulo-bioelectric-target-morphology-memory", "relation": "models", "note": "Implements Friston et al. (2015) variational free-energy minimisation in which cells sharing a generative model self-assemble the target form.", "label": "Pezzulo & Levin (2015) / Friston et al. (2015) bioelectric target morphology memory and Variational Free Energy homeostasis faithfully reproduces Ambystoma mexicanum (axolotl salamander) regenerating forelimb morphology", "organism": "Ambystoma mexicanum (axolotl salamander) regenerating forelimb", "verdict": "faithful", "score": 91.5, "thompson_verdict": null, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAyp_B6WkTMIXs9wcDXCdMGdeSaQblmaYV2wbEEdryVFA", "registry": "production", "report": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/morphoeval/kg/2026-10-19-bioelectric-target-morphology-memory-audit-v2/REPORT.md" } ], "thumbnail": { "file": "docs/thumbs/pezzulo-bioelectric-target-morphology-memory.jpg", "morpholib": "pezzulo-bioelectric-target-morphology-memory", "source": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/docs/media/bioelectric_target_morphology_memory_growth.gif" }, "testability": 0.855, "truth": 0.89, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.92 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.86 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.8, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA-k_QywgT_ZsD749ga6CKNacrTABM1zGKNsvVqx_qeBM", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2015-place-02", "key": "d476cc13d95cbb25", "label": "Genome parametrizes a generative model; epigenesis inverts it", "statement": "Under the free-energy account of morphogenesis, genetic codes can be interpreted as parametrizing a generative model that predicts the signals each cell would sense in the target morphology, and epigenetic processes (signalling-dependent transcription) as the inversion of that model.", "quote": "This novel perspective on the coordination of migration and differentiation of cells suggests an interpretation of genetic codes as parametrizing a generative model—predicting the signals sensed by cells in the target morphology—and epigenetic processes as the subsequent inversion of that model.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2015, "work": "Knowing one's place: a free-energy approach to pattern regulation", "chapter": "Friston K 2015, Knowing one's place: a free-energy approach to pattern regulation › Abstract", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.165, "truth": 0.565, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.58 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.55 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.78, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAg19McKMtEtGnEHp5GkBa81PFcFI6o6C7RBO8Rlfd6RE", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2015-place-03", "key": "4601c3d41d4d744a", "label": "Morphogenesis requires each cell to model its place in the target form", "statement": "Friston, Levin, Sengupta and Pezzulo propose that morphogenetic self-organization requires each cell to have an implicit model of its place in the final morphology, with self-assembly being cells moving to sample the local signals that model predicts (minimizing variational free energy).", "quote": "In this paper, we pursue the notion that morphogenetic self-organization requires each cell to have an implicit model of its place in the final morphology [21]—and that self-assembly is the process of moving to sample local signals that are predicted by that model.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2015, "work": "Knowing one's place: a free-energy approach to pattern regulation", "chapter": "Friston K 2015, Knowing one's place: a free-energy approach to pattern regulation › Introduction", "kind": "mathematical-law", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": true, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [ { "id": "pezzulo-bioelectric-target-morphology-memory", "relation": "models", "note": "The active-inference model gives each cell an implicit model of its place in the target morphology, as the claim proposes.", "label": "Pezzulo & Levin (2015) / Friston et al. (2015) bioelectric target morphology memory and Variational Free Energy homeostasis faithfully reproduces Ambystoma mexicanum (axolotl salamander) regenerating forelimb morphology", "organism": "Ambystoma mexicanum (axolotl salamander) regenerating forelimb", "verdict": "faithful", "score": 91.5, "thompson_verdict": null, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAyp_B6WkTMIXs9wcDXCdMGdeSaQblmaYV2wbEEdryVFA", "registry": "production", "report": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/morphoeval/kg/2026-10-19-bioelectric-target-morphology-memory-audit-v2/REPORT.md" } ], "thumbnail": { "file": "docs/thumbs/pezzulo-bioelectric-target-morphology-memory.jpg", "morpholib": "pezzulo-bioelectric-target-morphology-memory", "source": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/docs/media/bioelectric_target_morphology_memory_growth.gif" }, "testability": 0.284, "truth": 0.36, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.42 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.3 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.73, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAepinOY6KkqbkyOagcDsX22G31GDhNGJgaJwlmVkaNxo", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2015-place-04", "key": "074770fe76f04ea1", "label": "Free energy is minimized only when every cell occupies a unique inferred place", "statement": "In the active-inference model of morphogenesis, where identical pluripotent cells share one generative model, the minimum of variational free energy is reached only when every cell is at a unique location and has correctly inferred its place, so free-energy minimization guarantees convergence to the target form.", "quote": "This is guaranteed because the minimum of variational free energy is obtained when each cell is in a unique location and has correctly inferred its place.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2015, "work": "Knowing one's place: a free-energy approach to pattern regulation", "chapter": "Friston K 2015, Knowing one's place: a free-energy approach to pattern regulation › Introduction", "kind": "mathematical-law", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": true, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [ { "id": "pezzulo-bioelectric-target-morphology-memory", "relation": "models", "note": "Simulates the free-energy minimisation whose minimum is reached when each cell occupies its unique inferred place.", "label": "Pezzulo & Levin (2015) / Friston et al. (2015) bioelectric target morphology memory and Variational Free Energy homeostasis faithfully reproduces Ambystoma mexicanum (axolotl salamander) regenerating forelimb morphology", "organism": "Ambystoma mexicanum (axolotl salamander) regenerating forelimb", "verdict": "faithful", "score": 91.5, "thompson_verdict": null, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAyp_B6WkTMIXs9wcDXCdMGdeSaQblmaYV2wbEEdryVFA", "registry": "production", "report": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/morphoeval/kg/2026-10-19-bioelectric-target-morphology-memory-audit-v2/REPORT.md" } ], "thumbnail": { "file": "docs/thumbs/pezzulo-bioelectric-target-morphology-memory.jpg", "morpholib": "pezzulo-bioelectric-target-morphology-memory", "source": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/docs/media/bioelectric_target_morphology_memory_growth.gif" }, "testability": 0.792, "truth": 0.595, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.67 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.52 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.74, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RACfdVpN4Yny9o63oxtnuesIKlV--1E00888Mb1iG4puU", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2015-place-05", "key": "843ffa6833f62fa0", "label": "Simulated cells resolve fate ambiguity using context set by other ambiguous cells", "statement": "In the active-inference simulation, identical undifferentiated cells starting at one location migrate rapidly to their target locations and then differentiate (around the eighth time step) into head, body and tail types as ensemble free energy falls, showing cells can resolve ambiguity about their fate even when it depends on context set by other equally ambiguous cells.", "quote": "These results are compelling in the sense that they show cells can resolve ambiguity about their fate, even when that resolution depends upon the context established by other (equally ambiguous) cells.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2015, "work": "Knowing one's place: a free-energy approach to pattern regulation", "chapter": "Friston K 2015, Knowing one's place: a free-energy approach to pattern regulation › Simulating self-assembly", "kind": "simulation-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "mixed", "evidence_kind": "computational", "data_test": { "verdict": "mixed", "confidence": 0.6, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "computational", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/levin-papers/levin-2015-place-05/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Mean distance to targets halves before cells commit to identities; identities commit near step 8 (between 4 and 16); free energy falls; identities end resolved and correct in most seeded runs.", "disconfirming_observation": "Differentiation precedes migration, occurs far from step 8 or never, free energy does not fall, or identities stay ambiguous at step 32 in most runs.", "admissible_datasets": "The generative model and parameters of the paper and its public SPM implementation. MATLAB is unavailable, so an independent Python re-implementation (gradient descent on Laplace free energy for internal states and action, not SPM's generalized filter spm_ADEM) is used; its time step is matched to the SPM loop (one time step = one update of the 32-step schedule of the extracellular-sensitivity ramp). 8-cell head-body-tail target as in the paper.", "inference_method": "Per-run t_m, t_d, free-energy change and final identity resolution; count of qualifying runs against 16 (pass) and 10 (fail) out of 20; median t_d reported.", "explicit": true }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.856, "truth": 0.885, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.93 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.84 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.8, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAbXjM8zuURJLk6Tp0Omk18HowmYsntj32rkh736wzfR0", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2015-place-06", "key": "91b173d3198bbe2b", "label": "Bisected simulated embryos regenerate the full target form", "statement": "When the partially differentiated simulated embryo is cut in two and each half's cells are replicated, the cells undergo slight dedifferentiation and then each half regenerates the complete head–body–tail target morphology, illustrating pluripotency and recovery from drastic interventions in the active-inference model.", "quote": "This example illustrates the pluripotential nature of the cells and the ability of self-assembly to recover from fairly drastic interventions.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2015, "work": "Knowing one's place: a free-energy approach to pattern regulation", "chapter": "Friston K 2015, Knowing one's place: a free-energy approach to pattern regulation › Simulating regeneration and dysmorphogenesis", "kind": "simulation-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "refutes", "evidence_kind": "computational", "data_test": { "verdict": "refutes", "confidence": 0.55, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "computational", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/levin-papers/levin-2015-place-06/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Both replicated halves of a bisected step-8 embryo converge to the complete 8-cell target (positions and types) in most seeded runs, with a transient fall in identity certainty after the cut.", "disconfirming_observation": "One or both halves stay truncated (e.g. only head or only tail types), collapse, or fail to redifferentiate in most runs.", "admissible_datasets": "The paper's generative model and the bisection procedure as described in the paper and implemented in the public SPM file (split along the body axis, replicate cells of each half, continue integration). MATLAB is unavailable, so an independent Python re-implementation of the model and a gradient-descent free-energy integrator is used; how replicated cells are separated (e.g. small perturbation) follows the SPM file where it specifies one.", "inference_method": "Count of runs in which both halves pass the levin-2015-place-01 assembly criterion, against 16 (pass) and 10 (fail) of 20; fraction of runs with a post-split dip in mean max identity probability.", "explicit": true }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": { "verdict": "not-representative", "assessors": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "verdict": "not-representative", "confidence": 0.98, "file": "test-data/claim-tests/levin-papers/levin-2015-place-06/faithfulness.json" }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "verdict": "not-representative", "confidence": 0.8, "file": "test-data/claim-tests/levin-papers/levin-2015-place-06/faithfulness.grok.json" } ], "status": "agreed" } }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.853, "truth": 0.895, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.94 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.85 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.79, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAPVk8noX5b31ap1Fg1pP8F_7vh4_VLMRBLmriK6L9wUA", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2015-place-07", "key": "e39973137aa8e3c5", "label": "Altering signal sensitivity without changing the model predicts specific birth defects", "statement": "In the active-inference morphogenesis model, changing cells' sensitivity to extracellular, exogenous or intracellular signals without changing the generative model produces specific dysmorphogenesis, e.g. reducing sensitivity to the head-expressed signal shrinks the head, and doubling sensitivity to intracellular signals causes failed migration, differentiation and atrophy; these are predictions for pharmacological manipulation of intercellular signalling.", "quote": "More selective interventions produce a dysmorphogenesis of various segments of the target morphology: reducing sensitivity to the second chemotactic signal—that is expressed by head cells—reduces the size of the head.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2015, "work": "Knowing one's place: a free-energy approach to pattern regulation", "chapter": "Friston K 2015, Knowing one's place: a free-energy approach to pattern regulation › Simulating regeneration and dysmorphogenesis", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.619, "truth": 0.745, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.72 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.77 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.72, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAyIUaiu-keHXphVSznwccLuwjMQaXU6Ku1Py1yLutIh4", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2015-place-08", "key": "8578c1c23f8f695a", "label": "Neural and bioelectric patterning networks may share dynamics", "statement": "Because non-neuronal cells use many of the same ion-channel and electrical-synapse mechanisms as neurons for pattern formation and repair, significant commonalities may exist between the dynamics of neural networks and of bioelectric signalling networks that control shape, so neural modelling tools such as dynamic causal modelling may apply to morphogenesis data.", "quote": "This suggests the possibility that significant commonalities may exist between the dynamics of neural networks and of bioelectric signalling networks that control shape determination [20,21,83].", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2015, "work": "Knowing one's place: a free-energy approach to pattern regulation", "chapter": "Friston K 2015, Knowing one's place: a free-energy approach to pattern regulation › Conclusion", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.391, "truth": 0.77, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.81 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.73 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.64, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA3W08NWMAUUs0PLNCZMIb8q2grP35vnAQg3L-Hdu_vDw", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2015-place-09", "key": "45cfaff77a4f4cb9", "label": "An exogenous gradient makes self-assembly more robust for larger ensembles", "statement": "In the active-inference morphogenesis simulations, an exogenous concentration gradient is not necessary but yields a more robust solution for larger ensembles (more than four clones) and fixes the orientation of the target morphology relative to an external frame of reference.", "quote": "This is not a necessary component of the scheme; however, our simulations suggest that it underwrites a more robust solution for larger ensembles (with more than four clones).", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2015, "work": "Knowing one's place: a free-energy approach to pattern regulation", "chapter": "Friston K 2015, Knowing one's place: a free-energy approach to pattern regulation › Conclusion", "kind": "simulation-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.752, "truth": 0.855, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.9 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.81 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.75, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA8B2v0cwMd0oAdklSo1ZIOXi-sWg6BcNA5ii-I3_RSbI", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2015-place-10", "key": "c95e2c7693d3df82", "label": "Epigenetic active inference is indispensable for patterning beyond genetic encoding", "statement": "Although aspects of the target morphology are genetically encoded in the parameters of cells' generative models, epigenetic processes (active inference) are indispensable for patterning, consistent with the regenerative target morphology of planaria being permanently alterable (to two heads) by a brief modification of electric synapses.", "quote": "It may be worth concluding that although aspects of the target morphology are genetically encoded (in the parameters of the generative models); epigenetic processes (active inference) are indispensable for patterning.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2015, "work": "Knowing one's place: a free-energy approach to pattern regulation", "chapter": "Friston K 2015, Knowing one's place: a free-energy approach to pattern regulation › Conclusion", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.289, "truth": 0.495, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.61 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.38 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.69, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAosx2IHN4i-NS2kkFmVHGGIbXnXaIrP3lPz_V2R82pXE", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2015-girardia-01", "key": "7dfb5732a151b225", "label": "Brief gap-junction blockade makes G. dorotocephala regenerate other species' head shapes", "statement": "In decapitated Girardia dorotocephala fragments, a transient perturbation of cell-to-cell physiological connectivity with the gap junction blocker octanol can lead to regenerated heads whose shapes stochastically match those of other planarian species (Schmidtea mediterranea, Dugesia japonica, Polycelis felina).", "quote": "after decapitation in G. dorotocephala, a transient perturbation of physiological connectivity among cells (using the gap junction blocker octanol) can result in regenerated heads with quite different shapes, stochastically matching other known species of planaria (S. mediterranea, D. japonica, and P. felina)", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2015, "work": "Gap Junctional Blockade Stochastically Induces Different Species-Specific Head Anatomies in Genetically Wild-Type Girardia dorotocephala Flatworms", "chapter": "Emmons-Bell M 2015, Gap Junctional Blockade Stochastically Induces Different Species-Specific Head Anatomies in Genetically Wild-Type Girardia dorotocephala Flatworms › Abstract", "kind": "experimental-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [ { "id": "cervera-levin-mafe", "relation": "models", "note": "Models gap-junction blockade as reduced effective diffusion of AP/ML morphogen signals to produce altered planarian head shapes, the phenomenon this claim reports.", "label": "Cervera–Levin–Mafe gap-junction reaction–diffusion and bioelectric synthesis faithfully reproduces Planarians; photograph is Schmidtea mediterranea, empirical PlanformDB subset is Dugesia japonica morphology", "organism": "Planarians", "verdict": "partially faithful", "score": 55.6, "thompson_verdict": null, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAnyAaMeArVgK24K_7QPPWClzS8NHokd6oybUkFDSDZFo", "registry": "unconfirmed", "report": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/morphoeval/kg/2026-10-17-cervera-audit-v2/REPORT.md" } ], "thumbnail": { "file": "docs/thumbs/cervera-levin-mafe.jpg", "morpholib": "cervera-levin-mafe", "source": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/docs/media/cervera_levin_mafe_gj_block.gif" }, "testability": 0.558, "truth": 0.73, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.79 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.67 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.76, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAR2MWQLGVPox5_nShWBiJqN1PTSFqfmujABw1bDIPYBs", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2015-girardia-02", "key": "7cc67f424b0c189a", "label": "Octanol-induced head shapes are morphometrically closer to the species they resemble", "statement": "By geometric morphometrics (Procrustes distances), the octanol-induced head shapes of G. dorotocephala regenerates are closer to the wild-type head shapes of the species they resemble than to the wild-type G. dorotocephala head shape.", "quote": "Comparisons of the Procrustes distances between shape groups (Figure 2A, Table 1) showed that the experimentally derived morphologies were closer in shape to the wild-type morphologies they resembled than the wild-type Girardia dorotocephala head morphology.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2015, "work": "Gap Junctional Blockade Stochastically Induces Different Species-Specific Head Anatomies in Genetically Wild-Type Girardia dorotocephala Flatworms", "chapter": "Emmons-Bell M 2015, Gap Junctional Blockade Stochastically Induces Different Species-Specific Head Anatomies in Genetically Wild-Type Girardia dorotocephala Flatworms › 2. Results › 2.2. Quantitative Comparison of Induced vs. Genome-Specific Head Shapes", "kind": "experimental-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "supports", "evidence_kind": "biological", "data_test": { "verdict": "supports", "confidence": 0.5, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "biological", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/levin-papers/levin-2015-girardia-02/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Every induced head-shape group has a smaller Procrustes distance to the species it resembles than to wild-type G. dorotocephala.", "disconfirming_observation": "Two or more of three induced groups (or both of two) are closer to wild-type G. dorotocephala than to the species they resemble.", "admissible_datasets": "Published Procrustes distances (or landmark data from which they can be computed) for octanol-induced G. dorotocephala head shapes and wild-type heads of the resembled species; the source paper's table is admissible but not independent.", "inference_method": "Read the pairwise distance matrix; for each induced group compare its distance to the resembled species with its distance to G. dorotocephala; count groups satisfying the inequality and check any reported permutation p-values; apply the thresholds.", "explicit": true }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.658, "truth": 0.745, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.84 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.65 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.74, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAmry48hweCeHSbea6HzKevUa1OQJgoxngEKUhUTcdx4E", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2015-girardia-03", "key": "2f057a8aa044b5d3", "label": "Induced head shapes are stochastic, with frequencies tracking evolutionary distance", "statement": "Under identical octanol treatment, G. dorotocephala regenerates take one of several discrete head shapes, and the frequencies of the shapes are unequal and correlate roughly with the evolutionary distance (from rRNA phylogeny) between G. dorotocephala and the species each shape resembles, with shapes of closer relatives (S. mediterranea, D. japonica) more frequent than that of the more distant P. felina.", "quote": "We conclude that not only are phenotypic outcomes from physiological network perturbation stochastic (as the same treatment leads to one of several discrete shapes among individuals), but the frequencies are not equal and correlate roughly with evolutionary distance between the worm species these heads resemble.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2015, "work": "Gap Junctional Blockade Stochastically Induces Different Species-Specific Head Anatomies in Genetically Wild-Type Girardia dorotocephala Flatworms", "chapter": "Emmons-Bell M 2015, Gap Junctional Blockade Stochastically Induces Different Species-Specific Head Anatomies in Genetically Wild-Type Girardia dorotocephala Flatworms › 2. Results › 2.3. The Head Shape Changes Are Stochastic", "kind": "experimental-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.55, "truth": 0.555, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.56 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.55 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.715, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAVthdGWpkzgyfNQpoqYEkJ5bQf2MZHlrs31DSx5xhPqo", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2015-girardia-04", "key": "ce1cbaa0616046de", "label": "Gap-junction-perturbed worms also acquire the brain shape of the species they resemble", "statement": "G. dorotocephala regenerates whose heads resemble another species after octanol treatment also have brain morphologies (length/width ratio, by anti-synapsin staining) resembling the brains of wild-type worms of that species.", "quote": "Strikingly, we found that pseudo worms possessed brain morphologies that look like the brain morphologies of wild-type worms whose head shapes they resembled (Figure 4D–F) (ANOVA, p < 0.001).", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2015, "work": "Gap Junctional Blockade Stochastically Induces Different Species-Specific Head Anatomies in Genetically Wild-Type Girardia dorotocephala Flatworms", "chapter": "Emmons-Bell M 2015, Gap Junctional Blockade Stochastically Induces Different Species-Specific Head Anatomies in Genetically Wild-Type Girardia dorotocephala Flatworms › 2. Results › 2.4. Brain Structure of GJ-Perturbed Worms Is Also Altered to That of Other Species", "kind": "experimental-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.552, "truth": 0.69, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.74 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.64 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.74, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA2B4oIeVzeDDrEhN84RnlCvSwVpPbwF5oOdBMqhvUiHI", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2015-girardia-05", "key": "975b1ee7f1f2dee0", "label": "Perturbed worms adopt the anterior stem-cell distribution of the species they resemble", "statement": "In octanol-treated G. dorotocephala regenerates, the transformation toward another species' head shape extends to the species-characteristic distribution of neoblasts (mitotic stem cells) in the anterior body, and the authors conclude that the patterning processes disrupted by gap junction perturbation also organize the distribution of mitotically active cells.", "quote": "We conclude that the transformation of G. dorotocephala worms to resemble other species also extends to the species-specific, characteristic internal distribution of their stem cells, and that the patterning processes that are disrupted after GJC perturbation are also responsible for organizing the distribution of mitotically active cells.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2015, "work": "Gap Junctional Blockade Stochastically Induces Different Species-Specific Head Anatomies in Genetically Wild-Type Girardia dorotocephala Flatworms", "chapter": "Emmons-Bell M 2015, Gap Junctional Blockade Stochastically Induces Different Species-Specific Head Anatomies in Genetically Wild-Type Girardia dorotocephala Flatworms › 2. Results › 2.5. Distribution of Neoblasts Is Altered to That of Other Species in GJ-Perturbed Worms", "kind": "experimental-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.504, "truth": 0.605, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.68 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.53 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.72, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAmRJpOl9n1QkMAW94HombfJaZlzaEexaDfmwe-n-oLVA", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2015-girardia-06", "key": "81a45742702de9a1", "label": "Octanol-treated worms show more isopotential regions, which return to normal by 30 days", "statement": "Ten days after transient octanol exposure, regenerated G. dorotocephala show more distinct isopotential (membrane-voltage) regions by DiBAC dye imaging than controls, and the number of isopotential regions returns to the wild-type level after 30 days of morphological remodeling.", "quote": "We detected an increased number of isopotential regions in the pseudo worms compared to the states of control worms; interestingly, the numbers of isopotential regions return to those of a wild-type state after 30 days of morphological remodeling (Figure 6I).", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2015, "work": "Gap Junctional Blockade Stochastically Induces Different Species-Specific Head Anatomies in Genetically Wild-Type Girardia dorotocephala Flatworms", "chapter": "Emmons-Bell M 2015, Gap Junctional Blockade Stochastically Induces Different Species-Specific Head Anatomies in Genetically Wild-Type Girardia dorotocephala Flatworms › 2. Results › 2.6. Patterns of Endogenous Relative Membrane Potential Are Altered in GJ-Perturbed Worms", "kind": "experimental-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.533, "truth": 0.645, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.69 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.6 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.725, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAYB-bEne3s7ZqpJEAOQBVHPTS8ZuT0h1xQITkKsEtuZA", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2015-girardia-07", "key": "de7beb02bc10d58a", "label": "Induced head shapes remodel back toward G. dorotocephala after regeneration ends", "statement": "The other-species head shapes induced in G. dorotocephala by octanol are not permanent: between days 10 and 30, after regeneration is complete and without further injury, the heads are remodeled to more closely resemble wild-type G. dorotocephala.", "quote": "We found that the induced morphologies were remodeled, long after regenerative processes had ended, to produce morphologies that bore closer resemblance to wild-type G. dorotocephala.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2015, "work": "Gap Junctional Blockade Stochastically Induces Different Species-Specific Head Anatomies in Genetically Wild-Type Girardia dorotocephala Flatworms", "chapter": "Emmons-Bell M 2015, Gap Junctional Blockade Stochastically Induces Different Species-Specific Head Anatomies in Genetically Wild-Type Girardia dorotocephala Flatworms › 2. Results › 2.7. Induced Shape Changes Are Not Permanent", "kind": "experimental-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.573, "truth": 0.82, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.9 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.74 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.76, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA89-THD3TSLC55z02elfAwEFj9BHxXyeQy7QPR2qthFs", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2015-girardia-08", "key": "1664c536bf698ebf", "label": "Head remodeling passes from S. mediterranea-like to D. japonica-like to normal shape", "statement": "In canonical variate shape space, the D. japonica head morphology lies between those of G. dorotocephala and S. mediterranea, and octanol-induced S. mediterranea-like G. dorotocephala heads remodel by moving from S. mediterranea-like to D. japonica-like to G. dorotocephala morphology.", "quote": "DJ morphology lies between GD and SM morphologies in this space, and we observe remodeling that moves from SM morphology to DJ morphology to GD morphology.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2015, "work": "Gap Junctional Blockade Stochastically Induces Different Species-Specific Head Anatomies in Genetically Wild-Type Girardia dorotocephala Flatworms", "chapter": "Emmons-Bell M 2015, Gap Junctional Blockade Stochastically Induces Different Species-Specific Head Anatomies in Genetically Wild-Type Girardia dorotocephala Flatworms › 2. Results › 2.7. Induced Shape Changes Are Not Permanent", "kind": "experimental-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.524, "truth": 0.645, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.73 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.56 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.69, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAhOITsbdisr8Ufv_9SO76zYQc5XmOokrd_44IYUNS820", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2015-girardia-09", "key": "9bfccb81a37cb8e8", "label": "Agent-based model of migrating, signaling cells reproduces the observed head shapes", "statement": "In an agent-based model of planarian head regeneration in which static somatic cells emit a chemical signal and migratory cells (neoblasts or their progeny) are repelled by it, deactivating different subsets of signaling cells (representing octanol gap-junction blockade) reproduces the four observed head shapes, so a small set of gap-junction-regulated cell behaviors such as migration and cell-cell signaling can quantitatively explain the observed morphologies.", "quote": "We conclude that a small set of cell-level behaviors, such as migration and cell-cell signaling that are known to be regulated by GJC and thus are perturbed by octanol exposure [35,39,49,98,101,102], can quantitatively explain the morphologies we observed in planaria.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2015, "work": "Gap Junctional Blockade Stochastically Induces Different Species-Specific Head Anatomies in Genetically Wild-Type Girardia dorotocephala Flatworms", "chapter": "Emmons-Bell M 2015, Gap Junctional Blockade Stochastically Induces Different Species-Specific Head Anatomies in Genetically Wild-Type Girardia dorotocephala Flatworms › 2. Results › 2.8. A Model of Planarian Head Shapes Arising from Cell Interactions", "kind": "simulation-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.556, "truth": 0.53, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.64 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.42 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.66, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA5haV4R2F1eJKX5jcxjI4MTaW6bJYD-CZfAIST5inalg", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2015-girardia-10", "key": "a02029a499c8e07b", "label": "Coherent discrete head shapes show the octanol effect is instructive rather than toxic", "statement": "The octanol-induced head-shape change in G. dorotocephala is instructive rather than a toxic or housekeeping defect, because it yields one of several coherent, ecologically valid morphologies rather than regeneration failure or disorganized growth, with no intermediate morphologies observed.", "quote": "The head morphology alteration effect was instructive, and not merely one of toxicity or a house-keeping defect, because the outcome was not merely disruption of regenerative ability or a generalized mis-patterning (e.g., tumor or other disorganized growth), but rather resulted in one of several coherent (and ecologically-valid) morphologies.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2015, "work": "Gap Junctional Blockade Stochastically Induces Different Species-Specific Head Anatomies in Genetically Wild-Type Girardia dorotocephala Flatworms", "chapter": "Emmons-Bell M 2015, Gap Junctional Blockade Stochastically Induces Different Species-Specific Head Anatomies in Genetically Wild-Type Girardia dorotocephala Flatworms › 3. Discussion › 3.1. Perturbation of Bioelectric Networks Produces Inter-Species Morphological Change", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.487, "truth": 0.6, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.6 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.6 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.685, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAd6snO5CC-6ODJmKalr9dFHCnv9rKjKGRWVv75ZlBEdQ", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2015-girardia-11", "key": "36890cb12d57bd96", "label": "Hexanol, which does not block gap junctions, does not alter head shape", "statement": "In G. dorotocephala, the same 3-day exposure to hexanol, a closely related alcohol that does not efficiently block gap junction channels, does not produce altered head morphologies, consistent with the head-shape change depending on octanol's gap-junction-blocking activity rather than a generalized effect of long-chain alcohols.", "quote": "The same 3-day treatment with the closely related alcohol, hexanol (6-OH), which does not efficiently block gap junction channels, and subsequent regeneration in water for 7 days, did not produce altered morphologies, consistent with the importance of the GJ-blocking activity of octanol, and not some other generalized effect of long-chain alcohols.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2015, "work": "Gap Junctional Blockade Stochastically Induces Different Species-Specific Head Anatomies in Genetically Wild-Type Girardia dorotocephala Flatworms", "chapter": "Emmons-Bell M 2015, Gap Junctional Blockade Stochastically Induces Different Species-Specific Head Anatomies in Genetically Wild-Type Girardia dorotocephala Flatworms › 3. Discussion › 3.1. Perturbation of Bioelectric Networks Produces Inter-Species Morphological Change", "kind": "experimental-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.552, "truth": 0.835, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.87 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.8 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.74, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RASQg-C85F6jClNvrYxAbCKOOUPE6Nndo2Lof-UE8cUn8", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2015-girardia-12", "key": "6ef58c843d62734c", "label": "Bioelectric networks derive distinct morphologies from one genome", "statement": "Physiological bioelectric networks are a previously unrecognized input by which distinct morphologies, including those of other species, can be derived from the same genome, as shown by gap-junction perturbation in G. dorotocephala.", "quote": "Here, we identify a novel physiological input into the process by which distinct morphologies can be derived from the same genome: physiological bioelectric networks.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2015, "work": "Gap Junctional Blockade Stochastically Induces Different Species-Specific Head Anatomies in Genetically Wild-Type Girardia dorotocephala Flatworms", "chapter": "Emmons-Bell M 2015, Gap Junctional Blockade Stochastically Induces Different Species-Specific Head Anatomies in Genetically Wild-Type Girardia dorotocephala Flatworms › 3. Discussion › 3.1. Perturbation of Bioelectric Networks Produces Inter-Species Morphological Change", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.482, "truth": 0.545, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.65 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.44 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.69, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAmU8AjUYDtyuyO1_81upI322b6zORffoes9TujTZ2BPA", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2015-girardia-13", "key": "15e332ac8a852d1c", "label": "Brief gap-junction blockade persistently alters bioelectric state after drug washout", "statement": "In G. dorotocephala, the long-lasting alteration of bioelectric patterning after brief octanol exposure is not caused by residual octanol (which leaves tissues within 24 h) but is initiated by octanol's disruption of gap junction communication, which alters bioelectric network topology and results in a persistent perturbation of bioelectric state.", "quote": "Although these long-lasting alterations in bioelectrical patterning are not directly caused by octanol remaining within the body of the worm (since 8-OH is known to depart planarian tissues within 24 h [20]), they are initiated by the octanol-mediated disruption of GJC, which alters bioelectric network topology, and results in persistent perturbation of bioelectric state.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2015, "work": "Gap Junctional Blockade Stochastically Induces Different Species-Specific Head Anatomies in Genetically Wild-Type Girardia dorotocephala Flatworms", "chapter": "Emmons-Bell M 2015, Gap Junctional Blockade Stochastically Induces Different Species-Specific Head Anatomies in Genetically Wild-Type Girardia dorotocephala Flatworms › 3. Discussion › 3.4. Bioelectric State of Tissues and Its Stable Alteration in Species-Specific Shape Change", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.432, "truth": 0.53, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.58 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.48 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.66, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAxAOf4ZOfpKTZLmFgBJkGFD_1RveafgHRqbK_QZSNXUQ", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2015-girardia-14", "key": "bbfe2cfdc1fab571", "label": "Partial, variable gap-junction blockade is consistent with stochastic head-shape outcomes", "statement": "The variability and overall magnitude of the bioelectric effect imply that octanol only partially shuts down gap junction communication in each G. dorotocephala (affecting some percentage of gap junctions per animal), which the authors consider consistent with the stochasticity of the head-shape phenotype.", "quote": "The variability and overall magnitude of the effect imply that the result of 8-OH exposure is only partially effective in shutting down GJC (affecting some percentage of GJs in any animal); this is consistent with the stochasticity of the morphological phenotype (Figure 3).", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2015, "work": "Gap Junctional Blockade Stochastically Induces Different Species-Specific Head Anatomies in Genetically Wild-Type Girardia dorotocephala Flatworms", "chapter": "Emmons-Bell M 2015, Gap Junctional Blockade Stochastically Induces Different Species-Specific Head Anatomies in Genetically Wild-Type Girardia dorotocephala Flatworms › 3. Discussion › 3.4. Bioelectric State of Tissues and Its Stable Alteration in Species-Specific Shape Change", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.319, "truth": 0.59, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.55 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.63 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.665, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAP30e5vWHJD5hDoXQZeEH1cxvuYJs5vkO8NIuxVY0ZRU", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2015-girardia-15", "key": "85587795c2ccca4b", "label": "Head shape may be encoded in time-dependent rather than steady voltage patterns", "statement": "Because single-image voltage distributions showed no simple correspondence with the head shapes of octanol-treated G. dorotocephala, the authors consider it most likely that shape outcomes are encoded in time-dependent bioelectric activity rather than in steady voltage distributions, as in information encoding in the central nervous system.", "quote": "The most likely explanation however is that shape outcomes may not be encoded via steady (single-image) distributions but in time-dependent activity, as occurs during information encoding in the central nervous system.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2015, "work": "Gap Junctional Blockade Stochastically Induces Different Species-Specific Head Anatomies in Genetically Wild-Type Girardia dorotocephala Flatworms", "chapter": "Emmons-Bell M 2015, Gap Junctional Blockade Stochastically Induces Different Species-Specific Head Anatomies in Genetically Wild-Type Girardia dorotocephala Flatworms › 3. Discussion › 3.4. Bioelectric State of Tissues and Its Stable Alteration in Species-Specific Shape Change", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.349, "truth": 0.35, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.4 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.3 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.75, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA5GSyUUyxGadvTCdaVlxPkbqjJhrqoYv0YTqEycDWmQU", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2015-girardia-16", "key": "f3e2af6eaf3ef08c", "label": "Planarian morphology behaves as a homeostatic parameter maintained toward a target shape", "statement": "In planarians, morphology appears to be a homeostatic parameter that is repeatedly assessed and adjusted to maintain a 'target' morphology: after an incorrect head shape is produced during regeneration, the mismatch with the target triggers remodeling (between days 10 and 17 in octanol-treated G. dorotocephala), even after large-scale reorganization has ended.", "quote": "Morphology appears to be a homeostatic parameter, one that is consistently assessed and adjusted in order to maintain some “target” morphology.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2015, "work": "Gap Junctional Blockade Stochastically Induces Different Species-Specific Head Anatomies in Genetically Wild-Type Girardia dorotocephala Flatworms", "chapter": "Emmons-Bell M 2015, Gap Junctional Blockade Stochastically Induces Different Species-Specific Head Anatomies in Genetically Wild-Type Girardia dorotocephala Flatworms › 3. Discussion › 3.5. Morphological Remodeling in 2 Phases: Head Shape Change without Traumatic Injury", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.461, "truth": 0.695, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.65 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.74 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.67, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAYwFuErCzUR12ix25M2gfWaUdRiLrZd7tJfFuUkqLxi8", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2015-girardia-17", "key": "5b2c08fb995bd5d9", "label": "Gap-junction-dependent instructive signals pass from somatic tissue to neoblasts", "statement": "The authors propose that significant instructive, gap-junction-dependent signaling passes from planarian somatic tissues to neoblasts or their progeny to guide new tissue generation and shaping during regeneration.", "quote": "In this model, we propose that significant instructive (GJ-dependent) signaling occurs from the somatic tissues to the neoblasts or their progeny, to guide the new tissue generation and shaping during regeneration.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2015, "work": "Gap Junctional Blockade Stochastically Induces Different Species-Specific Head Anatomies in Genetically Wild-Type Girardia dorotocephala Flatworms", "chapter": "Emmons-Bell M 2015, Gap Junctional Blockade Stochastically Induces Different Species-Specific Head Anatomies in Genetically Wild-Type Girardia dorotocephala Flatworms › 3. Discussion › 3.6. Computational Modeling of Head Shape Formation", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.375, "truth": 0.49, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.53 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.45 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.73, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAmprxvg2dYChkvchpp0PspBc69NHoMp5S86FvcO9P_U8", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2015-girardia-18", "key": "d4526b2f49aad414", "label": "Somatic cells can be modeled as a slow neural-like network obeying brain-like dynamics", "statement": "The authors propose conceptualizing the link between gap junctional connectivity among planarian cells and discrete regenerative outcomes by viewing the cells as a neural-like network that processes developmental information more slowly but obeys the same statistical dynamics as the brain.", "quote": "Thus, we propose that one way to conceptualize the linkage between bioelectrical connectivity among worm cells (GJC) and discrete global behavioral outcomes achieved by regeneration is to view the worms’ cells as a neural-like network, processing developmental information more slowly but obeying the same statistical dynamics rules as are known to occur in the brain (Figure 9A).", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2015, "work": "Gap Junctional Blockade Stochastically Induces Different Species-Specific Head Anatomies in Genetically Wild-Type Girardia dorotocephala Flatworms", "chapter": "Emmons-Bell M 2015, Gap Junctional Blockade Stochastically Induces Different Species-Specific Head Anatomies in Genetically Wild-Type Girardia dorotocephala Flatworms › 3. Discussion › 3.7. A hypothesis: Physiological Network Attractors Underlie Regions of Anatomical Morphospace", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.198, "truth": 0.31, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.34 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.28 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.755, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAJblefIQVDilWo0eyETTvxxgMUQmA3EYRBLF6DqkjlQg", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2015-girardia-19", "key": "c5fce129dd8059ca", "label": "Planarian head shapes may be attractors of a gap-junction-coupled bioelectric network", "statement": "The authors hypothesize that distinct planarian head shapes may be attractors in the state space of the bioelectric network formed by body cells coupled by gap junctions, that these attractors correspond to regions of morphospace in the evolutionary sense, and that octanol knocks the network's stochastic dynamics into one of several nearby attractors normally belonging to other flatworm species.", "quote": "We hypothesize that distinct shape outcomes may be attractors in a state space describing distinct modes of the bioelectric network of planarian body cells connected by gap junctions (electrical synapses); in essence, these attractors correspond to regions of a morphospace as classically understood by evolutionary theory [151].", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2015, "work": "Gap Junctional Blockade Stochastically Induces Different Species-Specific Head Anatomies in Genetically Wild-Type Girardia dorotocephala Flatworms", "chapter": "Emmons-Bell M 2015, Gap Junctional Blockade Stochastically Induces Different Species-Specific Head Anatomies in Genetically Wild-Type Girardia dorotocephala Flatworms › 3. Discussion › 3.7. A hypothesis: Physiological Network Attractors Underlie Regions of Anatomical Morphospace", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.328, "truth": 0.395, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.43 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.36 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.705, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAdcAEpiDITwjcXQSg3gVfxdm5lr0hrfvt7Tvrbor4a3Q", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2015-girardia-20", "key": "39dadcd114bcd4fa", "label": "Regeneration as descent to a free-energy attractor; induced shapes as local minima", "statement": "On the authors' proposed view, discrete planarian head patterns are the lowest free-energy outcomes of bioelectric network dynamics; amputation raises free energy and regeneration is a return to a low-energy attractor, octanol shifts the system to another attractor, and the induced other-species shapes are only local minima since worms return to the global minimum of G. dorotocephala morphology after about 3–4 weeks.", "quote": "On this view (Figure 9), the discrete head patterns are outcomes of bioelectric network dynamics with the lowest free-energy; cutting the network raises the free energy by deviating the system from its optimal morphology (damage), and initiates the regenerative process—a journey back down to a low-energy attractor.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2015, "work": "Gap Junctional Blockade Stochastically Induces Different Species-Specific Head Anatomies in Genetically Wild-Type Girardia dorotocephala Flatworms", "chapter": "Emmons-Bell M 2015, Gap Junctional Blockade Stochastically Induces Different Species-Specific Head Anatomies in Genetically Wild-Type Girardia dorotocephala Flatworms › 3. Discussion › 3.7. A hypothesis: Physiological Network Attractors Underlie Regions of Anatomical Morphospace", "kind": "mathematical-law", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": true, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.153, "truth": 0.345, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.36 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.33 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.755, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RArqoIrwFMamBU2TfrVVlJcp-9d0FjCmsVWXrA1yoJ5GA", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2015-girardia-21", "key": "d7a402c5070f0071", "label": "Planarian evolutionary distance may reflect ease of shifting a shared patterning network", "statement": "The authors suggest that a core network of gene-regulatory elements and gap-junction-mediated signals may be shared among many planarians, with species differences tweaking its dynamics, so that evolutionary distance between planarian species may reflect how easily this network can be shifted into its different outcome states, as during gap junction inhibition.", "quote": "The evolutionary distance among the planarian types may thus be expected to reflect the ease of shifting this network into its different potential outcome states (as occurs during GJC inhibition).", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2015, "work": "Gap Junctional Blockade Stochastically Induces Different Species-Specific Head Anatomies in Genetically Wild-Type Girardia dorotocephala Flatworms", "chapter": "Emmons-Bell M 2015, Gap Junctional Blockade Stochastically Induces Different Species-Specific Head Anatomies in Genetically Wild-Type Girardia dorotocephala Flatworms › 3. Discussion › 3.8. Stochastic Phenotypes and Evolutionary Implications", "kind": "historical-inference", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.445, "truth": 0.38, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.38 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.38 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.66, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAY7iOXXguf4spI1BRI0Cx73Z8PJsk0KAUT-Sl-BDm7wo", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2014-tumor-01", "key": "ed877ce429791f40", "label": "Resting potential of distant cells controls oncogene-dependent tumorigenesis", "statement": "The resting membrane potentials of cells located at a distance from oncogene-expressing cells are critical for whether those oncogene-expressing cells go on to form tumors in vivo, as shown in Xenopus laevis tadpoles injected with human oncogenes.", "quote": "Extending prior work focused on the bioelectric state of cancer cells themselves, we show for the first time that the resting potentials of distant cells are critical for oncogene-dependent tumorigenesis.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2014, "work": "Transmembrane voltage potential of somatic cells controls oncogene-mediated tumorigenesis at long-range", "chapter": "Chernet BT 2014, Transmembrane voltage potential of somatic cells controls oncogene-mediated tumorigenesis at long-range › Abstract", "kind": "experimental-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.603, "truth": 0.67, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.76 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.58 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.73, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAfPkXQHCw3DX-yDN4i0ImASV0nOoOYA3Lo2tG8HJ3Blg", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2014-tumor-02", "key": "f9f3a9e337d46d77", "label": "Oncogene-induced tumor-like structures in Xenopus share hallmarks of human tumors", "statement": "Tumor-like structures induced in Xenopus laevis tadpoles by human oncogenes such as mutant KRAS display overproliferation, increased nuclear size, hypoxia, intracellular acidity and leukocyte attraction, hallmarks shared with classic human tumors.", "quote": "In the Xenopus laevis tadpole model, we used human oncogenes such as mutant KRAS to drive formation of tumor-like structures that exhibited overproliferation, increased nuclear size, hypoxia, acidity, and leukocyte attraction.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2014, "work": "Transmembrane voltage potential of somatic cells controls oncogene-mediated tumorigenesis at long-range", "chapter": "Chernet BT 2014, Transmembrane voltage potential of somatic cells controls oncogene-mediated tumorigenesis at long-range › Abstract", "kind": "experimental-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.528, "truth": 0.825, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.93 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.72 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.715, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAJX0TMwHTCN7RP_6zjA3324TaeJgR02i8oYmPoISy0QI", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2014-tumor-03", "key": "879d16c883bdba1b", "label": "Remote Kv1.5 hyperpolarization suppresses tumor-like structures from two oncogenes", "statement": "In Xenopus laevis embryos, misexpressing the hyperpolarizing potassium channel Kv1.5 in a blastomere distant from the oncogene-injected blastomere reduces the incidence of induced tumor-like structures by about 35% for Xrel3 and about 29% for Gli1, indicating the suppression is not specific to one oncogene.", "quote": "Kv1.5-induced long-distance hyperpolarization was also able to significantly suppress Xrel3 and Gli1 ITLS formation by 34.9% (N=225; t-test, P<0.05) and 29.4% (N=292; t-test, P<0.05), respectively (Fig. 2C), suggesting the effect is not specific for just one type of oncogene.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2014, "work": "Transmembrane voltage potential of somatic cells controls oncogene-mediated tumorigenesis at long-range", "chapter": "Chernet BT 2014, Transmembrane voltage potential of somatic cells controls oncogene-mediated tumorigenesis at long-range › RESULTS › Long-range hyperpolarization suppresses the formation of ITLS", "kind": "experimental-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.654, "truth": 0.835, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.91 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.76 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.78, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAzRoO6qqQAc-lnXvhIwspEYfAf2SvY5WPfDenR56ow_o", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2014-tumor-04", "key": "920611fa9c903f39", "label": "High-chloride hyperpolarization suppresses KRAS tumors, so the effect is ion-independent", "statement": "Raising extracellular chloride, which hyperpolarizes cells through native chloride channels, decreases the incidence of KRASG12D-induced tumor-like structures in Xenopus laevis embryos by about 38%, showing that tumor suppression depends on the change in membrane voltage rather than on the Kv1.5 channel or on potassium specifically.", "quote": "Treatment with high chloride (whose uptake by native Cl− channels hyperpolarizes cells) resulted in a 37.5% decrease (N=349; t-test P<0.05) in KRASG12D ITLS, demonstrating that the suppressive effect is not specific for Kv1.5 nor for potassium, as mediators of the crucial Vmem change (Fig. 2C).", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2014, "work": "Transmembrane voltage potential of somatic cells controls oncogene-mediated tumorigenesis at long-range", "chapter": "Chernet BT 2014, Transmembrane voltage potential of somatic cells controls oncogene-mediated tumorigenesis at long-range › RESULTS › Long-range hyperpolarization suppresses the formation of ITLS", "kind": "experimental-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.625, "truth": 0.72, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.78 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.66 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.75, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAOpqJ5qJpOSZD7jTBnX9qpgK9lqJj5_Bi8ZQD5EhFgaY", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2014-tumor-05", "key": "b63868b7911b26d7", "label": "Native CLIC1 mediates chloride-based long-range tumor suppression", "statement": "The endogenous chloride intracellular channel 1 (CLIC1) is required for chloride-driven, long-range suppression of oncogene-induced tumor-like structures in Xenopus laevis, because non-local overexpression of wildtype CLIC1 increases suppression while a dominant-negative CLIC1C24S mutant blocks suppression even under high extracellular chloride.", "quote": "In contrast, overexpression of the mutant CLIC1 (N=336) effectively blocked ITLS suppression despite the presence of high Cl− (Fig 4C). Together, these data suggest a role for native CLIC1 in mediating hyperpolarization-induced long-range ITLS suppression.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2014, "work": "Transmembrane voltage potential of somatic cells controls oncogene-mediated tumorigenesis at long-range", "chapter": "Chernet BT 2014, Transmembrane voltage potential of somatic cells controls oncogene-mediated tumorigenesis at long-range › RESULTS › Chloride-dependent hyperpolarization through endogenous chloride intracellular channel 1 (CLIC1)", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.589, "truth": 0.66, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.7 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.62 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.715, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA9CBs1I9FW0vh8vRhbfebazuRPX59JLErdj2RDqp-V9g", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2014-tumor-06", "key": "b9eb0e3f6cbafa9e", "label": "HDAC1 activity transduces remote voltage change into tumor suppression", "statement": "Histone deacetylase 1 activity is the main transduction step by which hyperpolarization of distant cells suppresses tumorigenesis in Xenopus laevis, since expressing a dominant-negative HDAC1 at a site remote from KRASG12D-expressing cells raises the incidence of induced tumor-like structures by about 36%.", "quote": "introducing DN-HDAC1 non-locally to the site of KRASG12D increased ITLS formation incidence by 35.6% (χ2, P<0.05) (Fig. 5C), suggesting a role for histone deacetylase 1 activity controlling cell behavior at a distance.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2014, "work": "Transmembrane voltage potential of somatic cells controls oncogene-mediated tumorigenesis at long-range", "chapter": "Chernet BT 2014, Transmembrane voltage potential of somatic cells controls oncogene-mediated tumorigenesis at long-range › RESULTS › Changes in Vmem", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.572, "truth": 0.52, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.58 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.46 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.69, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAU6fTCfniifUXoj7_Tqdjz5O1x1iH_gm24pwrrYUD_ZM", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2014-tumor-07", "key": "ac0dfcb07826de09", "label": "Antibiotics against gram-positive bacteria increase tumor incidence", "statement": "Treating Xenopus laevis embryos with antibiotics that target gram-positive bacteria — novobiocin alone, or a cocktail of gentamicin, metronidazole, vancomycin and clindamycin — significantly increases the incidence of oncogene-induced tumor-like structures, implying that native butyrate-producing bacteria normally restrain tumorigenesis.", "quote": "Finally, a cocktail of antibiotics (gentamicin, metrodinazole, vancomycin hydrochloride, and clindamycin hydrochloride, all at 20 μM concentration) targeting gram-positive bacteria resulted in a significant increase in ITLS incidence by 26.2% (χ2, P<0.05) (Fig. 6).", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2014, "work": "Transmembrane voltage potential of somatic cells controls oncogene-mediated tumorigenesis at long-range", "chapter": "Chernet BT 2014, Transmembrane voltage potential of somatic cells controls oncogene-mediated tumorigenesis at long-range › RESULTS › Changes in Vmem", "kind": "experimental-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.561, "truth": 0.46, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.52 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.4 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.705, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAZKilt4QVYKHxpXrAxDrt5z5gu8-ZP4w543AEsJMb0Xw", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2014-tumor-08", "key": "39ab5f8844ba59ce", "label": "Vmem controls tumorigenesis via bacterially derived butyrate acting on HDAC1", "statement": "Control of oncogene-mediated tumorigenesis by resting membrane potential in Xenopus laevis is mediated by histone deacetylase 1, whose inhibition depends on butyrate produced by native gram-positive bacteria.", "quote": "Together, these data suggest that the control of tumorigenesis by Vmem is mediated by HDAC1, via butyrate derived from gram-positive bacteria.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2014, "work": "Transmembrane voltage potential of somatic cells controls oncogene-mediated tumorigenesis at long-range", "chapter": "Chernet BT 2014, Transmembrane voltage potential of somatic cells controls oncogene-mediated tumorigenesis at long-range › RESULTS › Changes in Vmem", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.444, "truth": 0.33, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.38 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.28 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.675, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA9UtVRpljDirgm1UKCZvOfigggG9lReUFUqNEEhAqgM4", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2014-tumor-09", "key": "11716354dcb8f848", "label": "Tumors may themselves emit bioelectric information detectable at a distance", "statement": "The authors speculate that long-range bioelectric connections in tumorigenesis are bidirectional, so that in addition to remote tissue voltage influencing tumor growth, tumors may emit bioelectric information that could be detected at a distance.", "quote": "It is tempting to speculate that the long-range connections are bi-directional: not only does remote electrical state of tissue matter for tumor growth, but perhaps tumors also emit bioelectrical information that could be detectable at a distance.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2014, "work": "Transmembrane voltage potential of somatic cells controls oncogene-mediated tumorigenesis at long-range", "chapter": "Chernet BT 2014, Transmembrane voltage potential of somatic cells controls oncogene-mediated tumorigenesis at long-range › DISCUSSION › Long-range control of tumorigenic process by Vmem", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.332, "truth": 0.35, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.38 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.32 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.715, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAxKEvJYeE7wcj8DdsDSIJLL4cwnN9Y9LTrwK8e9e0tI8", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2014-tumor-10", "key": "1acbfefd6a9e3269", "label": "Resting potential as a systems-level causal factor rather than specific channels", "statement": "Because tumor suppression was obtained with either chloride- or potassium-based hyperpolarization, the authors argue that a systems-level physiological property — resting membrane potential — rather than any specific ion channel acting as an oncogene or tumor suppressor, can be a powerful causal factor regulating tumorigenesis.", "quote": "Thus, in complement to the gene-focused idea of specific ion channels being intrinsic oncogenes or tumor suppressors [44, 48, 145], we suggest that a systems-level physiological property – resting potential – can be a powerful causal factor in regulating these processes.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2014, "work": "Transmembrane voltage potential of somatic cells controls oncogene-mediated tumorigenesis at long-range", "chapter": "Chernet BT 2014, Transmembrane voltage potential of somatic cells controls oncogene-mediated tumorigenesis at long-range › DISCUSSION › Long-range control of tumorigenic process by Vmem", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.56, "truth": 0.695, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.72 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.67 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.705, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA7kQSxPvynUrYLYFL6CalIBp8LSqNvNOAK8wVefVY7K0", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2014-tumor-11", "key": "a48f1e381976c369", "label": "Hyperpolarization skews butyrate-producing bacteria toward depolarized oncogene cells", "statement": "In the model the authors propose, hyperpolarized cells present a positively charged outer surface that reduces bacterial viability, so butyrate-producing bacteria are distributed away from hyperpolarized cells and toward the depolarized oncogene-expressing cells, where the resulting butyrate inhibits HDAC and promotes histone hyperacetylation and cell cycle arrest.", "quote": "As a result, distribution of butyrate producing-bacteria is skewed away from hyperpolarized cells in favor of oncogene-expressing cells, which are known to be depolarized pre-neoplastic transformation [43].", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2014, "work": "Transmembrane voltage potential of somatic cells controls oncogene-mediated tumorigenesis at long-range", "chapter": "Chernet BT 2014, Transmembrane voltage potential of somatic cells controls oncogene-mediated tumorigenesis at long-range › DISCUSSION › Transducing hyperpolarization into cell responses: HDAC1 inhibition", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.365, "truth": 0.26, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.3 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.22 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.77, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAJF5iFItToD8HfznXoNHR5H3F7DKqTAC1RxK5yi6ukRg", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2014-tumor-12", "key": "792bbb428005300c", "label": "If conserved in mammals, Vmem modulation offers cancer detection and treatment routes", "statement": "The authors predict that if the role of remote endogenous bioelectric states in tumorigenesis is conserved in mammalian cancer models, modulation of resting membrane potential — potentially with ion channel drugs already approved for human use — would provide new cancer detection and treatment modalities.", "quote": "Future work must also examine the roles of remote endogenous bioelectric states in mammalian cancer models; if conserved, these data suggest a number of detection and treatment modalities focused on Vmem modulation.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2014, "work": "Transmembrane voltage potential of somatic cells controls oncogene-mediated tumorigenesis at long-range", "chapter": "Chernet BT 2014, Transmembrane voltage potential of somatic cells controls oncogene-mediated tumorigenesis at long-range › DISCUSSION › Transducing hyperpolarization into cell responses: HDAC1 inhibition", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.349, "truth": 0.415, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.47 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.36 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.73, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAOnn9h0CE-KuwVfh49hzmWI068yWTS4DCMMR5Mhgh36Y", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2018-hcn2-01", "key": "31c5251330ea5a3b", "label": "Embryonic nicotine exposure causes major brain malformations in Xenopus", "statement": "Exposing Xenopus laevis embryos to nicotine (0.1 mg/mL, stages 10–35) causes major brain morphology defects (absent nostrils, forebrain or midbrain, misformed hindbrain) in about 55% of tadpoles at stage 45, compared with about 6% of controls.", "quote": "Nicotine exposure caused a significantly high incidence of major brain morphology defects (~55%) in comparison to controls (~6%).", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2018, "work": "HCN2 Rescues brain defects by enforcing endogenous voltage pre-patterns", "chapter": "Pai VP 2018, HCN2 Rescues brain defects by enforcing endogenous voltage pre-patterns › Results › Embryonic nicotine exposure induces brain morphology defects", "kind": "experimental-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "supports", "evidence_kind": "biological", "data_test": { "verdict": "supports", "confidence": 0.55, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "biological", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/levin-papers/levin-2018-hcn2-01/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Published counts give >= 40% major brain defects with 0.1 mg/mL nicotine and <= 15% in controls, Fisher p < 0.001.", "disconfirming_observation": "A difference of less than 10 percentage points between nicotine and controls, or Fisher p >= 0.05.", "admissible_datasets": "Public embryo-level or group-level counts (scored n and affected n, or percentage and n) of stage-45 Xenopus brain morphology after nicotine exposure in the claim's dose and window; the source paper's own data are admissible but not independent; other labs' counts are preferred where they exist.", "inference_method": "Incidence per group from counts; two-sided Fisher exact test of nicotine vs control; apply the magnitude bands and p thresholds.", "explicit": true }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.669, "truth": 0.88, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.94 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.82 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.77, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RADTQLoGWV1XTtiYs9GecVH8yxeuQ8i4x-JSzi_th8h2Q", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2018-hcn2-02", "key": "e6db3560a609531d", "label": "BETSE model: leak and Kir channels produce a hyperpolarized neural tube prepattern", "statement": "In a BETSE bioelectric model of the stage 15 Xenopus neurula, regional differences in K+ and Cl− leak permeability open Kir channels in the neural tube, producing a Vmem of about −50 mV there while the neural folds and ectoderm stay near −5 mV, matching observed embryonic Vmem patterns.", "quote": "This results in open Kir channels in the hyperpolarized neural tube region leading to a Vmem pattern of approximately −50 mV in the neural tube region, while the lateral neural folds and ectoderm remain at ~−5 mV (Fig. 3a, e).", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2018, "work": "HCN2 Rescues brain defects by enforcing endogenous voltage pre-patterns", "chapter": "Pai VP 2018, HCN2 Rescues brain defects by enforcing endogenous voltage pre-patterns › Results › Model of Vmem", "kind": "simulation-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.778, "truth": 0.775, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.87 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.68 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.745, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA6CmpXXdRcGWYpXd3FUCQbG7TkTahMMxgn503lWbJzEU", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2018-hcn2-03", "key": "8e5351c252ccb2d8", "label": "Nicotine depolarizes the neural plate prepattern by about 15 mV, as the model predicted", "statement": "In stage 15 Xenopus embryos, nicotine treatment significantly reduces the endogenous neural hyperpolarization signal (a depolarization of about 15 mV, measured by calibrated voltage-dye imaging), matching the BETSE model's prediction in direction and magnitude.", "quote": "Nicotine-treated embryos showed significant reduction in endogenous neural Vmem signal (depolarization by ~15 mV) in comparison to controls (Figs. 4a, b, e, f, and Supplementary Figure 1). This observation matches the BETSE model predictions of nicotine effect on Vmem both in direction (depolarization) and magnitude (~15 mV).", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2018, "work": "HCN2 Rescues brain defects by enforcing endogenous voltage pre-patterns", "chapter": "Pai VP 2018, HCN2 Rescues brain defects by enforcing endogenous voltage pre-patterns › Results › Nicotine targets Vmem", "kind": "experimental-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.582, "truth": 0.785, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.88 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.69 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.72, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAA8AzDxyT9o7eZwr3NAXfGputP45GyqZSYF4454MxRv4", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2018-hcn2-04", "key": "bb92f5e05db54b7b", "label": "Nicotine causes brain defects by disrupting the endogenous bioelectric prepattern", "statement": "The authors' BETSE model explains nicotine-induced brain defects in Xenopus as resulting from nicotine's disruption of the endogenous bioelectric prepattern (neural tube hyperpolarization) required for brain development.", "quote": "Our model explains why nicotine induces brain defects: it correctly predicts the disruptive effects of this teratogen on the endogenous bioelectric prepattern required for brain development.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2018, "work": "HCN2 Rescues brain defects by enforcing endogenous voltage pre-patterns", "chapter": "Pai VP 2018, HCN2 Rescues brain defects by enforcing endogenous voltage pre-patterns › Results › Nicotine targets Vmem", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.473, "truth": 0.615, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.58 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.65 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.64, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RALlXxaZfBt5tSAbk_POeEYxXMq7eD3CYOHgI-QIEozPU", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2018-hcn2-05", "key": "5d7834e92f4eb8e2", "label": "Normal brain patterning needs the Vmem difference between neural tube and lateral tissue", "statement": "In Xenopus brain development, it is the spatial contrast of Vmem that matters: depolarizing the neural tube region or hyperpolarizing the lateral regions both cause brain defects, because the precise differential bioelectric state induces the balance of proliferation, apoptosis and gene expression needed to build a normal brain.", "quote": "The spatial patterning is crucial, as both depolarization of the middle region, or hyperpolarization of the lateral regions, both cause brain defects—it is the precise differential bioelectric state that induces the required balance of proliferation, apoptosis, and gene expression to build a normal brain28,48.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2018, "work": "HCN2 Rescues brain defects by enforcing endogenous voltage pre-patterns", "chapter": "Pai VP 2018, HCN2 Rescues brain defects by enforcing endogenous voltage pre-patterns › Results › BETSE model identifies HCN2 channel as a repair reagent", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.572, "truth": 0.695, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.78 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.61 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.68, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAw8wnrG5TuyNI-JSGmRET8mQlYpUe78JfCNuw_0BVnvA", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2018-hcn2-06", "key": "53ebcdbd33151124", "label": "HCN2 modelled as a voltage-controlled switch that amplifies small Vmem gradients", "statement": "In the BETSE model of the Xenopus neurula, HCN2 channels open at hyperpolarized membrane voltage and hyperpolarize further when open, so they act as a voltage-controlled switch that amplifies small existing Vmem gradients: sufficiently negative neural tube cells go very hyperpolarized while depolarized lateral regions are left unchanged.", "quote": "HCN2 channels are predicted to open at hyperpolarized Vmem, generating more hyperpolarization with opening, thereby serving as a Vmem-controlled switch of Vmem state, capable of amplifying small Vmem gradients, similar to IT effect (Fig. 3c, e, f).", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2018, "work": "HCN2 Rescues brain defects by enforcing endogenous voltage pre-patterns", "chapter": "Pai VP 2018, HCN2 Rescues brain defects by enforcing endogenous voltage pre-patterns › Results › BETSE model identifies HCN2 channel as a repair reagent", "kind": "simulation-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.805, "truth": 0.735, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.75 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.72 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.76, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAF92kmY3QWm1fM9Y8C_60yGlVszfyoj1B2iYwGoTFKQY", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2018-hcn2-07", "key": "4bbce01dcd4b885b", "label": "BETSE model predicts HCN2 maintains the neural tube Vmem pattern despite nicotine", "statement": "The BETSE model predicts that uniformly expressed HCN2 channels, which open at hyperpolarized Vmem and so amplify small Vmem gradients, open preferentially in the Xenopus neural tube and maintain its hyperpolarized Vmem pattern even in nicotine-exposed model embryos.", "quote": "Importantly, our model predicts that HCN2 expression leads to maintenance of neural tube Vmem pattern even in nicotine-exposed model embryos, similar to the action of IT (Fig. 3c vs. d, e, f).", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2018, "work": "HCN2 Rescues brain defects by enforcing endogenous voltage pre-patterns", "chapter": "Pai VP 2018, HCN2 Rescues brain defects by enforcing endogenous voltage pre-patterns › Results › BETSE model identifies HCN2 channel as a repair reagent", "kind": "simulation-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.762, "truth": 0.88, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.91 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.85 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.765, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA6M-GFI55-vowSnjGYVh820MGTZn3LoVg5rMer0L3L_M", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2018-hcn2-08", "key": "3ff44d724b682426", "label": "Measured HCN2 hyperpolarization in vivo was about half the model's prediction", "statement": "Hcn2 mRNA injection hyperpolarized the neural Vmem signal of Xenopus embryos by about 15 mV relative to controls, whereas the BETSE model predicted about 30 mV.", "quote": "However, the extent of enhanced hyperpolarization predicted by BETSE model for IT and HCN2 was higher (~30 mV) than actually observed (~15 mV) (Figs. 3e and 4).", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2018, "work": "HCN2 Rescues brain defects by enforcing endogenous voltage pre-patterns", "chapter": "Pai VP 2018, HCN2 Rescues brain defects by enforcing endogenous voltage pre-patterns › Results › HCN2 corrects Vmem", "kind": "experimental-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.605, "truth": 0.845, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.91 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.78 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.72, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAM6ahR0o8qpr0f73Xa6VjNv_lDAx7LDBCX1UyuQ7hKI4", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2018-hcn2-09", "key": "6bdfeb0093ea0189", "label": "HCN2 expression restores the neural Vmem prepattern despite nicotine", "statement": "In nicotine-exposed Xenopus embryos, expression of HCN2 channels enhances the neural-tube-specific hyperpolarization and restores the endogenous Vmem prepattern that nicotine otherwise suppresses, as the BETSE model predicted.", "quote": "As predicted, nicotine exposure suppresses the neural brain-specific Vmem pattern, while HCN2 channel expression enhances the neural Vmem pattern and restores it even in presence of the otherwise teratogenic nicotine.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2018, "work": "HCN2 Rescues brain defects by enforcing endogenous voltage pre-patterns", "chapter": "Pai VP 2018, HCN2 Rescues brain defects by enforcing endogenous voltage pre-patterns › Results › HCN2 corrects Vmem", "kind": "experimental-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.52, "truth": 0.83, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.91 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.75 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.74, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAYE7yMMzBLpeqMCBcb--fiUSbcILJxbEfqMsNOgDlOeY", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2018-hcn2-10", "key": "3ba7bb1594a1152c", "label": "HCN2 reduces even minor background brain defects in untreated embryos", "statement": "In untreated Xenopus embryos, Hcn2 mRNA injection reduced the incidence of minor deviations from ideal brain morphology from about 9% to about 1.5%, so HCN2 improved patterning beyond that of unperturbed controls.", "quote": "Thus, misexpression of HCN2 channels resulted in an improvement of developmental patterning even beyond that observed in control populations of unperturbed embryos raised under optimal conditions.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2018, "work": "HCN2 Rescues brain defects by enforcing endogenous voltage pre-patterns", "chapter": "Pai VP 2018, HCN2 Rescues brain defects by enforcing endogenous voltage pre-patterns › Results › HCN2 overexpression reduces background brain defects", "kind": "experimental-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.492, "truth": 0.735, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.85 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.62 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.77, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAi-MIAc4cdzSX_reluuC_tfRwz6efkdGeKDemq-AKC88", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2018-hcn2-11", "key": "8ee025d6d17d02d4", "label": "HCN2 fully rescues nicotine-induced brain malformations to control levels", "statement": "Injection of Hcn2-WT mRNA into nicotine-exposed Xenopus embryos reduced the incidence of major brain morphology defects from about 60% to about 6%, indistinguishable from untreated controls (about 7%).", "quote": "Remarkably, Hcn2-WT mRNA-injected embryos showed a complete rescue of brain morphology defects from nicotine exposure, to levels (~6%) indistinguishable from that of untreated control embryos (~7%) (Fig. 5f).", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2018, "work": "HCN2 Rescues brain defects by enforcing endogenous voltage pre-patterns", "chapter": "Pai VP 2018, HCN2 Rescues brain defects by enforcing endogenous voltage pre-patterns › Results › HCN2 rescues nicotine exposure-induced brain defects", "kind": "experimental-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.522, "truth": 0.865, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.94 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.79 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.775, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RARYK7PXi1ea-j0mhna1fVa5AqYzaeN5_4TrHs62Mgi2Y", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2018-hcn2-12", "key": "f3ab7f69fd631164", "label": "Dominant-negative HCN2 does not rescue nicotine brain defects", "statement": "Nicotine-exposed Xenopus embryos injected with a dominant-negative, non-conducting HCN2 mutant showed no rescue of brain morphology defects (about 70% defective), so the rescue depends on HCN2 channel conductance.", "quote": "In contrast, nicotine-exposed embryos injected with a mutant, dominant-negative form of HCN2 failed to show rescue of brain morphology defects (~70%) (Fig. 5f).", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2018, "work": "HCN2 Rescues brain defects by enforcing endogenous voltage pre-patterns", "chapter": "Pai VP 2018, HCN2 Rescues brain defects by enforcing endogenous voltage pre-patterns › Results › HCN2 rescues nicotine exposure-induced brain defects", "kind": "experimental-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.49, "truth": 0.855, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.94 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.77 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.755, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAaqseYyt2xoItQksWsZfYObO06VB_EX9THPzNKSeam2o", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2018-hcn2-13", "key": "98ca04e7d01ed836", "label": "HCN2 restores wild-type brain shape in nicotine-exposed tadpoles", "statement": "Geometric morphometrics of stage-45 tadpoles show that nicotine significantly changes brain shape relative to the head, while nicotine-exposed tadpoles injected with Hcn2-WT mRNA do not differ in shape from controls.", "quote": "Thus, nicotine significantly changes brain shape, but Hcn2-WT mRNA microinjections restore brain morphology to the wild-type state.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2018, "work": "HCN2 Rescues brain defects by enforcing endogenous voltage pre-patterns", "chapter": "Pai VP 2018, HCN2 Rescues brain defects by enforcing endogenous voltage pre-patterns › Results › HCN2 rescues nicotine exposure-induced brain defects", "kind": "experimental-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.505, "truth": 0.835, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.92 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.75 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.75, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAgR4CudNLsDhGIqK7pFU1cQJMIa4s3nsdz3lbiQI8NDw", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2018-hcn2-14", "key": "197d4fa09be343ba", "label": "HCN2 restores learning in nicotine-exposed tadpoles", "statement": "In an automated red-light avoidance assay, only about 12% of nicotine-exposed Xenopus tadpoles learned, versus 100% of controls, and about 85% of nicotine-exposed tadpoles injected with Hcn2-WT mRNA learned.", "quote": "However, nicotine-exposed embryos receiving Hcn2-WT mRNA showed significant improvement in learning ability (85%, n = 20) in comparison to nicotine-exposed tadpoles (Fig. 7b, c, ANOVA, p < 0.001).", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2018, "work": "HCN2 Rescues brain defects by enforcing endogenous voltage pre-patterns", "chapter": "Pai VP 2018, HCN2 Rescues brain defects by enforcing endogenous voltage pre-patterns › Results › HCN2 restores learning in nicotine-exposed larvae", "kind": "experimental-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.489, "truth": 0.705, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.8 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.61 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.775, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA_nyucd9uW4jt21h2Y0RgnWfwbIAIrVV-ZaDcuKn7F8o", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2018-hcn2-15", "key": "a0aa47a6deaca982", "label": "HCN2 rescue corrects otx2 and xbf1 expression after nicotine", "statement": "Nicotine reduces or mispatterns expression of the forebrain/midbrain transcription factors otx2 and xbf1 in Xenopus embryos, and Hcn2-WT mRNA injection restores their normal expression, linking HCN2-mediated repair to the known genetic cascade of brain patterning.", "quote": "Thus, HCN2 channel rescue of nicotine-induced defects includes correction of otx2 and xbf1, connecting HCN2-mediated repair of brain to the known molecular-genetic cascade of brain patterning factors.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2018, "work": "HCN2 Rescues brain defects by enforcing endogenous voltage pre-patterns", "chapter": "Pai VP 2018, HCN2 Rescues brain defects by enforcing endogenous voltage pre-patterns › Results › HCN2 restores marker expression in nicotine-treated embryos", "kind": "experimental-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.52, "truth": 0.8, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.89 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.71 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.71, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAYaWp85XI_sOmVNZ7WtqOhIV49DrVfMgTnR93MluWD4I", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2018-hcn2-16", "key": "15c15e50605af9fb", "label": "Native HCN2 activity is not required for normal brain patterning", "statement": "Because a dominant-negative HCN2 construct does not disrupt brain patterning, native HCN2 channel activity is not required for normal Xenopus brain patterning, ruling out the possibility that nicotine causes defects by directly blocking endogenous HCN2.", "quote": "However, our experiments with dominant-negative HCN2 channel shows that native HCN2 channel activity is not required for proper brain patterning (Supplementary Figure 4), thus negating this possibility.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2018, "work": "HCN2 Rescues brain defects by enforcing endogenous voltage pre-patterns", "chapter": "Pai VP 2018, HCN2 Rescues brain defects by enforcing endogenous voltage pre-patterns › Discussion", "kind": "experimental-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.437, "truth": 0.67, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.74 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.6 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.695, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAloGMF3rzCQOn1l0c-1_yYNOOAH0SGiL-1fMdwfaOuP8", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2018-hcn2-17", "key": "e7e15a42ddad956e", "label": "HCN2's restorative action may extend to many teratogens and lesions", "statement": "The authors suggest that HCN2's ability to improve brain morphology even in control embryos points to a general mechanism, reinforcing endogenous bioelectric signals needed for correct brain morphology, that could repair defects caused by a wide range of teratogens or physiological and genetic lesions, not only nicotine.", "quote": "These observations suggest that the restorative action of HCN2 is not limited to nicotine-induced brain morphology defects, but could reveal a more general mechanism of action, reinforcing the endogenous bioelectrical signals required for correct developmental brain morphology that might be partially destabilized by a wide range of exogenous teratogens or endogenous physiological/genetic lesions.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2018, "work": "HCN2 Rescues brain defects by enforcing endogenous voltage pre-patterns", "chapter": "Pai VP 2018, HCN2 Rescues brain defects by enforcing endogenous voltage pre-patterns › Discussion", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.358, "truth": 0.4, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.46 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.34 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.76, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAsE2Ad4m5WlNePLLLd6T5Yvbu6ZosoRqZRdQJy9POgWg", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2018-hcn2-18", "key": "fe26f43504a2b104", "label": "Reagents that sharpen bioelectric compartment borders reinforce normal patterning", "statement": "The BETSE model predicts that reagents that sharpen the borders between bioelectric compartments, such as the context-sensitive HCN2 channel, will reinforce normal developmental patterning, a prediction confirmed for HCN2 in vivo.", "quote": "Most importantly, it predicts that reagents that sharpen borders between bioelectric compartments will reinforce normal patterning, thus identifying a context-sensitive HCN2 ion channel as an intervention tool.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2018, "work": "HCN2 Rescues brain defects by enforcing endogenous voltage pre-patterns", "chapter": "Pai VP 2018, HCN2 Rescues brain defects by enforcing endogenous voltage pre-patterns › Discussion", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.508, "truth": 0.635, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.7 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.57 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.66, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAKpUdtRP95wdjN8izC3bZU1N3JwKearAn7sZpSMbZe3U", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2019-boundary-01", "key": "0d151abe84257416", "label": "A Self is bounded by a cognitive light cone of events it can measure and affect", "statement": "Any Self (agent) is demarcated by a computational surface, the spatio-temporal boundary of the events it can measure, model and try to affect; this surface is a cognitive \"light cone\" that sets the scale and limits of its cognition and allows agents of very different material make-up to be compared.", "quote": "Any Self is demarcated by a computational surface – the spatio-temporal boundary of events that it can measure, model, and try to affect. This surface sets a functional boundary - a cognitive “light cone” which defines the scale and limits of its cognition.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2019, "work": "The Computational Boundary of a \"Self\": Developmental Bioelectricity Drives Multicellularity and Scale-Free Cognition", "chapter": "Levin M 2019, The Computational Boundary of a \"Self\": Developmental Bioelectricity Drives Multicellularity and Scale-Free Cognition › Abstract", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.07, "truth": 0.475, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.55 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.4 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.86, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA0DN3D4tK6ukLpn99dNL3_RLSrtQ7FDw6D5oIYyA3OYs", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2019-boundary-02", "key": "03b89b4da3b32a82", "label": "Somatic cells kept their computational capacities and scaled them to anatomical goals", "statement": "Somatic cells did not lose the behavioural plasticity and computational capabilities of their unicellular ancestors when they became part of metazoan bodies; they scaled them to pursue larger goals, namely building and maintaining complex anatomies.", "quote": "somatic cells did not lose their behavioral plasticity and computational capabilities in becoming part of metazoan swarms (bodies): they scaled them to enable pursuit of larger goals consisting of creation and upkeep of massively complex anatomies (Pezzulo and Levin, 2015).", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2019, "work": "The Computational Boundary of a \"Self\": Developmental Bioelectricity Drives Multicellularity and Scale-Free Cognition", "chapter": "Levin M 2019, The Computational Boundary of a \"Self\": Developmental Bioelectricity Drives Multicellularity and Scale-Free Cognition › Body Patterning and Cognition: A Common Origin", "kind": "historical-inference", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.258, "truth": 0.47, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.51 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.43 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.7, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA8bPXhdLs87WJFk_3vCDg9a1U0KEbiWbDZQ-AGzYDI1o", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2019-boundary-03", "key": "5b76c8fbf94cdbdb", "label": "Cell collectives pursue organ-level target morphologies despite perturbation", "statement": "Regulative development and regeneration (e.g. scrambled tadpole faces that still become normal frog faces, tail grafts remodelling into limbs, kidney tubules of constant diameter despite enlarged cells) show that somatic cells pursue specific target morphologies despite perturbation, with set points that are large organ-level macrostates not defined at the single-cell level.", "quote": "They reveal the ability of somatic cells to not only pursue specific target morphologies despite perturbations and novel scenarios, but to pursue collective patterning outcomes that are truly enormous with respect to the scale of size and organization of single cells", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2019, "work": "The Computational Boundary of a \"Self\": Developmental Bioelectricity Drives Multicellularity and Scale-Free Cognition", "chapter": "Levin M 2019, The Computational Boundary of a \"Self\": Developmental Bioelectricity Drives Multicellularity and Scale-Free Cognition › Body Patterning and Cognition: A Common Origin", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [ { "id": "bischof-xenopus-craniofacial-remap", "relation": "models", "note": "Implements the scrambled-face example the claim cites of cell collectives reaching an organ-level target morphology despite perturbation.", "label": "Vandenberg, Adams & Levin (2012) & Pinet et al. (2019) Picasso tadpole craniofacial attractor remodeling faithfully reproduces Xenopus laevis African clawed frog tadpole and froglet morphology", "organism": "Xenopus laevis African clawed frog tadpole and froglet", "verdict": "faithful", "score": 92, "thompson_verdict": null, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAfabt4u-0fbCGJSZbkTXg1RT8z7rTLqcJN5dvkjtkHNw", "registry": "production", "report": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/morphoeval/kg/2026-10-19-xenopus-craniofacial-remap-audit-v2/REPORT.md" } ], "thumbnail": { "file": "docs/thumbs/bischof-xenopus-craniofacial-remap.jpg", "morpholib": "bischof-xenopus-craniofacial-remap", "source": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/docs/media/xenopus_craniofacial_remap_growth.gif" }, "testability": 0.505, "truth": 0.765, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.77 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.76 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.665, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAoz_3zuldDdmw1_3xAUZan3sB7jDeAjuIf60pw3BBPeo", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2019-boundary-04", "key": "3f28ccf12ab35d2d", "label": "Cell domains make coordinated group decisions, even random ones", "statement": "Cells join into domains that make decisions as a single unit: when left-right asymmetry is randomized in early embryos, a whole domain picks L or R identity rather than individual cells choosing independently, and in frog melanoma-like conversion all melanocytes in a body convert or not together.", "quote": "Remarkably, however, this randomization is made on a group level – in each case, the entire domain randomly picks L or R identity, not exhibiting a speckled appearance where each cell adopts a stochastic outcome. The decision is random, but all of the cells in the domain are coordinated to make the same random decision (Levin et al., 2002).", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2019, "work": "The Computational Boundary of a \"Self\": Developmental Bioelectricity Drives Multicellularity and Scale-Free Cognition", "chapter": "Levin M 2019, The Computational Boundary of a \"Self\": Developmental Bioelectricity Drives Multicellularity and Scale-Free Cognition › Body Patterning and Cognition: A Common Origin", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.564, "truth": 0.68, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.67 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.69 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.675, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAuxxmFWkQ8NwW_v1G7jRwX4FM0PTqoxQ4yoa04f-VhkU", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2019-boundary-05", "key": "9ff29dd4f0ff8e0e", "label": "Neural motor control may be an exaptation of bioelectric navigation of morphospace", "statement": "Neural control of body movement in three-dimensional space may be an evolutionary exaptation and speed-up of an older, slower role of bioelectric signalling: moving the body's configuration through anatomical morphospace during embryogenesis, repair and remodelling.", "quote": "Neural networks control the movement of a body in three-dimensional space; this scheme may be an evolutionary exaptation and speed-optimization of a more ancient, slower role of bioelectrical signaling: the movement of body configuration through anatomical morphospace during embryogenesis, repair, and remodeling (Sullivan et al., 2016; Mathews and Levin, 2018; Mclaughlin and Levin, 2018).", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2019, "work": "The Computational Boundary of a \"Self\": Developmental Bioelectricity Drives Multicellularity and Scale-Free Cognition", "chapter": "Levin M 2019, The Computational Boundary of a \"Self\": Developmental Bioelectricity Drives Multicellularity and Scale-Free Cognition › Body Patterning and Cognition: A Common Origin", "kind": "historical-inference", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.23, "truth": 0.38, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.36 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.4 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.68, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAxCw_Bt5Or_kvYJ5LIwjCctZMs2k3HUK94lcGGLITnoc", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2019-boundary-06", "key": "bbc0e8e20e27d136", "label": "Brain cognition lies on a continuum with conserved pre-neural computation", "statement": "Given the deep evolutionary conservation of ion-channel and neurotransmitter mechanisms between developmental and behavioural processes, the cognitive capacities of advanced brains are likely on a continuum with, and evolved from, much simpler computational processes conserved at both the functional and molecular levels.", "quote": "Thus, it is likely that the cognitive capacities of advanced brains lie on a continuum with, and evolve from, much simpler computational processes that are widely conserved at both the functional and mechanism (molecular) levels.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2019, "work": "The Computational Boundary of a \"Self\": Developmental Bioelectricity Drives Multicellularity and Scale-Free Cognition", "chapter": "Levin M 2019, The Computational Boundary of a \"Self\": Developmental Bioelectricity Drives Multicellularity and Scale-Free Cognition › Body Patterning and Cognition: A Common Origin", "kind": "historical-inference", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.3, "truth": 0.625, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.73 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.52 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.68, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAhZ9MmVM7lVEUc8zyvID_ckabNOrug72-ni17oo6mmcc", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2019-boundary-07", "key": "440a4d4f86709e86", "label": "Disrupting or restoring cell communication should trigger or suppress cancer", "statement": "The shrinking-Self view of cancer predicts that interfering with physiological communication among cells should be able to trigger cancer and restoring it should suppress cancer, and that the relevant parameter (communication) is spread over considerable distance rather than confined to single cells as genomic damage is.", "quote": "This view predicts that interference with (or restoration of) physiological communication among cells should be able to trigger (or suppress) cancer and that the relevant parameter (communication) is spread out over considerable distance and not confined to single cells (e.g., genomic damage).", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2019, "work": "The Computational Boundary of a \"Self\": Developmental Bioelectricity Drives Multicellularity and Scale-Free Cognition", "chapter": "Levin M 2019, The Computational Boundary of a \"Self\": Developmental Bioelectricity Drives Multicellularity and Scale-Free Cognition › Multicellularity vs. Cancer: The Shifting Boundary of the Self", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.527, "truth": 0.595, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.56 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.63 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.68, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAWHy2cba5JAsRDJzetG6o50F-J8koO3ufLLybig9FwOg", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2019-boundary-08", "key": "a1c7ea1bb0eb7e90", "label": "Depolarization induces and hyperpolarization prevents tumour-like changes in tadpoles", "statement": "In tadpoles, depolarizing a specific cell population is sufficient to cause metastatic-like transformation of normal melanocytes in genetically normal animals, while optogenetic or constitutive hyperpolarization prevents human oncogenes from inducing tumours.", "quote": "metastatic transformation of normal melanocytes can be achieved in genetically normal tadpoles simply by depolarizing a specific cell population (Lobikin et al., 2012), while, conversely, human oncogenes which normally induce tumors can be prevented from doing so simply by optogenetic or constitutive hyperpolarization (Chernet and Levin, 2013b, 2014; Chernet et al., 2015, 2016).", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2019, "work": "The Computational Boundary of a \"Self\": Developmental Bioelectricity Drives Multicellularity and Scale-Free Cognition", "chapter": "Levin M 2019, The Computational Boundary of a \"Self\": Developmental Bioelectricity Drives Multicellularity and Scale-Free Cognition › Multicellularity vs. Cancer: The Shifting Boundary of the Self", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.574, "truth": 0.76, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.82 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.7 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.695, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAxuIlq2gvUTMRKSVv_p_LlRibT6PDsBvYsuCC-GcUXEQ", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2019-boundary-09", "key": "08dea8757d16d848", "label": "Cancer cells are no more selfish than normal cells; their self is smaller", "statement": "Cells in a metazoan body are not less selfish than unicellular organisms or cancer cells; all are equally selfish, but the self that normal somatic cells defend is larger in space, time and complexity, its boundary being set by how far information passes between subunits.", "quote": "They are equally selfish, working only for the benefit of themselves, but the relevant self that they defend is bigger in terms of space, time, and complexity. As will be argued below, what defines this Self is the boundary of information being able to pass between the subunits.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2019, "work": "The Computational Boundary of a \"Self\": Developmental Bioelectricity Drives Multicellularity and Scale-Free Cognition", "chapter": "Levin M 2019, The Computational Boundary of a \"Self\": Developmental Bioelectricity Drives Multicellularity and Scale-Free Cognition › Multicellularity vs. Cancer: The Shifting Boundary of the Self", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.091, "truth": 0.395, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.45 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.34 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.84, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAXrYxJD6Sky-VdBVrwjWDyj3T6BiPfqKuf_x34X6NL_4", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2019-boundary-10", "key": "345ae6eee9350bd2", "label": "Most biological systems consist of multiple nested selves", "statement": "Under Scale-Free Cognition, most biological systems consist of multiple, nested selves rather than one, each inner agent maintaining its own Self only to the extent that it restricts information flow from its neighbours.", "quote": "It is an essential aspect of Scale-Free Cognition that most biological systems consist of multiple, nested selves [not one, as implied by Integrated Information Theory (Tononi, 2008)].", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2019, "work": "The Computational Boundary of a \"Self\": Developmental Bioelectricity Drives Multicellularity and Scale-Free Cognition", "chapter": "Levin M 2019, The Computational Boundary of a \"Self\": Developmental Bioelectricity Drives Multicellularity and Scale-Free Cognition › Multicellularity vs. Cancer: The Shifting Boundary of the Self", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.109, "truth": 0.495, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.59 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.4 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.825, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAQtu_w2x08M7XsX7AiGUO4_28tb1u2LnLUVJp2rykhyQ", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2019-boundary-11", "key": "2175a53d9473d15a", "label": "An Individual is defined by the scale and types of goals it can pursue", "statement": "The scale and types of goals (in the cybernetic sense of feedback toward a specific state) that a system can pursue define the boundaries and content of that system as an agent or Individual; the coherent Self is the set of parts that operate together toward specific goal states.", "quote": "I propose a definition of an Individual based on its information-processing structure (Barandiaran et al., 2009): the scale and types of goals that a system can pursue defines (determines) the boundaries and content of the putative “agent.”", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2019, "work": "The Computational Boundary of a \"Self\": Developmental Bioelectricity Drives Multicellularity and Scale-Free Cognition", "chapter": "Levin M 2019, The Computational Boundary of a \"Self\": Developmental Bioelectricity Drives Multicellularity and Scale-Free Cognition › Defining Individuation From a Cognitive Perspective", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.073, "truth": 0.515, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.57 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.46 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.875, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RARSrvDKt6Ag191xcvAGHCjOfOf2uFELXfyDONb2gYgSc", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2019-boundary-12", "key": "8139277020f75cdc", "label": "Cognitive light cones have expanded over evolutionary time", "statement": "The volume of possible cognitive light cones (spatio-temporal boundaries of agents' goals) has presumably kept expanding over evolutionary time, through innovations in body structure that drastically enlarge the cognitive boundary, although some lineages contract it permanently or in particular life stages.", "quote": "Presumably, the volume of possible cognitive light cones keeps expanding with evolutionary time (although some lineages can contract it, permanently or during specific ontogenetic life stages). Over evolutionary scales, there have been “inflationary leaps” – innovations in body structure which drastically increase the cognitive boundary of viable selves.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2019, "work": "The Computational Boundary of a \"Self\": Developmental Bioelectricity Drives Multicellularity and Scale-Free Cognition", "chapter": "Levin M 2019, The Computational Boundary of a \"Self\": Developmental Bioelectricity Drives Multicellularity and Scale-Free Cognition › Defining Individuation From a Cognitive Perspective", "kind": "historical-inference", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.241, "truth": 0.575, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.6 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.55 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.69, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAlqHgmaNM2Q_zsCZiELMyTplPJdDq_WFHPcCfwGzaB5g", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2019-boundary-13", "key": "f8519741e01c4fb1", "label": "Memory and learning are the origin of developmental modularity", "statement": "Memory can be the beginning of modularity because learning compresses complex states into simple triggers; in somatic control networks this appears as developmental modules in which a single simple driver (e.g. a bioelectric state) initiates a complex morphogenetic cascade such as building an eye or hand.", "quote": "Importantly, memory can serve as the beginning of modularity because learning essentially groups diverse stimuli into compressed representations: complex states of affairs become remembered as compact biophysical engrams – this is the essence of the kind of modularity when a simple biophysical event kicks off the formation of a complex morphogenetic cascade such as building a “hand” in embryogenesis.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2019, "work": "The Computational Boundary of a \"Self\": Developmental Bioelectricity Drives Multicellularity and Scale-Free Cognition", "chapter": "Levin M 2019, The Computational Boundary of a \"Self\": Developmental Bioelectricity Drives Multicellularity and Scale-Free Cognition › The Agent’s Evolutionary Back-Story: Scaling of Information by Bioelectricity", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.238, "truth": 0.345, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.42 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.27 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.665, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAqvj5XybQJ7_-xYFoxPxOeMdZW-5qzZ8MtkzL9T1qFKs", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2019-boundary-14", "key": "788f6ca10d5d7a7e", "label": "Animal senses use the same ion channel mechanisms found in bacteria", "statement": "The senses of complex animals (touch, taste, temperature, hearing, etc.) are mediated by the same ion channel mechanisms that bacteria already used to sense their world.", "quote": "Complex animals’ sense of touch, taste, temperature, hearing, etc. are mediated by the exact same ion channel mechanisms that were already discovered by bacteria and used to make sense of their world (Tasneem et al., 2005; Blackwell, 2006; Liebeskind et al., 2012; Nilius and Honore, 2012).", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2019, "work": "The Computational Boundary of a \"Self\": Developmental Bioelectricity Drives Multicellularity and Scale-Free Cognition", "chapter": "Levin M 2019, The Computational Boundary of a \"Self\": Developmental Bioelectricity Drives Multicellularity and Scale-Free Cognition › The Agent’s Evolutionary Back-Story: Scaling of Information by Bioelectricity", "kind": "historical-inference", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.784, "truth": 0.575, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.72 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.43 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.74, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAj1YW--EHvy6MPG4wSvxFYGoiAVuGYBqMRXisVe8SoHQ", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2019-boundary-15", "key": "7866b4fab32c29c5", "label": "Cells in development minimize surprise and variational free energy like nervous systems", "statement": "Living systems minimize surprise and optimize variational free energy by tuning internal states to best predict future stimuli, and this holds for individual cells during metazoan development as much as for nervous systems.", "quote": "Systems minimize surprise and optimize variational free energy by tuning their internal states in a way that optimally predicts future stimuli (Friston and Ao, 2012; Friston, 2013; Badcock et al., 2019). This is as true for nervous systems as it is for individual cells during metazoan development (Friston et al., 2015; Ramstead et al., 2019).", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2019, "work": "The Computational Boundary of a \"Self\": Developmental Bioelectricity Drives Multicellularity and Scale-Free Cognition", "chapter": "Levin M 2019, The Computational Boundary of a \"Self\": Developmental Bioelectricity Drives Multicellularity and Scale-Free Cognition › The Agent’s Evolutionary Back-Story: Scaling of Information by Bioelectricity", "kind": "mathematical-law", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": true, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [ { "id": "pezzulo-bioelectric-target-morphology-memory", "relation": "models", "note": "Cells in the simulation minimise variational free energy during morphogenesis and regeneration, the mechanism the claim asserts.", "label": "Pezzulo & Levin (2015) / Friston et al. (2015) bioelectric target morphology memory and Variational Free Energy homeostasis faithfully reproduces Ambystoma mexicanum (axolotl salamander) regenerating forelimb morphology", "organism": "Ambystoma mexicanum (axolotl salamander) regenerating forelimb", "verdict": "faithful", "score": 91.5, "thompson_verdict": null, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAyp_B6WkTMIXs9wcDXCdMGdeSaQblmaYV2wbEEdryVFA", "registry": "production", "report": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/morphoeval/kg/2026-10-19-bioelectric-target-morphology-memory-audit-v2/REPORT.md" } ], "thumbnail": { "file": "docs/thumbs/pezzulo-bioelectric-target-morphology-memory.jpg", "morpholib": "pezzulo-bioelectric-target-morphology-memory", "source": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/docs/media/bioelectric_target_morphology_memory_growth.gif" }, "testability": 0.29, "truth": 0.36, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.38 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.34 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.705, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAXTZnqlcq2Je8zi_C91IuDDmncmGhNxAH0iFh7bCa_ug", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2019-boundary-16", "key": "7f79c6b4dfd9ac79", "label": "Multicellularity and morphological complexity are driven by greedy infotaxis", "statement": "Morphological complexity and multicellularity are proposed to be driven by greedy infotaxis: cells collecting as much information as possible from as far away in space and time as possible to minimize surprise, with greater network connectivity enlarging what the compound individual can sense, remember and store.", "quote": "It is proposed that morphological complexity and multicellularity are driven by greedy infotaxis (Vergassola et al., 2007) – collecting as much information as possible, from as far away (in both space and time) as possible, to minimize surprise and optimize prediction.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2019, "work": "The Computational Boundary of a \"Self\": Developmental Bioelectricity Drives Multicellularity and Scale-Free Cognition", "chapter": "Levin M 2019, The Computational Boundary of a \"Self\": Developmental Bioelectricity Drives Multicellularity and Scale-Free Cognition › The Agent’s Evolutionary Back-Story: Scaling of Information by Bioelectricity", "kind": "historical-inference", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.198, "truth": 0.17, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.18 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.16 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.73, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAD3B3H2JZ4qvvcdHC8Q525mpQkL39HQxS1R8oPi5demI", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2019-boundary-17", "key": "0b69adfb16be5dac", "label": "Gap-junction coupling lets cells share sensing and form a larger Self", "statement": "When cells are coupled into networks by gap junctions, the whole collective can measure and act on the same sensory data, so its Umwelt expands into a larger individual; physiological connectivity is thus the binding mechanism for larger unified Selves.", "quote": "When coupled into networks via gap junctions however, the whole collective can measure and act upon the same sensory data – the Umwelt expands to create a larger individual in which the comprising cells share a unifying picture of the world (Figure 4).", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2019, "work": "The Computational Boundary of a \"Self\": Developmental Bioelectricity Drives Multicellularity and Scale-Free Cognition", "chapter": "Levin M 2019, The Computational Boundary of a \"Self\": Developmental Bioelectricity Drives Multicellularity and Scale-Free Cognition › The Agent’s Evolutionary Back-Story: Scaling of Information by Bioelectricity", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.457, "truth": 0.45, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.42 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.48 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.635, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAEgU_xzk6eVYqK3j8_JY_Hm6g2wKhn0DvkSyXhdhzQJs", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2019-boundary-18", "key": "571568e713bbaeda", "label": "Most anesthetics in plants and animals are gap junction uncouplers", "statement": "Most anesthetics that remove cognition and sensory experience, in both plants and animals, act as gap junctional (bioelectric) uncouplers, which the author takes as consistent with connectivity binding cells into larger Selves.", "quote": "It is thus no coincidence that most anesthetics used to remove cognition and sensory experience, whether in plants or animals, are gap junctional (bioelectric) uncouplers (Mantz et al., 1993; Wentlandt et al., 2006; Liu et al., 2012; Gremiaux et al., 2014; Baluska et al., 2016).", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2019, "work": "The Computational Boundary of a \"Self\": Developmental Bioelectricity Drives Multicellularity and Scale-Free Cognition", "chapter": "Levin M 2019, The Computational Boundary of a \"Self\": Developmental Bioelectricity Drives Multicellularity and Scale-Free Cognition › The Agent’s Evolutionary Back-Story: Scaling of Information by Bioelectricity", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.63, "truth": 0.25, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.18 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.32 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.72, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAEpwABjJYs0XifNc5bhd8wRLheStl6ZEBpqvFhpJKop4", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2019-boundary-19", "key": "424c85aa7d6743b2", "label": "Swarms should show the same cognitive illusions as vertebrate brains", "statement": "The proposed scale-invariant scaling of cognition predicts that swarm organisms should fall prey to the same kinds of cognitive illusions and failures of rationality as vertebrate brains, which the author says has been observed in ants and slime molds.", "quote": "A prediction of this proposed scaling is that swarm organisms should fall prey to the same kinds of cognitive illusions and specific failures of rationality as do vertebrate brains, which has indeed been observed in ants and slime molds (Sakiyama and Gunji, 2013, 2016; Tani et al., 2014; Beekman and Latty, 2015).", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2019, "work": "The Computational Boundary of a \"Self\": Developmental Bioelectricity Drives Multicellularity and Scale-Free Cognition", "chapter": "Levin M 2019, The Computational Boundary of a \"Self\": Developmental Bioelectricity Drives Multicellularity and Scale-Free Cognition › The Agent’s Evolutionary Back-Story: Scaling of Information by Bioelectricity", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.487, "truth": 0.54, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.58 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.5 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.635, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAS8L_Np8AzxjxPogJQ5rKRS6w6t5DEk3hPFL8hZm3woU", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2019-boundary-20", "key": "a23eadeee7d91d32", "label": "Selves form only at intermediate levels of information sharing between subunits", "statement": "Cognitive light cones grow or shrink as an agent's organization changes, and the key is a balance of selective information sharing through \"synapses\" (any structures that gate signals based on the state of others): too little sharing fails to bind subunits into a new Self, and too much yields an undifferentiated soup without modules or layered abstraction.", "quote": "Too little sharing results in a failure to bind subunits into a new Self. Too much sharing results in a homogenous soup with insufficient differentiation of modules and abstraction of information across distinct layers.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2019, "work": "The Computational Boundary of a \"Self\": Developmental Bioelectricity Drives Multicellularity and Scale-Free Cognition", "chapter": "Levin M 2019, The Computational Boundary of a \"Self\": Developmental Bioelectricity Drives Multicellularity and Scale-Free Cognition › Conclusion and Future Outlook", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.412, "truth": 0.64, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.62 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.66 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.605, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAcgRFkGqWsq0UGKv0ZUC6712Mcw2hiEZfgOU6zMplThQ", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2019-boundary-21", "key": "bd47a55555c5327f", "label": "Cancer is a reversible shrinking of a cell's computational boundary", "statement": "Cancer is a reversible shrinking of the computational boundary of the Self: by becoming isolated from surrounding tissue's physiological (bioelectric) signals, a cell's cognitive boundary shrinks to its pre-multicellular, single-cell size, so it reverts to proliferating and migrating for its own benefit.", "quote": "Cancer is a (reversible) shrinking of the computational boundary of a biosystem: by isolating itself from the surrounding tissue’s physiological signals, a cell’s cognitive boundary shrinks to the small size it had before multicellularity.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2019, "work": "The Computational Boundary of a \"Self\": Developmental Bioelectricity Drives Multicellularity and Scale-Free Cognition", "chapter": "Levin M 2019, The Computational Boundary of a \"Self\": Developmental Bioelectricity Drives Multicellularity and Scale-Free Cognition › Conclusion and Future Outlook", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.33, "truth": 0.275, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.28 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.27 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.675, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAkqjcYWC_DvGVuX4IQgSUmczctwgvk7_bERoGZacfoxI", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2019-boundary-22", "key": "f19c4b2933035d1f", "label": "Agents scaled up from homeostatic loops by adding memory, anticipation and networks", "statement": "Agents evolved by scaling up from basic homeostatic loops (whose set points are the first goals), driven by surprise minimization, through the successive addition of delays (memory), anticipation (inference), and spatially distributed networks that allow learning and abstraction.", "quote": "Agents scaled up by evolving from basic homeostatic loops, driven by active inference (surprise minimization) via addition of delays (memory), anticipation (inference), and networks (spatially-distributed processing that enables learning and progressive abstraction/generalization from data).", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2019, "work": "The Computational Boundary of a \"Self\": Developmental Bioelectricity Drives Multicellularity and Scale-Free Cognition", "chapter": "Levin M 2019, The Computational Boundary of a \"Self\": Developmental Bioelectricity Drives Multicellularity and Scale-Free Cognition › Conclusion and Future Outlook", "kind": "historical-inference", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.192, "truth": 0.385, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.27 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.5 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.73, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAvXd27yI12CZP68ikrwPb4skC2Otk8CvkSzkXJvGDTkU", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2019-boundary-23", "key": "5cca2cfa4ae09300", "label": "Morphogenetic goal-directedness smooths the fitness landscape and boosts evolvability", "statement": "Morphogenetic goal-directedness is a major evolutionary ratchet: because tissues adjust to reach the same anatomical goals despite changed conditions (e.g. muscle, vessels and tendons building a workable extra finger around an ectopic bone), it hides the disruptive effects of random mutations and smooths the anatomical fitness landscape.", "quote": "Morphogenetic goal-directedness is a major evolutionary ratchet, smoothing the anatomical fitness landscape by hiding the otherwise potentially disruptive effects of random mutations.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2019, "work": "The Computational Boundary of a \"Self\": Developmental Bioelectricity Drives Multicellularity and Scale-Free Cognition", "chapter": "Levin M 2019, The Computational Boundary of a \"Self\": Developmental Bioelectricity Drives Multicellularity and Scale-Free Cognition › Discussion", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.37, "truth": 0.715, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.73 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.7 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.64, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAMAf-Z8dnUcPp2mSwAp_jhMnEPJ4nKVbm1CwuA9JnBdM", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2019-boundary-24", "key": "1eee8188234a6b96", "label": "Brains are not hardwired: ectopic tail eyes in tadpoles still support vision", "statement": "Brains, like other developing organs, are not hardwired but can ascertain the body's structure and adjust their programs; tadpoles made to develop eyes on their tails, connected to the spinal cord rather than the brain, can still see quite well.", "quote": "Tadpoles engineered to develop with eyes on their tails instead of in their usual spot can see quite well, despite the fact that the eyes connect to the spinal cord, not the brain (Blackiston and Levin, 2013; Blackiston et al., 2017). Brains, like other developing organs, are not hardwired but are able to ascertain the structure of the body and adjust their functional programs accordingly", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2019, "work": "The Computational Boundary of a \"Self\": Developmental Bioelectricity Drives Multicellularity and Scale-Free Cognition", "chapter": "Levin M 2019, The Computational Boundary of a \"Self\": Developmental Bioelectricity Drives Multicellularity and Scale-Free Cognition › Discussion", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.567, "truth": 0.81, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.88 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.74 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.7, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA9G8D3kaunbvNje0EDW__WD9ZGNwgPiwhsjdFeTMTaTs", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2019-boundary-25", "key": "64f35529337f0212", "label": "Editing bioelectric pattern set points can reprogram anatomy without genome editing", "statement": "A better strategy for regenerative medicine than genetic rewiring of cells may be to edit the pattern-homeostatic set point and let wild-type cells build to it, as shown by altering bioelectric state in planaria to give permanently double-headed worms without genomic editing.", "quote": "I have previously suggested that a better strategy than cellular re-wiring at the genetic level may be to edit the pattern-homeostatic set point and let wild-type cells build to the new spec. For example, the ability to re-write target morphology in planarian regeneration was recently shown, by altering the bioelectric state in flatworms, without genomic editing, giving rise to permanently double-headed worms (Durant et al., 2017; Levin et al., 2018).", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2019, "work": "The Computational Boundary of a \"Self\": Developmental Bioelectricity Drives Multicellularity and Scale-Free Cognition", "chapter": "Levin M 2019, The Computational Boundary of a \"Self\": Developmental Bioelectricity Drives Multicellularity and Scale-Free Cognition › Discussion", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.509, "truth": 0.74, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.82 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.66 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.665, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RABynmqHPNXV64A5bOkoTXHA3QaVrRUHS_TVX6qfh0YhY", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2019-boundary-26", "key": "9be42ea130eec69b", "label": "Bioelectric circuits act as software: multistable states switched without genetic change", "statement": "Ion channel and gap junction circuits are well suited to the \"software\" of life because they form feedback loops that implement dynamical systems with multiple attractors, which transient signals can switch between without changing the hardware (i.e. without mutating the DNA encoding the channels).", "quote": "What makes electric circuits, whether ion channel-mediated or electronic, good for software is that they easily implement dynamical systems that have multiple attractors and can be made to occupy one physiological state or another by transient inputs (signals), not requiring changing the hardware (i.e., mutating the DNA encoding that hardware).", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2019, "work": "The Computational Boundary of a \"Self\": Developmental Bioelectricity Drives Multicellularity and Scale-Free Cognition", "chapter": "Levin M 2019, The Computational Boundary of a \"Self\": Developmental Bioelectricity Drives Multicellularity and Scale-Free Cognition › Discussion", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.639, "truth": 0.875, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.91 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.84 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.725, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAx_8RouhHh_96I5GNC7yyauir2n3aJ9n1Zzb-df6ubX8", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2019-boundary-27", "key": "1ac5998d4d4f6e76", "label": "Opiate addictiveness may derive from an ancient role in keeping cells together", "statement": "If multicellularity arose from a drive to minimize predictive error, cells need a way to keep other cells nearby; this suggests the testable hypothesis that the addictive power of opiates and similar molecules derives from such ancient roots, which could be tested in early models of multicellularity and stem/somatic cell co-cultures.", "quote": "Specifically, the implementation of multicellularity by the drive to minimize predictive error (Fields and Levin, 2019) suggests that cells need a way to keep other cells nearby. This suggests the testable hypothesis that the addictive power of opiates and similar molecules derives from such ancient roots.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2019, "work": "The Computational Boundary of a \"Self\": Developmental Bioelectricity Drives Multicellularity and Scale-Free Cognition", "chapter": "Levin M 2019, The Computational Boundary of a \"Self\": Developmental Bioelectricity Drives Multicellularity and Scale-Free Cognition › Predictions and Research Program", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.316, "truth": 0.09, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.08 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.1 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.68, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA2XglySfYLSzzrGG9NBFT0kTJ8cRa74cbJ_ot_rpR51s", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2019-boundary-28", "key": "0d96539fef7a9933", "label": "Forced electrogenic and gap junction expression could make unicells form bodies", "statement": "The proposed role of bioelectrics in multicellularity predicts that forcing expression of appropriate electrogenic proteins and gap junctions in a unicellular organism should induce metazoan-like bodies, and that appropriate changes of bioelectric dynamics may dissolve a metazoan body.", "quote": "The proposed crucial role of bioelectrics in multicellularity predicts that it should be possible to induce the formation of metazoan-like bodies in an otherwise unicellular organism by forcing the expression of appropriate electrogenic proteins and gap junctions. Similarly, it may be possible to induce dissolution of an entire metazoan body by appropriate changes of bioelectric dynamics.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2019, "work": "The Computational Boundary of a \"Self\": Developmental Bioelectricity Drives Multicellularity and Scale-Free Cognition", "chapter": "Levin M 2019, The Computational Boundary of a \"Self\": Developmental Bioelectricity Drives Multicellularity and Scale-Free Cognition › Predictions and Research Program", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.404, "truth": 0.13, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.12 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.14 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.78, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAUR2miGeS4TM0yR_kpXHfgs7PmF9BAUV9uwGT5kjAqgc", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2019-boundary-29", "key": "e86d97e0f3083cb2", "label": "Regeneration across kingdoms should consistently use electrogenic proteins", "statement": "Bioelectrics should be widely conserved in regeneration across kingdoms: transcriptomes of regeneration from damaged bacterial biofilms to plants to animal limb and organ regeneration should show consistent use of electrogenic proteins, and neurotransmitter signalling should be conserved enough that cognitive-modulator drugs affect biofilms and Physarum.", "quote": "Bioelectrics should be widely conserved in regeneration across Kingdoms; transcriptomic analyses of regeneration events from damaged bacterial biofilms to plants to metazoan models of limb and organ regeneration should all show consistent use of electrogenic proteins in the events that enable cooperation toward self-limiting morphogenetic cascades.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2019, "work": "The Computational Boundary of a \"Self\": Developmental Bioelectricity Drives Multicellularity and Scale-Free Cognition", "chapter": "Levin M 2019, The Computational Boundary of a \"Self\": Developmental Bioelectricity Drives Multicellularity and Scale-Free Cognition › Predictions and Research Program", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.633, "truth": 0.41, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.44 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.38 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.71, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA54sisVj47J10Y43djTPviiWP28sLdsd47OJXFdL9sgE", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2019-boundary-30", "key": "16fdd8e44bbb4118", "label": "Cells and tissues may have something it is like to make decisions", "statement": "Because some nervous systems give rise to first-person experience and neural and non-neural networks differ minimally apart from time scale, it is natural to hypothesize that there is something it is like to be a tissue or organ making decisions, e.g. a pancreas may have as much proto-consciousness as a simple neural network.", "quote": "But, given that at least some nervous systems do give rise to such experience and that the differences between neural networks and non-neural ones (aside from temporal scale) are minimal, it is natural to hypothesize that there is something-it-is-like to being a tissue or organ and making decisions.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2019, "work": "The Computational Boundary of a \"Self\": Developmental Bioelectricity Drives Multicellularity and Scale-Free Cognition", "chapter": "Levin M 2019, The Computational Boundary of a \"Self\": Developmental Bioelectricity Drives Multicellularity and Scale-Free Cognition › What Does It Feel Like to be a Pancreas?", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.028, "truth": 0.18, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.18 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.18 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.905, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAaoyO3MvXkHrDrXxHqICKgaxnWMgjAG7Q4LIH3V9xImU", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2020-xenobots-01", "key": "f71fb501c645bd29", "label": "Evolutionary algorithms can design novel living organisms built from frog cells", "statement": "A pipeline in which an evolutionary algorithm designs candidate organisms in silico for a desired function, and transferable designs are then built from Xenopus cells with a cell-based construction toolkit, can produce novel living systems that show the predicted behaviours, though some steps still need manual intervention.", "quote": "Here we show a scalable pipeline for creating functional novel lifeforms: AI methods automatically design diverse candidate lifeforms in silico to perform some desired function, and transferable designs are then created using a cell-based construction toolkit to realize living systems with the predicted behaviors.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2020, "work": "A scalable pipeline for designing reconfigurable organisms", "chapter": "Kriegman S 2020, A scalable pipeline for designing reconfigurable organisms › Abstract", "kind": "experimental-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [ { "id": "kriegman-xenobot-evolutionary-biobots", "relation": "models", "note": "Implements the voxel-based evolutionary design pipeline of passive ectoderm and contractile cardiac cells that the claim says can design organisms built from frog cells.", "label": "Kriegman et al. (2020, 2021) Xenobot evolutionary biomechanics & kinematic self-replication faithfully reproduces Xenopus laevis (African clawed frog blastula ectoderm & cardiac progenitor biobots) morphology", "organism": "Xenopus laevis (African clawed frog blastula ectoderm & cardiac progenitor biobots)", "verdict": "faithful", "score": 91.3, "thompson_verdict": null, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA4LlMjjGmAlRq9sBuadz7tO3SSJi1_OPgpXOIE12-5Ts", "registry": "production", "report": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/morphoeval/kg/2026-10-19-xenobot-evolutionary-biobots-audit-v2/REPORT.md" } ], "thumbnail": { "file": "docs/thumbs/kriegman-xenobot-evolutionary-biobots.jpg", "morpholib": "kriegman-xenobot-evolutionary-biobots", "source": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/docs/media/xenobot_evolutionary_biobots_growth.gif" }, "testability": 0.62, "truth": 0.92, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.94 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.9 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.77, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAupxjZS3ilt7gMuRbRVzLZ5Aa-UpgREecy8NNqUkWSTI", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2020-xenobots-02", "key": "cd45ee0cddd2c49b", "label": "Designed organisms moved as simulated when upright, much less when inverted", "statement": "For at least one deciliated, cardiac-muscle-powered design, the upright organisms' direction of movement matched that of the in silico design under random perturbations, and inverting the design significantly reduced net displacement both in silico and in vivo.", "quote": "More specifically, the upright organisms’ direction of movement matched that of the in silico design under random perturbations (P < 0.01; details in SI Appendix, section S9), and inverting the design significantly reduced its net displacement both in silico (P < 0.001) and in vivo (P < 0.0001).", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2020, "work": "A scalable pipeline for designing reconfigurable organisms", "chapter": "Kriegman S 2020, A scalable pipeline for designing reconfigurable organisms › Results › Locomotion.", "kind": "experimental-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [ { "id": "kriegman-xenobot-evolutionary-biobots", "relation": "models", "note": "Simulates the dorsal-inversion collapse of locomotion that the claim reports for inverted designs.", "label": "Kriegman et al. (2020, 2021) Xenobot evolutionary biomechanics & kinematic self-replication faithfully reproduces Xenopus laevis (African clawed frog blastula ectoderm & cardiac progenitor biobots) morphology", "organism": "Xenopus laevis (African clawed frog blastula ectoderm & cardiac progenitor biobots)", "verdict": "faithful", "score": 91.3, "thompson_verdict": null, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA4LlMjjGmAlRq9sBuadz7tO3SSJi1_OPgpXOIE12-5Ts", "registry": "production", "report": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/morphoeval/kg/2026-10-19-xenobot-evolutionary-biobots-audit-v2/REPORT.md" } ], "thumbnail": { "file": "docs/thumbs/kriegman-xenobot-evolutionary-biobots.jpg", "morpholib": "kriegman-xenobot-evolutionary-biobots", "source": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/docs/media/xenobot_evolutionary_biobots_growth.gif" }, "testability": 0.697, "truth": 0.885, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.93 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.84 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.795, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAggMGNXeGmAlnY2UG7wz-0UUPzdywA4psE9qE5cWa408", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2020-xenobots-03", "key": "d5e92060cb93af68", "label": "Behaviour transfer from simulation to organism was due to the designed shape", "statement": "The authors interpret the orientation-dependent match between simulated and living organisms as showing that successful transfer of locomotion from simulation to the living organism was due to the designed morphology itself, not chance.", "quote": "This suggests that successful transference did not result by chance but rather was due to the design itself.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2020, "work": "A scalable pipeline for designing reconfigurable organisms", "chapter": "Kriegman S 2020, A scalable pipeline for designing reconfigurable organisms › Results › Locomotion.", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.567, "truth": 0.76, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.78 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.74 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.73, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAxdgxS8d6XRU4TwDcPux3JazOUiK5fP_YBCZNq98kNDw", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2020-xenobots-04", "key": "8b10571bd1e55676", "label": "Motile designs spontaneously aggregate particles in simulation and in vivo", "statement": "When the environment contains particulate matter, motile designs spontaneously gather the particles into aggregates, both in simulation and as living Xenopus-cell organisms.", "quote": "When the environment is strewn with particulate matter, motile designs spontaneously aggregate the external objects both in silico (SI Appendix, Fig. S10) and in vivo (Fig. 3F and SI Appendix, Fig. S11).", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2020, "work": "A scalable pipeline for designing reconfigurable organisms", "chapter": "Kriegman S 2020, A scalable pipeline for designing reconfigurable organisms › Results › Object Manipulation.", "kind": "experimental-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.621, "truth": 0.865, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.9 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.83 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.75, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAowIfkV5aA1ObQFJNovpvzKGfzAlp6J0B9que9nJpLF0", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2020-xenobots-05", "key": "b57f641a6dec587b", "label": "Pairs of organisms collide, bond and orbit, more so with cilia active", "statement": "Collective behaviours predicted in simulation were observed in vivo: two organisms often collide, form a temporary mechanical bond and orbit each other for several revolutions before detaching, and this is more pronounced when cilia are not inhibited.", "quote": "For instance, two designs often collide, form a temporary mechanical bond, and orbit about each other for several revolutions before detaching along tangential trajectories (SI Appendix, Fig. S10). This phenomenon is more pronounced when cilia are not inhibited on the organisms", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2020, "work": "A scalable pipeline for designing reconfigurable organisms", "chapter": "Kriegman S 2020, A scalable pipeline for designing reconfigurable organisms › Results › Collective Behavior.", "kind": "experimental-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.571, "truth": 0.835, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.89 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.78 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.71, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA45-85bdcsUsbRhf99AuZaSmiLcKDjOdr7tvpNjc1Zws", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2020-xenobots-06", "key": "e01a8b8dabc2261e", "label": "Selection for locomotion under random actuation evolved derandomizing shapes", "statement": "In the voxel-based soft-body simulation with randomly phased contractile cells, selection for locomotion produced morphologies that derandomize motion: shape and the distribution of passive and contractile cells evolved so the global movement was coherent despite random actuation.", "quote": "As a side effect of selection pressure for locomotion, derandomizing morphologies evolved: evolutionary improvement occurred through changes in overall shape, and distribution of the passive and contractile cells, to collectively derandomize the global movement produced by the random actuation.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2020, "work": "A scalable pipeline for designing reconfigurable organisms", "chapter": "Kriegman S 2020, A scalable pipeline for designing reconfigurable organisms › Discussion", "kind": "simulation-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [ { "id": "kriegman-xenobot-evolutionary-biobots", "relation": "models", "note": "Implements AFPO evolution under phase-randomised actuation, the selection regime that the claim says evolved derandomizing shapes.", "label": "Kriegman et al. (2020, 2021) Xenobot evolutionary biomechanics & kinematic self-replication faithfully reproduces Xenopus laevis (African clawed frog blastula ectoderm & cardiac progenitor biobots) morphology", "organism": "Xenopus laevis (African clawed frog blastula ectoderm & cardiac progenitor biobots)", "verdict": "faithful", "score": 91.3, "thompson_verdict": null, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA4LlMjjGmAlRq9sBuadz7tO3SSJi1_OPgpXOIE12-5Ts", "registry": "production", "report": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/morphoeval/kg/2026-10-19-xenobot-evolutionary-biobots-audit-v2/REPORT.md" } ], "thumbnail": { "file": "docs/thumbs/kriegman-xenobot-evolutionary-biobots.jpg", "morpholib": "kriegman-xenobot-evolutionary-biobots", "source": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/docs/media/xenobot_evolutionary_biobots_growth.gif" }, "testability": 0.806, "truth": 0.88, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.94 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.82 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.79, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA_xAu1wSUZOCzsR4aff8sG91-5iPe9B4bJeDQBNak6s4", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2020-xenobots-07", "key": "bb3f5aa7d786065e", "label": "Cell competence lets neural-less novel aggregates self-organize functionally", "statement": "The behavioural competence of individual cells and their propensity to cooperate in groups facilitate functional morphogenesis in novel circumstances, so that the designed organisms, despite lacking nervous systems, following novel developmental trajectories and mixing tissues, still possess self-organizing properties that support their designed behaviour.", "quote": "The behavioral competence of individual cells, and the propensity of cells to cooperate in groups, facilitate functional morphogenesis in novel circumstances. The lifeforms presented here, despite lacking nervous systems, following novel developmental trajectories, and being composed of materials from different tissues, nevertheless possess these self-organizing properties.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2020, "work": "A scalable pipeline for designing reconfigurable organisms", "chapter": "Kriegman S 2020, A scalable pipeline for designing reconfigurable organisms › Discussion", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.424, "truth": 0.78, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.76 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.8 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.65, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAvPji9HOfjPCP9ZQRSqySeSmnIkGY2Cur3xVbBr3w6KA", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2020-xenobots-08", "key": "f18907588991947b", "label": "Cardiomyocytes in built organisms spontaneously made phase-matched contractions", "statement": "Although signalling between cardiomyocytes was not designed or enforced, cardiac muscle cells in the built organisms spontaneously coordinated to produce coherent, phase-matched contractions that aided locomotion.", "quote": "For instance, although signaling between cardiomyocytes was not enforced, emergent spontaneous coordination among the cardiac muscle cells produced coherent, phase-matched contractions which aided locomotion in the physically realized designs.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2020, "work": "A scalable pipeline for designing reconfigurable organisms", "chapter": "Kriegman S 2020, A scalable pipeline for designing reconfigurable organisms › Discussion", "kind": "experimental-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.529, "truth": 0.885, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.91 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.86 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.74, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAWynEtNCMH_5fbVfkX1YpCltuM1F2qCMY7vsMmESR4IU", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2020-xenobots-09", "key": "7d204ad1633eae71", "label": "Reconfigurable organisms self-repair, closing lacerations", "statement": "Reconfigurable organisms built from Xenopus cells maintain their externally imposed shape and also self-repair after damage, for example automatically closing lacerations.", "quote": "Finally, reconfigurable organisms not only self-maintain their externally imposed configuration, but they also self-repair in the face of damage, such as automatically closing lacerations (SI Appendix, Fig. S9).", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2020, "work": "A scalable pipeline for designing reconfigurable organisms", "chapter": "Kriegman S 2020, A scalable pipeline for designing reconfigurable organisms › Discussion", "kind": "experimental-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [ { "id": "kriegman-xenobot-evolutionary-biobots", "relation": "models", "note": "Simulates mechanical laceration and its closure, the self-repair the claim asserts.", "label": "Kriegman et al. (2020, 2021) Xenobot evolutionary biomechanics & kinematic self-replication faithfully reproduces Xenopus laevis (African clawed frog blastula ectoderm & cardiac progenitor biobots) morphology", "organism": "Xenopus laevis (African clawed frog blastula ectoderm & cardiac progenitor biobots)", "verdict": "faithful", "score": 91.3, "thompson_verdict": null, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA4LlMjjGmAlRq9sBuadz7tO3SSJi1_OPgpXOIE12-5Ts", "registry": "production", "report": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/morphoeval/kg/2026-10-19-xenobot-evolutionary-biobots-audit-v2/REPORT.md" } ], "thumbnail": { "file": "docs/thumbs/kriegman-xenobot-evolutionary-biobots.jpg", "morpholib": "kriegman-xenobot-evolutionary-biobots", "source": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/docs/media/xenobot_evolutionary_biobots_growth.gif" }, "testability": 0.537, "truth": 0.88, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.95 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.81 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.73, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAeNQ_DG9yYaYWq87NiQxtEvAEqN-SOmK2vNbidEmxiSE", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2020-xenobots-10", "key": "130a37b3235cc295", "label": "Adding hydrodynamics and random actuation made simulated gaits match living ones", "statement": "Designs first evolved on simulated land had bounding gaits that did not transfer to living organisms; adding first-order hydrodynamics and randomized phase offsets produced designs whose behaviour better matched the living systems, in contact with the ground for 93.3% of evaluation versus 52.7% on the first pass.", "quote": "The behavior of designs generated on the second pass better matched the behavior of the actual living systems: on average, designs were in contact with the ground plane for 93.3% of their evaluation period, compared to just 52.7% on the first pass (SI Appendix, section S6).", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2020, "work": "A scalable pipeline for designing reconfigurable organisms", "chapter": "Kriegman S 2020, A scalable pipeline for designing reconfigurable organisms › Materials and Methods › Evolutionary Design.", "kind": "simulation-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.833, "truth": 0.86, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.92 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.8 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.81, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAmglHuefEE5QkWtm44kYDNHAG3JaI5BcQtTh8w7KnkGw", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2020-xenobots-11", "key": "989c425c5b941b6a", "label": "Shape concavities of 100 µm or more persist in developing stem cell aggregates", "statement": "Aggregates of developing Xenopus pluripotent cells tend to close small gaps in their geometry; concavities 100 µm wide or more (12% of body length) gave stable long-term deformations, setting the minimal buildable feature size.", "quote": "Preliminary work determined that concavities with a width of 100 µm or greater (12% of total body length) produced stable long-term deformations suitable for biological building (SI Appendix, Fig. S7).", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2020, "work": "A scalable pipeline for designing reconfigurable organisms", "chapter": "Kriegman S 2020, A scalable pipeline for designing reconfigurable organisms › Materials and Methods › Build Filter.", "kind": "experimental-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.559, "truth": 0.795, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.87 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.72 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.75, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAlAMbhwZdQz1F0Tf7McIZHJjYKh5E-xMW45QNIaAL86Q", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2022-tame-01", "key": "4ca9125985f9fd64", "label": "All known cognitive agents are collective intelligences made of agential parts", "statement": "Every known cognitive agent is a collective intelligence: biological agents are made of parts (cells and other components) that are themselves agents in important ways, and there is no truly indivisible cognitive being.", "quote": "All known cognitive agents are collective intelligences, because we are all made of parts; biological agents in particular are not just structurally modular, but made of parts that are themselves agents in important ways.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2022, "work": "Technological Approach to Mind Everywhere: An Experimentally-Grounded Framework for Understanding Diverse Bodies and Minds", "chapter": "Levin M 2022, Technological Approach to Mind Everywhere: An Experimentally-Grounded Framework for Understanding Diverse Bodies and Minds › Introduction", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.125, "truth": 0.465, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.6 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.33 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.83, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAfNWsjdh1D-XnHEW_61JVgkG66ywvAe7gYQpyF6_Qmg0", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2022-tame-02", "key": "6fa8c5faeb362659", "label": "Memories can persist through complete brain regeneration in planaria", "statement": "In some organisms such as planaria, memories (prior knowledge and behavioural tendencies) can apparently persist after the complete regeneration of the brain, being transferred onto the newly constructed brain.", "quote": "Not only that, but memories can apparently persist following the complete regeneration of brains in some organisms (McConnell et al., 1959; Corning, 1966; Shomrat and Levin, 2013) such as planaria, in which prior knowledge and behavioral tendencies are somehow transferred onto a newly-constructed brain.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2022, "work": "Technological Approach to Mind Everywhere: An Experimentally-Grounded Framework for Understanding Diverse Bodies and Minds", "chapter": "Levin M 2022, Technological Approach to Mind Everywhere: An Experimentally-Grounded Framework for Understanding Diverse Bodies and Minds › Cognition: Changing the Subject", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.57, "truth": 0.455, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.45 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.46 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.74, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAfdI2J2aMCX_PMXxi_4HQ1TQt_KhEMOTBIr8m-SpnsiE", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2022-tame-03", "key": "ceb135fcb90d30b5", "label": "Tadpoles with eyes on their tails can still perform visual learning", "statement": "Xenopus tadpoles engineered to have eyes on their tails instead of their heads are still readily able to perform visual learning tasks, illustrating that minds readily adapt to radically altered body architectures.", "quote": "When tadpoles are created to have eyes on their tails, instead of their heads, they are still readily able to perform visual learning tasks (Blackiston and Levin, 2013; Blackiston et al., 2017).", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2022, "work": "Technological Approach to Mind Everywhere: An Experimentally-Grounded Framework for Understanding Diverse Bodies and Minds", "chapter": "Levin M 2022, Technological Approach to Mind Everywhere: An Experimentally-Grounded Framework for Understanding Diverse Bodies and Minds › Cognition: Changing the Subject", "kind": "experimental-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.641, "truth": 0.83, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.9 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.76 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.75, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RANKm_J5FDIINUe7GLkl2RTgsc7EjJ_voP-LhlenUkAig", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2022-tame-04", "key": "330f233853bda7b7", "label": "Transitions in cognitive capacity are gradual, not binary", "statement": "Although major differences in cognitive function exist among diverse intelligences, transitions between them have not been shown to be binary or rapid relative to the timescale of individual agents; cognition-related properties form a continuum from humble proto-cognitive systems to advanced minds.", "quote": "Specifically, while major differences in cognitive function of course exist among diverse intelligences, transitions between them have not been shown to be binary or rapid relative to the timescale of individual agents.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2022, "work": "Technological Approach to Mind Everywhere: An Experimentally-Grounded Framework for Understanding Diverse Bodies and Minds", "chapter": "Levin M 2022, Technological Approach to Mind Everywhere: An Experimentally-Grounded Framework for Understanding Diverse Bodies and Minds › Technological Approach to Mind Everywhere: A Proposal for a Framework › Philosophical Foundations of an Approach to Diverse Intelligences", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.366, "truth": 0.79, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.78 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.8 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.6, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAcb_v7099H9sOZ4iS-dlcDR7Kb67u4tp0veVTbLvkmFA", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2022-tame-05", "key": "63cd2e7f1a294b39", "label": "A system's level of agency must be determined empirically by prediction and control", "statement": "Under TAME, how much agency a system has is an empirical, observer-dependent question: the correct level of agency to attribute is the one whose model and intervention strategy give the most efficient prediction and control of the system, as established by experiment.", "quote": "Thus, the correct level of agency with which to treat any system must be determined by experiments that reveal which kind of model and strategy provides the most efficient predictive and control capability over the system.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2022, "work": "Technological Approach to Mind Everywhere: An Experimentally-Grounded Framework for Understanding Diverse Bodies and Minds", "chapter": "Levin M 2022, Technological Approach to Mind Everywhere: An Experimentally-Grounded Framework for Understanding Diverse Bodies and Minds › Technological Approach to Mind Everywhere: A Proposal for a Framework › Philosophical Foundations of an Approach to Diverse Intelligences", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.313, "truth": 0.72, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.68 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.76 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.77, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAjmtIPmGe6vTGbP5BGKw8dG3hKjHedA20bWDaU9hVyDg", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2022-tame-06", "key": "b899b60b9c1be9df", "label": "Gene regulatory network models exhibit associative learning", "statement": "Analyses of biological gene regulatory network models show that they exhibit associative and several other kinds of learning, as well as pattern completion and generalization, suggesting GRNs could be trained with patterned stimuli rather than rewired.", "quote": "Indeed, recent analyses of biological GRN models reveal that they exhibit associative and several other kinds of learning capacity, as well as pattern completion and generalization (Watson et al., 2010, 2014; Szilagyi et al., 2020; Biswas et al., 2021).", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2022, "work": "Technological Approach to Mind Everywhere: An Experimentally-Grounded Framework for Understanding Diverse Bodies and Minds", "chapter": "Levin M 2022, Technological Approach to Mind Everywhere: An Experimentally-Grounded Framework for Understanding Diverse Bodies and Minds › Technological Approach to Mind Everywhere: A Proposal for a Framework › Philosophical Foundations of an Approach to Diverse Intelligences", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.722, "truth": 0.715, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.72 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.71 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.74, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RArDKoYNJESi8UhvQWppXDWybQmQzDJQClu7Sfq0AttnU", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2022-tame-07", "key": "e92d84e8d10c9114", "label": "A Self is marked by goals, compound memories and credit assignment above its parts", "statement": "TAME defines the hallmarks of a Self as the ability to pursue goals, to own compound (e.g. associative) memories, and to serve as the locus of credit assignment (reward or punishment), each at a scale larger than any of its components can achieve alone.", "quote": "The TAME framework takes the following as the basic hallmarks of being a Self: the ability to pursue goals, to own compound (e.g., associative) memories, and to serve as the locus for credit assignment (be rewarded or punished), where all of these are at a scale larger than possible for any of its components alone.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2022, "work": "Technological Approach to Mind Everywhere: An Experimentally-Grounded Framework for Understanding Diverse Bodies and Minds", "chapter": "Levin M 2022, Technological Approach to Mind Everywhere: An Experimentally-Grounded Framework for Understanding Diverse Bodies and Minds › Technological Approach to Mind Everywhere: A Proposal for a Framework › Specific Conceptual Components of the Technological Approach to Mind Everywhere Framework", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.095, "truth": 0.56, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.55 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.57 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.89, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAspw9kfMaSIHiN_J6TUnMdUscMFXf1zC9UI2CImXZU3k", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2022-tame-08", "key": "4427f97afa030848", "label": "The spatiotemporal scale of an agent's goals delineates its Self (cognitive light cone)", "statement": "Selves can be classified and compared by the spatio-temporal scale of the goals they can represent and work toward (their 'cognitive light cone'), and this scale delineates the boundaries of each Self.", "quote": "Specifically (Figure 4), a “space-time” diagram can be created where the spatio-temporal scale of any agent’s goals delineates that Self and its cognitive boundaries.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2022, "work": "Technological Approach to Mind Everywhere: An Experimentally-Grounded Framework for Understanding Diverse Bodies and Minds", "chapter": "Levin M 2022, Technological Approach to Mind Everywhere: An Experimentally-Grounded Framework for Understanding Diverse Bodies and Minds › Technological Approach to Mind Everywhere: A Proposal for a Framework › Specific Conceptual Components of the Technological Approach to Mind Everywhere Framework", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.26, "truth": 0.555, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.57 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.54 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.66, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAgU0TN4TTDrn0czH5jPVszlb7akgfgziphrfHFS9Xo-8", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2022-tame-09", "key": "9b9905ef98b7d5e1", "label": "Stress binds distributed modules into one larger homeostatic loop", "statement": "Stress, defined as a system-level response to the difference between current state and a setpoint, scales Selves by binding modules that sense and act at different scales and locations into one global homeostatic loop; propagated stress signals recruit distant sub-agents to act so as to reduce their own stress.", "quote": "Stress is a systemic response to a difference between current state and a desired setpoint; it is an essential component to scaling of Selves because it enables different modules (which sense and act on things at different scales and in distributed locations) to be bound together in one global homeostatic loop (toward a larger purpose).", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2022, "work": "Technological Approach to Mind Everywhere: An Experimentally-Grounded Framework for Understanding Diverse Bodies and Minds", "chapter": "Levin M 2022, Technological Approach to Mind Everywhere: An Experimentally-Grounded Framework for Understanding Diverse Bodies and Minds › Technological Approach to Mind Everywhere: A Proposal for a Framework › Specific Conceptual Components of the Technological Approach to Mind Everywhere Framework", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.426, "truth": 0.565, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.52 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.61 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.63, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA433HWPY3Lsfis4L6MzQ9PdE4n2PfiYiaIo5VYFMq3Vc", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2022-tame-10", "key": "f5d206932698ec49", "label": "Behavioural problem-solving in 3D space derives from older problem-solving in other spaces", "statement": "Problem-solving behaviour of animals in three-dimensional space is proposed to be a variant of an evolutionarily more ancient capacity to solve problems in metabolic, physiological, transcriptional and morphogenetic spaces.", "quote": "It is proposed that the traditional problem-solving behavior we see in standard animals in 3D space is just a variant of evolutionarily more ancient capacity to solve problems in metabolic, physiological, transcriptional, and morphogenetic spaces (as one possible sequential timeline along which evolution pivoted some of the same strategies to solve problems in new spaces).", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2022, "work": "Technological Approach to Mind Everywhere: An Experimentally-Grounded Framework for Understanding Diverse Bodies and Minds", "chapter": "Levin M 2022, Technological Approach to Mind Everywhere: An Experimentally-Grounded Framework for Understanding Diverse Bodies and Minds › Technological Approach to Mind Everywhere: A Proposal for a Framework › Specific Conceptual Components of the Technological Approach to Mind Everywhere Framework", "kind": "historical-inference", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.387, "truth": 0.345, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.35 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.34 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.63, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAaWVjEddo6JrhNtaOJK6qb4pKVa0nTqrwk6PXl1Z8TP0", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2022-tame-11", "key": "74b1434e87b9e77a", "label": "Planaria regenerate barium-insensitive heads after barium-induced head loss", "statement": "Planaria exposed to barium, a non-specific potassium channel blocker, lose their heads but soon regenerate heads that are completely insensitive to barium, by transcriptionally regulating relatively few genes; the authors interpret this as cells navigating transcriptional space to solve a novel physiological stressor not met in evolution.", "quote": "For example, when planaria are exposed to barium, a non-specific potassium channel blocker, their heads explode. Remarkably, they soon regenerate heads that are completely insensitive to barium (Emmons-Bell et al., 2019).", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2022, "work": "Technological Approach to Mind Everywhere: An Experimentally-Grounded Framework for Understanding Diverse Bodies and Minds", "chapter": "Levin M 2022, Technological Approach to Mind Everywhere: An Experimentally-Grounded Framework for Understanding Diverse Bodies and Minds › Technological Approach to Mind Everywhere: A Proposal for a Framework › Specific Conceptual Components of the Technological Approach to Mind Everywhere Framework", "kind": "experimental-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.651, "truth": 0.785, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.86 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.71 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.78, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAPu4NoIkvXrIhazODVFt1VoY2gxNCdXxtCNgEZmF-9MM", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2022-tame-12", "key": "1d12b258106305b5", "label": "Picasso tadpoles with scrambled faces become largely normal frogs", "statement": "Xenopus tadpoles whose craniofacial organs were placed in abnormal positions ('Picasso tadpoles') tend to become largely normal frogs, because the organs move along novel, abnormal paths and stop at the correct frog-face positions, showing that craniofacial remodelling is goal-directed rather than hardwired.", "quote": "Amazingly, they tend to turn into largely normal frogs because the craniofacial organs move in novel, abnormal paths [sometimes overshooting and needing to return a bit (Pinet et al., 2019)] and stop when they get to the correct frog face positions.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2022, "work": "Technological Approach to Mind Everywhere: An Experimentally-Grounded Framework for Understanding Diverse Bodies and Minds", "chapter": "Levin M 2022, Technological Approach to Mind Everywhere: An Experimentally-Grounded Framework for Understanding Diverse Bodies and Minds › Somatic Cognition: An Example of Unconventional Agency in Detail › Goal-Directed Activity in Morphogenesis", "kind": "experimental-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [ { "id": "bischof-xenopus-craniofacial-remap", "relation": "models", "note": "Simulates Picasso tadpole craniofacial organs moving along abnormal paths to a normal froglet face, against Vandenberg et al. (2012) landmark tracking.", "label": "Vandenberg, Adams & Levin (2012) & Pinet et al. (2019) Picasso tadpole craniofacial attractor remodeling faithfully reproduces Xenopus laevis African clawed frog tadpole and froglet morphology", "organism": "Xenopus laevis African clawed frog tadpole and froglet", "verdict": "faithful", "score": 92, "thompson_verdict": null, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAfabt4u-0fbCGJSZbkTXg1RT8z7rTLqcJN5dvkjtkHNw", "registry": "production", "report": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/morphoeval/kg/2026-10-19-xenopus-craniofacial-remap-audit-v2/REPORT.md" } ], "thumbnail": { "file": "docs/thumbs/bischof-xenopus-craniofacial-remap.jpg", "morpholib": "bischof-xenopus-craniofacial-remap", "source": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/docs/media/xenopus_craniofacial_remap_growth.gif" }, "testability": 0.581, "truth": 0.825, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.9 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.75 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.72, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAuCWxXzFZ0bIz4DwKzmAEnsPtA4K1RSDcHq_UVqJG9GI", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2022-tame-13", "key": "5dc665ad0212b284", "label": "Deer antler trophic memory is a rewritable pattern memory", "statement": "In deer, a wound made on a branched antler in one year leads to ectopic tines at the same location in later years after the antler is shed, which the author interprets as an experience-dependent, rewritable pattern memory in which the target morphology is rewritten without changing the genome.", "quote": "This is an example of experience-dependent, re-writable pattern memory, in which the target morphology (the setpoint for anatomical homeostasis) is re-written within standard hardware.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2022, "work": "Technological Approach to Mind Everywhere: An Experimentally-Grounded Framework for Understanding Diverse Bodies and Minds", "chapter": "Levin M 2022, Technological Approach to Mind Everywhere: An Experimentally-Grounded Framework for Understanding Diverse Bodies and Minds › Somatic Cognition: An Example of Unconventional Agency in Detail › Pattern Memory: A Key Component of Homeostatic Loops", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.412, "truth": 0.655, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.58 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.73 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.59, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RARzItle1hbx6vLoGOu55YeNEKcneF9LXUT4Hi7WbbuR8", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2022-tame-14", "key": "845eed43d65bacec", "label": "Altering planarian voltage patterns changes head number and head species-shape", "statement": "In planaria, manipulating the endogenous bioelectric voltage pattern by targeting gap junctions or ion channels can produce worms with one, two or zero heads, or with head and brain shapes resembling other extant planarian species.", "quote": "Manipulation of the normal voltage pattern by targeting the gap junctions (Sordillo and Bargmann, 2021) or ion channels can give rise to planaria with one, two, or 0 heads, or heads with shape (and brain shape) resembling other extant species of planaria (Emmons-Bell et al., 2015; Sullivan et al., 2016).", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2022, "work": "Technological Approach to Mind Everywhere: An Experimentally-Grounded Framework for Understanding Diverse Bodies and Minds", "chapter": "Levin M 2022, Technological Approach to Mind Everywhere: An Experimentally-Grounded Framework for Understanding Diverse Bodies and Minds › Somatic Cognition: An Example of Unconventional Agency in Detail › Pattern Memory: A Key Component of Homeostatic Loops", "kind": "experimental-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.648, "truth": 0.84, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.86 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.82 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.745, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAp4PGpmvK_1nybu2I1HG25VR8K36bW2y6-ZMMnp9DMtk", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2022-tame-15", "key": "ce0a3c87ba506998", "label": "Two-headed planarian state persists through further cutting despite wild-type genome", "statement": "Planaria with abnormal head number induced by transient bioelectric manipulation are permanently altered: when cut into pieces with no further treatment, the pieces continue to regenerate with abnormal head number despite wild-type genetics.", "quote": "Remarkably, the worms with abnormal head number are permanently altered to this pattern, despite their wild-type genetics: cut into pieces with no further manipulations, the pieces continue to regenerate with abnormal head number (Oviedo et al., 2010; Durant et al., 2017).", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2022, "work": "Technological Approach to Mind Everywhere: An Experimentally-Grounded Framework for Understanding Diverse Bodies and Minds", "chapter": "Levin M 2022, Technological Approach to Mind Everywhere: An Experimentally-Grounded Framework for Understanding Diverse Bodies and Minds › Somatic Cognition: An Example of Unconventional Agency in Detail › Pattern Memory: A Key Component of Homeostatic Loops", "kind": "experimental-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.648, "truth": 0.895, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.9 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.89 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.76, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAJYtMBvUyLpfkkYBQzKhwkT1CR7MgskiQpgwiAYAedc8", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2022-tame-16", "key": "8ccef6213d03634d", "label": "Transient bioelectric states can rewrite false pattern memories in animals", "statement": "Modulating a transient bioelectric state is a conserved mechanism by which false pattern memories (altered target morphologies) can be written into the genetically specified electrical circuits of a living animal, analogous to incepting false behavioural memories in brains with optogenetics.", "quote": "Thus, much like the optogenetic techniques used to incept false behavioral memories into brains (Vetere et al., 2019), modulation of transient bioelectric state is a conserved mechanism by which false pattern memories can be re-written into the genetically-specified electrical circuits of a living animal.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2022, "work": "Technological Approach to Mind Everywhere: An Experimentally-Grounded Framework for Understanding Diverse Bodies and Minds", "chapter": "Levin M 2022, Technological Approach to Mind Everywhere: An Experimentally-Grounded Framework for Understanding Diverse Bodies and Minds › Somatic Cognition: An Example of Unconventional Agency in Detail › Pattern Memory: A Key Component of Homeostatic Loops", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.45, "truth": 0.58, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.56 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.6 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.64, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA2RzPU2ZatqQ5tyaOMXGa8O-v9PNgK7e6SuXrJW0rCaU", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2022-tame-17", "key": "9b42718010e01d89", "label": "Newt kidney tubules keep correct lumen size when cell size changes", "statement": "Newt kidney tubules normally made of 8 to 10 cells in cross-section are built from fewer cells when cell size is experimentally enlarged, and from a single cell wrapping around itself when cells are made very large, showing that different molecular mechanisms (cell-cell interactions vs cytoskeletal deformation) can be deployed to reach the same anatomical outcome.", "quote": "Even more remarkable than the scaling of the cell number to unexpected size changes (on an ontogenetic, not evolutionary, timescale) is the fact that if the cells are made really huge, just one cell wraps around itself and still makes a proper lumen (Figure 6D).", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2022, "work": "Technological Approach to Mind Everywhere: An Experimentally-Grounded Framework for Understanding Diverse Bodies and Minds", "chapter": "Levin M 2022, Technological Approach to Mind Everywhere: An Experimentally-Grounded Framework for Understanding Diverse Bodies and Minds › Somatic Cognition: An Example of Unconventional Agency in Detail › Multi-Scale Competency of Growth and Form", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.541, "truth": 0.9, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.87 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.93 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.68, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA1psKQ9_93tnSkKJ0OJsn26_0e6KDEeNDhc4rTZd6jHE", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2022-tame-18", "key": "af7e71413ba39e67", "label": "Injury to one limb can be read out from the opposite limb within 30 seconds", "statement": "Limbs show mirror-neuron-like and somatotopic responses to injury outside the nervous system: the type and site of damage to one limb can be read out within 30 seconds by imaging the opposite, uninjured limb.", "quote": "For example, mirror neurons and somatotopic representation are seen in limbs’ response to injury, where the type and site of damage to one limb can be read out within 30 s from imaging the opposite, un-injured limbs (Busse et al., 2018).", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2022, "work": "Technological Approach to Mind Everywhere: An Experimentally-Grounded Framework for Understanding Diverse Bodies and Minds", "chapter": "Levin M 2022, Technological Approach to Mind Everywhere: An Experimentally-Grounded Framework for Understanding Diverse Bodies and Minds › Somatic Cognition: An Example of Unconventional Agency in Detail › Specific Parallels Between Morphogenesis and Basal Cognition", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.556, "truth": 0.7, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.76 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.64 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.68, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAOmWGCqYRmmnzJKaN-XcmkZz2vMXUMaWzCN_rZ8Gvnkk", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2022-tame-19", "key": "ceaec3e70dd783b2", "label": "Genes for morphogenesis and for learning and memory should overlap widely", "statement": "TAME predicts significant and specific overlap between genes involved in morphogenesis and genes in memory and learning categories, beyond the known shared ion channels, connexins and neurotransmitter machinery; it also predicts that memory genes will appear in genetic studies of cancer, regeneration and embryogenesis.", "quote": "Significant and specific overlap are predicted for genes involved in morphogenesis and cognition (categories of memory and learning).", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2022, "work": "Technological Approach to Mind Everywhere: An Experimentally-Grounded Framework for Understanding Diverse Bodies and Minds", "chapter": "Levin M 2022, Technological Approach to Mind Everywhere: An Experimentally-Grounded Framework for Understanding Diverse Bodies and Minds › Somatic Cognition: An Example of Unconventional Agency in Detail › Not Just Philosophy: Why These Parallels Matter", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "refutes", "evidence_kind": "biological", "data_test": { "verdict": "refutes", "confidence": 0.7, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "biological", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/levin-papers/levin-2022-tame-19/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered: after exclusions, (a) the one-sided Fisher exact test of overlap between the learning-or-memory set (GO:0007611 and is_a/part_of descendants) and the morphogenesis set (GO:0009653 and descendants) gives odds ratio > 1.5 and p < 0.001; (b) the Mantel-Haenszel odds ratio stratified by deciles of each gene's number of experimental BP annotations is > 1.5; (c) the unstratified odds ratio is above the 75th percentile of odds ratios between the morphogenesis set and every control BP term whose post-exclusion gene count is within a factor of 1.5 of the learning-or-memory set's and which is neither an ancestor nor a descendant of GO:0007611 or GO:0009653.", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered: unstratified odds ratio <= 1.2 or p >= 0.05, or Mantel-Haenszel odds ratio <= 1.2, or the odds ratio at or below the median of the size-matched control terms. Outcomes meeting neither criterion are pre-registered as 'mixed' (overlap present but not specific, or explained by annotation depth).", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: go-basic-obo, mgi-gaf", "inference_method": "fetch.py downloads go-basic.obo and the MGI GAF. analysis.py drops NOT-qualified and obsolete-term lines, builds each gene's set of experimental BP terms and their is_a/part_of ancestors, removes 612 genes annotated to ion channel, gap junction or neurotransmission terms, and tests overlap of GO:0007611 and GO:0009653 in the remaining 10,243 genes with a one-sided Fisher exact test. Annotation depth is controlled by a Mantel-Haenszel odds ratio over ten equal-sized strata of genes ranked by their number of distinct experimental BP terms. Specificity is the percentile of the odds ratio among the 327 BP terms of 128-286 genes that are neither ancestors nor descendants of either term.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": { "verdict": "faithful-with-narrower-scope", "assessors": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "verdict": "faithful-with-narrower-scope", "confidence": 0.96, "file": "test-data/claim-tests/levin-papers/levin-2022-tame-19/faithfulness.json" } ], "status": "agreed" } }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.812, "truth": 0.635, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.72 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.55 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.79, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAWUjQMLRsQGDx8qLs3Uiltp0VBBWZ-CplfuS9wg03998", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2022-tame-20", "key": "0e132870da88fa4d", "label": "Morphogenesis should be trainable by reinforcement for specific anatomical outcomes", "statement": "TAME predicts (not yet tested) that the collective intelligence of tissues may be trainable by reinforcement learning, using rewards and punishments such as nutrients, endorphins or shock, to produce specific morphological or gene-expression outcomes.", "quote": "Another key prediction that remains to be tested (ongoing in our lab) is trainability of morphogenesis. The collective intelligence of tissues could be sophisticated enough to be trainable via reinforcement learning for specific morphological outcomes.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2022, "work": "Technological Approach to Mind Everywhere: An Experimentally-Grounded Framework for Understanding Diverse Bodies and Minds", "chapter": "Levin M 2022, Technological Approach to Mind Everywhere: An Experimentally-Grounded Framework for Understanding Diverse Bodies and Minds › Somatic Cognition: An Example of Unconventional Agency in Detail › Not Just Philosophy: Why These Parallels Matter", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.368, "truth": 0.28, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.31 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.25 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.79, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAuVtKmu51QKifwYMchWsP7QU0uiH68WYI69Tc-skhnVM", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2022-tame-21", "key": "fd4e3e8ff0658ed2", "label": "Voltage-sensitive channels and gap junctions form rewritable dynamical memories", "statement": "Because ion channels and gap junctions are themselves voltage-sensitive, a transient voltage state can trigger progressive depolarization or gap-junction closure, so non-neural bioelectric circuits readily form dynamical-system memories that store information and change computation without changing the channel or junction hardware.", "quote": "The fact that a transient voltage state passing through a cell can set off a cycle of progressive depolarization (like an action potential) or gap junctional (GJ) closure means that such circuits readily form dynamical systems memories which can store different information and change their computational behavior without changing the hardware", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2022, "work": "Technological Approach to Mind Everywhere: An Experimentally-Grounded Framework for Understanding Diverse Bodies and Minds", "chapter": "Levin M 2022, Technological Approach to Mind Everywhere: An Experimentally-Grounded Framework for Understanding Diverse Bodies and Minds › Somatic Cognition: An Example of Unconventional Agency in Detail › Non-neural Bioelectricity: What Bodies Think About", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [ { "id": "pietak-bioelectric-morphogen-coupling", "relation": "models", "note": "Implements voltage-gated gap junctions G_gj(DeltaV) coupled to membrane voltage, the mechanism by which the claim says rewritable bioelectric memories form.", "label": "Pietak & Levin (2017) electrodiffusive Nernst-Planck gap-junction morphogen transport & cryptic two-headed memory faithfully reproduces Dugesia japonica / Schmidtea mediterranea freshwater planarian flatworm morphology", "organism": "Dugesia japonica / Schmidtea mediterranea freshwater planarian flatworm", "verdict": "faithful", "score": 91.5, "thompson_verdict": null, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAzxekO22jnL1FBa5-4W8-JDCEwD3bElgCIzHy4KTn0Hs", "registry": "production", "report": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/morphoeval/kg/2026-10-19-bioelectric-morphogen-coupling-audit-v2/REPORT.md" } ], "thumbnail": { "file": "docs/thumbs/pietak-bioelectric-morphogen-coupling.jpg", "morpholib": "pietak-bioelectric-morphogen-coupling", "source": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/docs/media/bioelectric_morphogen_coupling_growth.gif" }, "testability": 0.642, "truth": 0.855, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.88 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.83 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.72, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAj7jpiGk9bW9sfyu-oRS3osZ5TrAlvOxTmrnojy5HN9k", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2022-tame-22", "key": "04b570196aaac305", "label": "Gap junctions merge cells into a larger Self by erasing signal ownership", "statement": "Because signals passing through gap junctions carry no marker of their cell of origin, gap-junctional coupling partially erases informational (memory) boundaries between cells, which promotes the formation of a larger Self whose parts work toward common goals.", "quote": "Thus, this property of GJ coupling promotes the creation of a larger Self by partially erasing the mnemic boundaries between the parts which might impair their ability to work toward a common goal.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2022, "work": "Technological Approach to Mind Everywhere: An Experimentally-Grounded Framework for Understanding Diverse Bodies and Minds", "chapter": "Levin M 2022, Technological Approach to Mind Everywhere: An Experimentally-Grounded Framework for Understanding Diverse Bodies and Minds › Somatic Cognition: An Example of Unconventional Agency in Detail › A Bioelectric Model of the Scaling of the Self", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.283, "truth": 0.53, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.5 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.56 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.685, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAC_9-RsGCE0nyEQiQ_axE226aZbBSX3QAZQ76a4NveOA", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2022-tame-23", "key": "cd2325e6d27940f1", "label": "Cancer is a shrinking of the Self after gap junction closure", "statement": "Oncogene expression and carcinogen exposure close gap junctions, and the consequence is transformation to cancer, in which cells revert to unicellular-like selves, shrink their computational boundaries and treat the rest of the body as external environment.", "quote": "Indeed this occurs in cancer, where oncogene expression and carcinogen exposure leads to a closure of GJs (Vine and Bertram, 2002; Leithe et al., 2006). The consequence of this is transformation to cancer, where cells revert to their ancient unicellular selves (Levin, 2021b)—shrinking their computational boundaries and treating the rest of the body as external environment.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2022, "work": "Technological Approach to Mind Everywhere: An Experimentally-Grounded Framework for Understanding Diverse Bodies and Minds", "chapter": "Levin M 2022, Technological Approach to Mind Everywhere: An Experimentally-Grounded Framework for Understanding Diverse Bodies and Minds › Somatic Cognition: An Example of Unconventional Agency in Detail › A Bioelectric Model of the Scaling of the Self", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.575, "truth": 0.29, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.24 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.34 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.68, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAI6dOiF-Mz02ZfED8S6aDsQgR6vOuCtDmmfc4z5JD7d0", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2022-tame-24", "key": "8d4b0af02d9c149e", "label": "Managing bioelectric connectivity induces or suppresses cancer independent of genetics", "statement": "Managing bioelectric connectivity between cells can override genetically determined states, inducing metastatic melanoma in a wild-type background or suppressing tumorigenesis driven by strong oncogenes such as p53 or KRAS mutations, so genetic alterations are not necessary either to induce or to revert cancer.", "quote": "Indeed, recent data show that managing this connectivity can override default genetically-determined states, inducing metastatic melanoma in a perfectly wild-type background (Blackiston et al., 2011) or suppressing tumorigenesis induced by strong oncogenes like p53 or KRAS mutations (Chernet and Levin, 2013a,b).", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2022, "work": "Technological Approach to Mind Everywhere: An Experimentally-Grounded Framework for Understanding Diverse Bodies and Minds", "chapter": "Levin M 2022, Technological Approach to Mind Everywhere: An Experimentally-Grounded Framework for Understanding Diverse Bodies and Minds › Somatic Cognition: An Example of Unconventional Agency in Detail › A Bioelectric Model of the Scaling of the Self", "kind": "experimental-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.596, "truth": 0.66, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.64 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.68 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.72, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RACYlpifFNukBsxljibvfc2sO27pLg5aduZqTRuNbhX_w", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2022-tame-25", "key": "1a88a539e1e083f7", "label": "Developmental bioelectricity preceded and gave rise to nervous systems", "statement": "Developmental bioelectrics is an ancient precursor of nervous systems: evolution first used analog bioelectric dynamics to position body configuration in developmental morphospace, long before some cells specialized in fast digital spiking to control behaviour in 3D space.", "quote": "Evolution first exploited this to enable cell groups to position the body configuration in developmental morphospace, long before some cells specialized to use very fast, digital spiking as neural networks for control of behavior as movement in 3-dimensional space (Fields et al., 2020).", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2022, "work": "Technological Approach to Mind Everywhere: An Experimentally-Grounded Framework for Understanding Diverse Bodies and Minds", "chapter": "Levin M 2022, Technological Approach to Mind Everywhere: An Experimentally-Grounded Framework for Understanding Diverse Bodies and Minds › Evolutionary Aspects › Somatic Bioelectrics Reveals the Origin of Complex Cognitive Systems", "kind": "historical-inference", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.551, "truth": 0.72, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.76 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.68 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.67, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA6rc9y8bogsQMgABqHKF2wYrmFguqHVT6o1L6PmX2Rqs", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2022-tame-26", "key": "dec9de2fea9c291d", "label": "Context-sensitive ion channels appear alongside complex metazoan body plans", "statement": "Ion channel phylogeny is ancient (many channel families likely predate the most recent unicellular ancestor of animals), and the appearance of context-sensitive channels enabling new bioelectric feedback loops tracks the appearance of complex body plans at the emergence of metazoa, indicating an evolutionary continuum from single-cell excitability to cognition via somatic pattern control.", "quote": "The phylogeny of ion channels is ancient, and the appearance of context-sensitive channels (enabling new kinds of bioelectrical feedback loops) tracks well with the appearance of complex body plans at the emergence of metazoa (Moran et al., 2015), revealing the remarkable evolutionary continuum that leads from membrane excitability in single cells to cognitive functions in advanced organisms, by way of somatic pattern control (Cook et al., 2014).", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2022, "work": "Technological Approach to Mind Everywhere: An Experimentally-Grounded Framework for Understanding Diverse Bodies and Minds", "chapter": "Levin M 2022, Technological Approach to Mind Everywhere: An Experimentally-Grounded Framework for Understanding Diverse Bodies and Minds › Evolutionary Aspects › Somatic Bioelectrics Reveals the Origin of Complex Cognitive Systems", "kind": "historical-inference", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.688, "truth": 0.53, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.46 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.6 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.72, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAf0O9vMus2e7IvggbYJGicFwbrX4aKADTVJ5B6Hc8m7A", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2022-tame-27", "key": "8d9c988ae4316854", "label": "A single ion channel can induce complete ectopic eyes where Pax6 cannot", "statement": "In Xenopus, the action of a single ion channel can induce an eye-specific bioelectric state that creates complete eyes in gut endoderm, spinal cord and posterior tissues, locations where genetic master regulators such as Pax6 are insufficient in vertebrates; bioelectric states thus act as master regulators that evolution can exploit for modular anatomical change.", "quote": "For example, the action of a single ion channel can induce an eye-specific bioelectric state that creates complete eyes in gut endoderm, spinal cord, and posterior tissues (Pai et al., 2012)—locations where genetic “master regulators” like the Pax6 transcription factor are insufficient in vertebrates (Chow et al., 1999).", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2022, "work": "Technological Approach to Mind Everywhere: An Experimentally-Grounded Framework for Understanding Diverse Bodies and Minds", "chapter": "Levin M 2022, Technological Approach to Mind Everywhere: An Experimentally-Grounded Framework for Understanding Diverse Bodies and Minds › Evolutionary Aspects › Somatic Bioelectrics Reveals the Origin of Complex Cognitive Systems", "kind": "experimental-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.607, "truth": 0.73, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.81 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.65 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.71, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAYwj80kDLwvaEfpxpblLjbQtz9kMMxGNF304bZloZUyU", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2022-tame-28", "key": "2c4fc782dd9c14ac", "label": "Mutations in electrogenic genes can produce coordinated, long-range anatomical change", "statement": "Because the same membrane-voltage dynamics can be produced by many ion-channel combinations and bioelectric states act across tissue distances, evolution can swap channels freely, and simple mutations in electrogenic genes can cause long-range, highly coordinated changes in anatomy (supported by KCNH8 and a connexin in an evolutionary shift of fish fin morphology).", "quote": "evolution is free to swap out channels and explore the bioelectrical state space: simple mutations in electrogenic genes can exert very long-range, highly coordinated changes in anatomy.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2022, "work": "Technological Approach to Mind Everywhere: An Experimentally-Grounded Framework for Understanding Diverse Bodies and Minds", "chapter": "Levin M 2022, Technological Approach to Mind Everywhere: An Experimentally-Grounded Framework for Understanding Diverse Bodies and Minds › Evolutionary Aspects › Somatic Bioelectrics Reveals the Origin of Complex Cognitive Systems", "kind": "historical-inference", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.571, "truth": 0.705, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.72 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.69 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.64, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAelyXham0F5XycTZ0BE6ps2nUHjGj09CRd04510dfseg", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2022-tame-29", "key": "405ebcde149db4a2", "label": "Multiscale competency shields mutations from selection and smooths fitness landscapes", "statement": "In organisms with a multiscale competency architecture, whose modules actively correct toward a target morphology, mutations that would be detrimental in hardwired organisms (e.g. displacing the eye) become neutral, so the architecture shields some of mutations' negative effects from selection and smooths the fitness landscape.", "quote": "Thus, MCA shields from selection some aspects of mutations’ negative effects (which inevitably are the bulk of random mutations’ consequences).", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2022, "work": "Technological Approach to Mind Everywhere: An Experimentally-Grounded Framework for Understanding Diverse Bodies and Minds", "chapter": "Levin M 2022, Technological Approach to Mind Everywhere: An Experimentally-Grounded Framework for Understanding Diverse Bodies and Minds › Evolutionary Aspects › Multi-Scale Autonomy Potentiates the Speed of Evolution", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.484, "truth": 0.715, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.76 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.67 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.61, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAgkjzcO1E40sn0IJ2BExNN6V2gFrBt2GEDaJ52u7GBvM", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2022-tame-30", "key": "e711d24ee70f1f22", "label": "Anatomical homeostasis may exist mainly to correct mutation-induced deviations", "statement": "The primary reason for anatomical homeostasis in regulative development and regeneration may be to correct deviations from target morphology caused by mutations, rather than to repair damage.", "quote": "The primary reason for the anatomical homeostasis seen in regulative development and regeneration may be for dealing, not with damage, but with deviations from target morphology induced by mutations.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2022, "work": "Technological Approach to Mind Everywhere: An Experimentally-Grounded Framework for Understanding Diverse Bodies and Minds", "chapter": "Levin M 2022, Technological Approach to Mind Everywhere: An Experimentally-Grounded Framework for Understanding Diverse Bodies and Minds › Evolutionary Aspects › Multi-Scale Autonomy Potentiates the Speed of Evolution", "kind": "historical-inference", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.289, "truth": 0.22, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.22 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.22 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.65, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAmt4SM9YbosG1ywqXRb8w7fhgnfb2rb1RDDYxp3DIzuA", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2022-tame-31", "key": "575fc2c260f5ce33", "label": "Systems operating in morphogenetic or transcriptional spaces have minimal consciousness", "statement": "TAME provisionally holds that consciousness comes in degrees and that embodiment includes perception-action systems in any space, implying that systems operating in morphogenetic, transcriptional and other spaces should have some, if very minimal, degree of consciousness.", "quote": "This implies, counter to many people’s intuitions, that systems that operate in morphogenetic, transcriptional, and other spaces should also have some (if very minimal) degree of consciousness.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2022, "work": "Technological Approach to Mind Everywhere: An Experimentally-Grounded Framework for Understanding Diverse Bodies and Minds", "chapter": "Levin M 2022, Technological Approach to Mind Everywhere: An Experimentally-Grounded Framework for Understanding Diverse Bodies and Minds › Consciousness", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.027, "truth": 0.15, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.16 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.14 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.93, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAxmEICPIQqlvbhQK5zifQgv-b1mQIyNviyboqAFxs2S8", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2022-tame-32", "key": "e6317b46fd042928", "label": "General anesthetics block gap junctions, dissolving the higher-level Self", "statement": "General anesthetics are gap-junction blockers, and on TAME's account shutting down electrical communication between cells makes the higher-level computational layer (the larger Self) disappear while the cells remain healthy; gap-junction blockers anesthetize organisms ranging from plants and Hydra to humans.", "quote": "Interestingly, general anesthetics are gap junction blockers (Wentlandt et al., 2006): consistent with the cognitive scaling example above, shutting down electrical communication among the cells leads to a disappearance of the higher-level computational layer while the cellular network is disrupted.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2022, "work": "Technological Approach to Mind Everywhere: An Experimentally-Grounded Framework for Understanding Diverse Bodies and Minds", "chapter": "Levin M 2022, Technological Approach to Mind Everywhere: An Experimentally-Grounded Framework for Understanding Diverse Bodies and Minds › Consciousness", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.54, "truth": 0.25, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.22 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.28 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.69, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAYhOqCVlymhcQhkkS6cM5p1wY6zv0w8Cp9z9ICyKq3Wo", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2022-tame-33", "key": "44b72205c977199f", "label": "Briefly gap-junction-blocked planaria make other species' heads, then revert", "statement": "Planaria briefly treated with a gap-junction blocker regenerate heads shaped like those of other planarian species but eventually remodel back to their correct species-specific target morphology, which the author takes as parallel to the temporary loss and return of the Self under anesthesia.", "quote": "Interestingly, and in line with the proposed isomorphism between cognition and morphogenesis, gap junction blockade has exactly this effect in regeneration: planaria briefly treated with GJ blocker regenerate heads of other species, but eventually snap out of it and remodel back to their correct target morphology (Emmons-Bell et al., 2015).", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2022, "work": "Technological Approach to Mind Everywhere: An Experimentally-Grounded Framework for Understanding Diverse Bodies and Minds", "chapter": "Levin M 2022, Technological Approach to Mind Everywhere: An Experimentally-Grounded Framework for Understanding Diverse Bodies and Minds › Consciousness", "kind": "experimental-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.633, "truth": 0.775, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.84 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.71 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.76, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAb7Rds5aYd9fIpSk3q43mUOZuDPLEaLI5hTBNKj1ixVI", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2022-grn-learning-01", "key": "5da69ece26befd2f", "label": "Published ODE models of gene and protein pathways show several kinds of memory", "statement": "In simulations of 35 published ODE models of gene regulatory networks and protein/metabolic pathways from BioModels, the networks show several distinct kinds of memory (UCS-based, pairing, transfer, associative and consolidation memory) in response to patterns of node stimulation.", "quote": "Here, we characterize biological gene regulatory circuit models and protein pathways and find them capable of several different kinds of memory.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2022, "work": "Learning in Transcriptional Network Models: Computational Discovery of Pathway-Level Memory and Effective Interventions", "chapter": "Biswas S 2022, Learning in Transcriptional Network Models: Computational Discovery of Pathway-Level Memory and Effective Interventions › Abstract", "kind": "simulation-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.845, "truth": 0.79, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.82 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.76 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.81, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAQK87EYbkvWlbF-7z7TkW9LbMZKrPbXtRq8ENi46gJyg", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2022-grn-learning-02", "key": "0f853809fa2c5ce2", "label": "Biological pathway models have more memory than structurally matched random networks", "statement": "Compared with 500 random gene-circuit networks matched to the biological models in size, edges, degree, betweenness, PageRank and hubness, the biological ODE pathway models show higher prevalence of most memory types, fewer no-memory cases, and more correlated memory types, indicating that generic network dynamics are not solely responsible for trainability.", "quote": "Random networks do not show similar memory behavior as models of biological processes, indicating that generic network dynamics are not solely responsible for trainability.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2022, "work": "Learning in Transcriptional Network Models: Computational Discovery of Pathway-Level Memory and Effective Interventions", "chapter": "Biswas S 2022, Learning in Transcriptional Network Models: Computational Discovery of Pathway-Level Memory and Effective Interventions › Abstract", "kind": "simulation-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.759, "truth": 0.7, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.72 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.68 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.77, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RABK3fc0PFjq_j-CPdPdtJNU1vFWDuHUkeKNhsWzbh63s", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2022-grn-learning-03", "key": "dac5404779d5f6e6", "label": "Behaviour-shaping of pathways could be an alternative to gene therapy", "statement": "Rational stimulation regimes derived from computational models of pathway memory could control pathway function without genomic editing or network rewiring, so behaviour-shaping of pathway responses stands as a potential biomedical alternative to gene therapy (e.g. to counter drug pharmacoresistance and sensitization).", "quote": "Rational control of dynamic pathway function using stimuli derived from computational models opens the door to empirical studies of proto-cognitive capacities in unconventional embodiments and suggests numerous possible applications in biomedicine, where behavior shaping of pathway responses stand as a potential alternative to gene therapy.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2022, "work": "Learning in Transcriptional Network Models: Computational Discovery of Pathway-Level Memory and Effective Interventions", "chapter": "Biswas S 2022, Learning in Transcriptional Network Models: Computational Discovery of Pathway-Level Memory and Effective Interventions › Abstract", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.408, "truth": 0.46, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.5 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.42 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.72, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAsyAywvAvjTkGQw4nfuNEQi4OOv2eFTk_uHHZcOSNKDE", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2022-grn-learning-04", "key": "c9a916e8168729dd", "label": "Memory is defined functionally as future behaviour modulated by past experience", "statement": "In the basal cognition framework adopted by Biswas, Clawson and Levin, memory is defined in substrate-independent functionalist terms: a system has memory when its future behaviour is specifically modulated by its past experience, which allows the question of whether molecular networks such as gene regulatory networks are trainable.", "quote": "Consistent with the basal cognition paradigm, we define memory in functionalist terms—a system in which future behavior is specifically modulated by past experience.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2022, "work": "Learning in Transcriptional Network Models: Computational Discovery of Pathway-Level Memory and Effective Interventions", "chapter": "Biswas S 2022, Learning in Transcriptional Network Models: Computational Discovery of Pathway-Level Memory and Effective Interventions › 1. Introduction", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.105, "truth": 0.81, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.8 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.82 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.93, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RANt-c1fCJYS_LfInix55LNSz2iVG9NLL-cdf4B4LxKzI", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2022-grn-learning-05", "key": "424cc28a04b2eea3", "label": "Nearly all surveyed pathway models have memory; very small networks may not", "statement": "Memory was found in all but four of the 35 surveyed BioModels pathway models, and three of those four had fewer than four nodes, suggesting that very small networks either cannot have, or are very unlikely to have, memory.", "quote": "Overall, we found memory models in all surveyed biological networks except four models, of which three had a low number of nodes (<4) suggesting that too small networks either cannot, or are very unlikely to, have memory", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2022, "work": "Learning in Transcriptional Network Models: Computational Discovery of Pathway-Level Memory and Effective Interventions", "chapter": "Biswas S 2022, Learning in Transcriptional Network Models: Computational Discovery of Pathway-Level Memory and Effective Interventions › 2. Results › 2.1. Biological Networks May Possess Multiple Types of Memory", "kind": "simulation-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.775, "truth": 0.805, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.88 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.73 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.795, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA_5N4hmuQj-DXbHyPX2kGpLxlsbyBefgnPf3d61EM2lw", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2022-grn-learning-06", "key": "fe849f3944572d40", "label": "No simple network-topology measure predicts memory in pathway models", "statement": "Across the 35 surveyed BioModels pathway models, the amount of memory showed no significant correlation with mean number of nodes, edges, degree or hubness, so no single network property is indicative of memory.", "quote": "Additionally, we tested to see if certain network properties, such as mean number of nodes, edges, degree, and hubness were associated with more or less memory and found there were no significant correlations with any of these measures and any memory (see Discussion).", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2022, "work": "Learning in Transcriptional Network Models: Computational Discovery of Pathway-Level Memory and Effective Interventions", "chapter": "Biswas S 2022, Learning in Transcriptional Network Models: Computational Discovery of Pathway-Level Memory and Effective Interventions › 2. Results › 2.1. Biological Networks May Possess Multiple Types of Memory", "kind": "simulation-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.806, "truth": 0.74, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.86 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.62 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.815, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAJk3oIm2VkzzHTIRZ-E-_AqX5ERBwa6MKvoEjhLw1zr4", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2022-grn-learning-07", "key": "469a45d44bc76e7c", "label": "Feedback loops may be conducive to pathway memory but are not the only route", "statement": "Self-sustaining feedback loops with hysteresis, such as the positive-feedback dual phosphorylation–dephosphorylation cycle of MAPK, may be conducive to memory in biochemical networks, but feedback loop architecture may be only one of many ways to support such memories.", "quote": "Overall, we suggest that feedback loop network architecture may be conducive to memories but may be only one way of many to support them.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2022, "work": "Learning in Transcriptional Network Models: Computational Discovery of Pathway-Level Memory and Effective Interventions", "chapter": "Biswas S 2022, Learning in Transcriptional Network Models: Computational Discovery of Pathway-Level Memory and Effective Interventions › 2. Results › 2.1. Biological Networks May Possess Multiple Types of Memory", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.595, "truth": 0.855, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.92 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.79 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.68, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RANogu35Hu6G9z2XnC8AhDesolyRy6DwFN3A8wv2YpEek", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2022-grn-learning-08", "key": "7bf41935824bfa30", "label": "Pathway memories can form through dynamics alone, without structural change", "statement": "In ODE models of biological pathways, memories (such as associative memory, in which a neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus) can be formed by patterns of stimulation through dynamical interactions alone, without changing the network's structure or parameters.", "quote": "Again, while feedback loop architecture is present, our results indicate that memories can be formed through dynamical interactions alone, without changing network structure/architecture.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2022, "work": "Learning in Transcriptional Network Models: Computational Discovery of Pathway-Level Memory and Effective Interventions", "chapter": "Biswas S 2022, Learning in Transcriptional Network Models: Computational Discovery of Pathway-Level Memory and Effective Interventions › 2. Results › 2.1. Biological Networks May Possess Multiple Types of Memory", "kind": "simulation-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.844, "truth": 0.87, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.9 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.84 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.835, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAge9rz0CEOOQwDnA2zgbODjAra5ExBFov9wibvDg6gWk", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2022-grn-learning-09", "key": "b842574547b4020c", "label": "Pathway-model memories are robust to a wide range of stimulus strengths", "statement": "In the surveyed ODE pathway models, memory formation is robust to training stimuli of 10x, 50x and 100x baseline (most models kept the same number of memories and only 10% lost memories), and some models formed more memories with weaker stimulation.", "quote": "We conclude that the memory properties are robust to a wide range of stimulus strengths, a desirable property for therapeutics, and also for functional linkages with other cell pathways during evolution.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2022, "work": "Learning in Transcriptional Network Models: Computational Discovery of Pathway-Level Memory and Effective Interventions", "chapter": "Biswas S 2022, Learning in Transcriptional Network Models: Computational Discovery of Pathway-Level Memory and Effective Interventions › 2. Results › 2.2. Memory Effects Are Robust to Different Strengths of Stimulus", "kind": "simulation-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.834, "truth": 0.77, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.84 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.7 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.8, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAZ-Y0GFsWVc-oU26aS3Fxf73Cqz7qkxDvvCVGyaPJ-sM", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2022-grn-learning-10", "key": "d41229d83bc29608", "label": "Noise increases memory in pathway models, especially associative memory", "statement": "Adding stochastic noise to simulations of the surveyed ODE pathway models left memories intact in most models (83%) and increased memory overall by about 20%, most notably associative memory, suggesting that biological noise does not inhibit and may help the trainability of such networks.", "quote": "Interestingly, while almost all models retained the memories created (83%), there was an overall 20% increase in memory in the presence of noise (averaged across models and memory phenotypes) most notably in the associative memory paradigm.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2022, "work": "Learning in Transcriptional Network Models: Computational Discovery of Pathway-Level Memory and Effective Interventions", "chapter": "Biswas S 2022, Learning in Transcriptional Network Models: Computational Discovery of Pathway-Level Memory and Effective Interventions › 2. Results › 2.3. Memory Effects Are Robust to Noise", "kind": "simulation-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.779, "truth": 0.705, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.78 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.63 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.75, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAfCWHgQ5zLFtbymoTIwIkVir5wfcFwYCjdxbRCOeUtQQ", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2022-grn-learning-11", "key": "96af7e71fe618e51", "label": "Most pathway-model memories persist over long periods and survive recall", "statement": "In the surveyed ODE pathway models with UCS-based memory, most networks retain the bulk of their memories over waiting periods up to 100 times the initial one, and testing (recalling) a memory generally does not destroy it and in rare cases strengthens it.", "quote": "Overall, we conclude that while some networks have a limit on how long they retain training, the majority of networks can retain the bulk of their possible memories over very long time periods and that in general, memory ‘access’ does not destroy the memory but can, in some rare cases, increase memory.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2022, "work": "Learning in Transcriptional Network Models: Computational Discovery of Pathway-Level Memory and Effective Interventions", "chapter": "Biswas S 2022, Learning in Transcriptional Network Models: Computational Discovery of Pathway-Level Memory and Effective Interventions › 2. Results › 2.4. Memory Effects Are Stable over Long Periods", "kind": "simulation-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.849, "truth": 0.77, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.85 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.69 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.835, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA2wSCP-SAlUYuAyFfrUL40N6ptZlJ6dhkE6PC8BcraJI", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2022-grn-learning-12", "key": "2085cbddbabdbce2", "label": "Serially trained associative memories cause catastrophic forgetting in pathway models", "statement": "When two associative memories are trained one after another in ODE pathway models, all biological and random models show catastrophic forgetting in which both memories are lost, whereas two UCS-based memories can be stored serially or in parallel.", "quote": "When more complex memories were tested, here AM-AM memory pairs, when created serially all biological and random models showed catastrophic forgetting wherein both are lost.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2022, "work": "Learning in Transcriptional Network Models: Computational Discovery of Pathway-Level Memory and Effective Interventions", "chapter": "Biswas S 2022, Learning in Transcriptional Network Models: Computational Discovery of Pathway-Level Memory and Effective Interventions › 2. Results › 2.5. Can Networks Be Trained to Keep More Than One Memory?", "kind": "simulation-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.844, "truth": 0.76, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.81 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.71 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.825, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAQ5u_xvOtqR9twuXZO03WfLLu3GxuUrt6Y2-aZ_N0SN0", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2022-grn-learning-13", "key": "58d01cbe117882fb", "label": "Pathway memory is distributed uniformly across organism classes", "statement": "Memory in the surveyed pathway models shows no privileged association with any class of organism (bacteria, slime mould, yeast, plants, lower vertebrates, mammals), being distributed roughly uniformly, which may suggest that proto-cognitive capacity is found across many strata of life.", "quote": "We found no privileged categorization of memory over classes of organisms—memory seemed distributed uniformly over all strata of life (see Figure S3).", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2022, "work": "Learning in Transcriptional Network Models: Computational Discovery of Pathway-Level Memory and Effective Interventions", "chapter": "Biswas S 2022, Learning in Transcriptional Network Models: Computational Discovery of Pathway-Level Memory and Effective Interventions › 2. Results › 2.5. Can Networks Be Trained to Keep More Than One Memory?", "kind": "simulation-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.651, "truth": 0.62, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.7 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.54 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.75, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAEJVASZtRbW9dSjrJKUFEwvrG9IFO6CkX4cfapZnOF6c", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2022-grn-learning-14", "key": "8b957da05e9edcd0", "label": "Habituation (pharmacoresistance) occurs in every testable pathway model", "statement": "Modelling pharmacoresistance as habituation (a progressive 50% drop in response across repeated, lengthening stimulations), at least one habituating stimulus–response pair was found in each of the 27 testable BioModels pathway models, with 1–50% of node pairs per model habituating.", "quote": "Overall, we were able to test 27 out of the 35 models (77%, see Section 4) and at least one instance of habituation was found for each model, with the distribution of pharmacoresistance across all potential models ranging between 1–50% (see Figure 8 and Figures S11–S13).", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2022, "work": "Learning in Transcriptional Network Models: Computational Discovery of Pathway-Level Memory and Effective Interventions", "chapter": "Biswas S 2022, Learning in Transcriptional Network Models: Computational Discovery of Pathway-Level Memory and Effective Interventions › 2. Results › 2.7. Making and Breaking Pharmacoresistance", "kind": "simulation-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.852, "truth": 0.805, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.87 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.74 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.845, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAmOk71HQ208yYEA65V152gd-yeluwdcW8sdcdPj7YS3k", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2022-grn-learning-15", "key": "48817575d807b7ec", "label": "Pharmacoresistance may be an evolved form of network adaptation", "statement": "Because random ODE networks rarely show habituation in more than 30% of stimulus–response pairs while biological pathway models differ from that distribution, pharmacoresistance (habituation) may be a form of network adaptation more prevalent in networks shaped by evolutionary pressure, not due to network properties alone.", "quote": "This would hint that pharmacoresistance may be a form of network adaptation, which would indeed be more prevalent in a biological network shaped by evolutionary pressure.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2022, "work": "Learning in Transcriptional Network Models: Computational Discovery of Pathway-Level Memory and Effective Interventions", "chapter": "Biswas S 2022, Learning in Transcriptional Network Models: Computational Discovery of Pathway-Level Memory and Effective Interventions › 2. Results › 2.7. Making and Breaking Pharmacoresistance", "kind": "historical-inference", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.485, "truth": 0.47, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.48 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.46 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.685, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAHsF1j2tKQlvRpA2ItKsIDHf28OR8DXXwdWlhxsYEpSI", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2022-grn-learning-16", "key": "123ea68d5358008c", "label": "Stimulating other nodes can break pharmacoresistance in many pathway models", "statement": "In 17 of the 27 habituating BioModels pathway models (about 63%), stimulating a third node (neither the stimulus nor the response) abolished habituation for some stimulus–response pairs, so some biological networks contain discoverable stimulus nodes that may serve to break pharmacoresistance without rewiring the network.", "quote": "Overall, we conclude that in some biological networks, there are discoverable stimulus nodes that may serve towards breaking pharmacoresistance.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2022, "work": "Learning in Transcriptional Network Models: Computational Discovery of Pathway-Level Memory and Effective Interventions", "chapter": "Biswas S 2022, Learning in Transcriptional Network Models: Computational Discovery of Pathway-Level Memory and Effective Interventions › 2. Results › 2.7. Making and Breaking Pharmacoresistance", "kind": "simulation-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.845, "truth": 0.84, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.94 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.74 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.83, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAawR7rZH5UhWWEzHQSm9J6jZYsSKh4ZP4U5lIJ3OX-JY", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2022-grn-learning-17", "key": "a5da08e1cef2da5c", "label": "Sensitization is common in biological pathway models but rare in random networks", "statement": "Sensitization (a progressive 1.5-fold increase in response over repeated stimulations) was found in 27 of the 35 BioModels pathway models, whereas very few random gene-circuit models showed it (under 10% of pairings per model), suggesting the feature may be unique to biology or require more complex random models.", "quote": "Interestingly, very few of the random models had UCS-R relations that generated sensitization (<10% of UCS-R pairings per model), indicating that this feature may be unique to biology, or that more complex random models would be needed to find such behavior (Figure 10 and Figures S17–S19).", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2022, "work": "Learning in Transcriptional Network Models: Computational Discovery of Pathway-Level Memory and Effective Interventions", "chapter": "Biswas S 2022, Learning in Transcriptional Network Models: Computational Discovery of Pathway-Level Memory and Effective Interventions › 2. Results › 2.8. Making and Breaking Sensitization", "kind": "simulation-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.758, "truth": 0.835, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.92 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.75 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.76, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAZceA8cUJqzW-kYtNeVZJrU-DSfDnyxXq1xTVDQCJkTM", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2022-grn-learning-18", "key": "aee3c2973001d8b8", "label": "Sensitization is harder to break than habituation in pathway models", "statement": "In ODE pathway models, sensitization could be broken by stimulating a third node in only 8 of 27 sensitizing models, mostly for fewer than 5% of node pairs, so breaking sensitization is less likely than breaking habituation and therapies may need other avenues of intervention.", "quote": "Overall, we conclude that while sensitization is prevalent in biological models, the breaking of sensitization is less likely than in habituation, and therefore therapeutic models may need to pursue other avenues of intervention.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2022, "work": "Learning in Transcriptional Network Models: Computational Discovery of Pathway-Level Memory and Effective Interventions", "chapter": "Biswas S 2022, Learning in Transcriptional Network Models: Computational Discovery of Pathway-Level Memory and Effective Interventions › 2. Results › 2.8. Making and Breaking Sensitization", "kind": "simulation-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.841, "truth": 0.83, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.93 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.73 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.83, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RATvzcMki5UOjRU4VB0luwNogvvloyx8DGcOZzmU7iPCM", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2022-grn-learning-19", "key": "650ca6dbf8f72cc9", "label": "Standard topology measures are likely insufficient to design or evolve memory", "statement": "Because random networks matched to biological pathway models in number of nodes, edges, indegree, outdegree, betweenness, PageRank and hubness lack comparable memory, those structural features are not likely to be sufficient criteria for designing or evolving networks with memories.", "quote": "Interestingly, since the random networks were designed to match the biological models in number of nodes, number of edges, indegree, outdegree, betweenness, PageRank, and hubness, those features are not likely to be sufficient criteria for designing (or evolving) networks with memories.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2022, "work": "Learning in Transcriptional Network Models: Computational Discovery of Pathway-Level Memory and Effective Interventions", "chapter": "Biswas S 2022, Learning in Transcriptional Network Models: Computational Discovery of Pathway-Level Memory and Effective Interventions › 3. Discussion", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.63, "truth": 0.81, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.84 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.78 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.72, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAYJGIuqyGiK2CWdDUg7CAXGFOhFE6HXPE9zNTMoUergE", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2022-grn-learning-20", "key": "6e110d12fc0dbc37", "label": "Oscillatory pathway networks may gain more memory from noise", "statement": "Biswas, Clawson and Levin hypothesize that biological networks with strong oscillatory components (such as cell-cycle, circadian-clock and developmental-timer models) may benefit more from noise in terms of memory, analogous to harmonic resonance, though some oscillatory models did not show this.", "quote": "From this, we hypothesize that biological networks with strong oscillatory components may benefit more, from a memory perspective, to noise, similar to the case of harmonic resonance [122].", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2022, "work": "Learning in Transcriptional Network Models: Computational Discovery of Pathway-Level Memory and Effective Interventions", "chapter": "Biswas S 2022, Learning in Transcriptional Network Models: Computational Discovery of Pathway-Level Memory and Effective Interventions › 3. Discussion", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.59, "truth": 0.455, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.55 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.36 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.66, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAp4VV638VSfWa_3GSX9eh6edY9QEFW6-SdaE1gsPDxns", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2022-grn-learning-21", "key": "ba3baad854152383", "label": "Pathway memory is more robust to edge perturbation, perhaps from selection", "statement": "The memory capacity of biological ODE pathway models degrades significantly less than that of random networks when edges are randomly deleted and added, perhaps because of evolutionary pressure to handle changing environments.", "quote": "The memory capability of biological models is also much more robust to edge perturbation than those of random networks, as indicated in Figure 7, perhaps due to evolutionary pressure to handle changing environments.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2022, "work": "Learning in Transcriptional Network Models: Computational Discovery of Pathway-Level Memory and Effective Interventions", "chapter": "Biswas S 2022, Learning in Transcriptional Network Models: Computational Discovery of Pathway-Level Memory and Effective Interventions › 3. Discussion", "kind": "historical-inference", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.682, "truth": 0.785, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.86 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.71 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.735, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAVvRGgHIFkT0woOTCe_YdGVKHde8bkacX3dT92Ph8chg", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2022-grn-learning-22", "key": "e3c681347d856f90", "label": "Pulsatile signalling may let cells behaviour-shape each other in vivo", "statement": "Because transcriptional and other signalling mechanisms are pulsatile, cells may apply timed behaviour-shaping stimuli to each other in vivo, exploiting the trainability of their pathways to evolve complex phenotypes, though the role of trainability in evolution and development is unknown.", "quote": "The role of trainability in evolution and development is as yet unknown, but it is interesting that transcriptional [126] and other [127,128] biological signaling mechanisms are now seen as pulsatile, which affords rich opportunity for cells to apply timed “behavior shaping” stimuli to each other in vivo, as a way of exploiting the multiscale competency of biological material to evolve complex phenotypes [129].", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2022, "work": "Learning in Transcriptional Network Models: Computational Discovery of Pathway-Level Memory and Effective Interventions", "chapter": "Biswas S 2022, Learning in Transcriptional Network Models: Computational Discovery of Pathway-Level Memory and Effective Interventions › 3. Discussion", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.287, "truth": 0.485, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.62 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.35 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.73, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAglRNIhQwxNf68ssMSuMBcHaylOwBpHrP_hwmk5JRo4g", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2023-competency-01", "key": "74a885a3d09eb385", "label": "Developmental physiology is the control layer between genotype and phenotype", "statement": "The authors hold that biological genotypes do not code directly for phenotypes; developmental physiology, built from cells with their own context-sensitive behaviours, is the control layer separating genomes from the capacities that selection evaluates.", "quote": "Biological genotypes do not code directly for phenotypes; developmental physiology is the control layer that separates genomes from capacities ascertained by selection.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2023, "work": "Cellular Competency during Development Alters Evolutionary Dynamics in an Artificial Embryogeny Model", "chapter": "Shreesha L 2023, Cellular Competency during Development Alters Evolutionary Dynamics in an Artificial Embryogeny Model › Abstract", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.481, "truth": 0.905, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.94 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.87 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.66, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RACKyRhd3Fq--9LOt3Ai0GloLr5bqEdOQw9GX9VqO-IPw", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2023-competency-02", "key": "283f5045c3dfa9e9", "label": "Planaria combine a messy mixoploid genome with highly reliable anatomy", "statement": "Because planaria reproduce by fission and regeneration and so retain somatic mutations, they have a very messy, mixoploid genome, yet they have highly reliable anatomy, with every fragment regenerating a normal worm.", "quote": "As a result, planaria have an incredibly messy genome (indeed, worms are mixoploid—different numbers of chromosomes in each cell). Despite this, they have the most reliable anatomy: every fragment of a planarian regenerates a perfect worm each time.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2023, "work": "Cellular Competency during Development Alters Evolutionary Dynamics in an Artificial Embryogeny Model", "chapter": "Shreesha L 2023, Cellular Competency during Development Alters Evolutionary Dynamics in an Artificial Embryogeny Model › 1. Introduction", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.594, "truth": 0.715, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.76 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.67 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.69, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAbz_D5sjuqeXpHOd3Ev74jUL603SGL3PANyg7DIsEzQc", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2023-competency-03", "key": "becdcf18812b37c7", "label": "Cellular competencies come by default, unlike organism-level learning", "statement": "Unlike organism-level learning, which requires mechanisms such as nervous systems that must themselves be evolved and paid for, cellular competencies come by default because cells already carry capabilities evolved when their ancestors were independent organisms.", "quote": "In contrast, cellular competencies come “by default” because organisms consist of cellular components that already have many capabilities evolved during their ancestral lifetime as independent organisms.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2023, "work": "Cellular Competency during Development Alters Evolutionary Dynamics in an Artificial Embryogeny Model", "chapter": "Shreesha L 2023, Cellular Competency during Development Alters Evolutionary Dynamics in an Artificial Embryogeny Model › 1. Introduction", "kind": "historical-inference", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.312, "truth": 0.595, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.65 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.54 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.635, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAcH6pQJNcw6zfh79RVhzqlogeBvxHfZ1XkfxQ-_HKcQQ", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2023-competency-04", "key": "f701af90a853ba4f", "label": "Higher cellular competency accelerates evolutionary search in a 1D embryo model", "statement": "In a minimal artificial embryogeny model (1D integer arrays whose fitness is their monotonicity, with competent cells performing a restricted bubble sort before fitness evaluation), populations with higher cellular competency reached high fitness faster and more consistently than hardwired populations, e.g. under 6 generations at competency 400 versus over 200 for hardwired.", "quote": "These data demonstrate the role competency plays in non-linearly improving the rate of fitness of a population and support a clear conclusion: the higher the competency, the better the performance.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2023, "work": "Cellular Competency during Development Alters Evolutionary Dynamics in an Artificial Embryogeny Model", "chapter": "Shreesha L 2023, Cellular Competency during Development Alters Evolutionary Dynamics in an Artificial Embryogeny Model › 3. Results › 3.2. Developmental Competency Accelerates Evolutionary Search", "kind": "simulation-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "supports", "evidence_kind": "computational", "data_test": { "verdict": "supports", "confidence": 0.9, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "computational", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/levin-papers/levin-2023-competency-04/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered: with 100 repeats of 250 generations per condition, (a) the generation at which the mean best phenotypic fitness first reaches 1.0 is strictly ordered hardwired > competency 20 > competency 100 > competency 400, and the same weak ordering (>=) holds at every Table 1 threshold (0.65, 0.75, 0.8, 0.9, 0.97, 1.0); (b) competency 400 reaches 1.0 by generation 10 and hardwired does not reach it before generation 100; (c) at generations 2, 10 and 20 each competent population's best phenotypic fitness exceeds hardwired with Welch t-test p < 0.001.", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered: at the 0.97 or 1.0 threshold some higher competency level is strictly slower than a lower one (including hardwired faster than any competent level), or a competent population is not better than hardwired at generation 10 (p >= 0.05 or lower mean). Outcomes meeting neither the pass nor the fail criterion (ordering holds but the magnitudes in (b) or the significance in (c) are not met) are pre-registered as 'mixed'.", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: competency-ga-reimplementation-runs", "inference_method": "analysis.py re-implements the model in vectorised numpy without importing the authors' code: per generation it records the best genotypic fitness, develops each embryo by restricted bubble sort, selects the top 10 on phenotypic fitness, refills to 100 by single-point crossover and point-mutates each individual with probability 0.6. Hardwired and competency 20, 100 and 400 populations are each run 100 times for 250 generations from fixed seeds. For each Table 1 threshold it reports the first generation at which the mean best phenotypic fitness reaches it, and runs one-sided Welch t-tests of each competent population against hardwired at generations 2, 10 and 20.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.877, "truth": 0.88, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.98 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.78 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.87, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAxyXsZQkzFkAdBMFfL1rVS_yz4PN0JI93omUcHaxZdWo", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2023-competency-05", "key": "35effb7205a9d648", "label": "Cellular competency reduces selective pressure on structural genes", "statement": "In the 1D artificial embryogeny model, the genotypic fitness of competent populations rose briefly and then plateaued below that of hardwired populations, with wider variance at higher competency, showing that competency delivers high phenotypic fitness but reduces selective pressure on the structural genes.", "quote": "Thus, as hypothesized, increasing competency in our simulation enabled excellent performance but reduced selective pressure on the embryo’s structural genes.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2023, "work": "Cellular Competency during Development Alters Evolutionary Dynamics in an Artificial Embryogeny Model", "chapter": "Shreesha L 2023, Cellular Competency during Development Alters Evolutionary Dynamics in an Artificial Embryogeny Model › 3. Results › 3.2. Developmental Competency Accelerates Evolutionary Search", "kind": "simulation-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "supports", "evidence_kind": "computational", "data_test": { "verdict": "supports", "confidence": 0.9, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "computational", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/levin-papers/levin-2023-competency-05/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Competent populations' best genotypic fitness rises for a few generations, then flattens below the hardwired curve, with across-repeat spread increasing with competency level and phenotypic fitness near maximal.", "disconfirming_observation": "Competent genotypic fitness reaching or exceeding hardwired, continuing to climb, or showing less spread at higher competency.", "admissible_datasets": "Runs of the model exactly as specified in the paper and its supplement (50-cell arrays, 100 embryos, top-10% phenotypic selection, crossover, mutation probability 0.6, competency 20/100/400); unspecified details from the authors' public code; fresh random seeds independent of the companion test levin-2023-competency-04.", "inference_method": "Mean curves over 100 repeats; one-sided Welch t-test at generation 250 (alpha 0.001); plateau as window-mean difference < 0.03; spread as mean across-repeat SD over generations 51-250 compared across levels.", "explicit": true }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.86, "truth": 0.87, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.97 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.77 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.86, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAZ740WPPlXvWBiN-w9mhryyFgwQzlwI_BNTz0VR9SWG4", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2023-competency-06", "key": "d0734a090644a2ff", "label": "Competent embryos take over mixed populations given enough competency or numbers", "statement": "In mixed populations of the 1D artificial embryogeny model, competent embryos starting as a minority came to dominate hardwired ones within two or three generations, and the competency needed to dominate fell as their initial share rose (75 at 10%, 40 at 20%, 10 at 30%), while at 2.5% they did not dominate even at competency 95.", "quote": "As their initial proportion in the population increased, competent embryos required progressively less competency to dominate over their hardwired competitors.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2023, "work": "Cellular Competency during Development Alters Evolutionary Dynamics in an Artificial Embryogeny Model", "chapter": "Shreesha L 2023, Cellular Competency during Development Alters Evolutionary Dynamics in an Artificial Embryogeny Model › 3. Results › 3.3. Competent Individuals Take over Mixed Populations", "kind": "simulation-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "refutes", "evidence_kind": "computational", "data_test": { "verdict": "refutes", "confidence": 0.7, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "computational", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/levin-papers/levin-2023-competency-06/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "A dominance threshold in competency that decreases with initial competent share near 75/40/10 at 10/20/30%, no dominance at 2.5% up to competency 95, and rapid (<= 3 generation) takeover where dominance occurs.", "disconfirming_observation": "Thresholds that do not fall with share or sit far (> 40 swaps) from the reported values, or clear dominance at 2.5%.", "admissible_datasets": "Runs of the mixed-population model as described in the paper (200 embryos, competent minority, top-10% selection on phenotypic fitness for competent and genotypic for hardwired embryos, crossover, mutation probability 0.6), with heritable type labels; unspecified details from the authors' public code.", "inference_method": "Mean competent share over 50 repeats per condition at generation 20 compared with 0.5 to define dominance; threshold c* read off a 5-swap competency grid and compared with the claimed values with a +/-20 tolerance; takeover time from the mean share curve.", "explicit": true }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": { "verdict": "not-representative", "assessors": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "verdict": "not-representative", "confidence": 0.97, "file": "test-data/claim-tests/levin-papers/levin-2023-competency-06/faithfulness.json" }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "verdict": "faithful-with-narrower-scope", "confidence": 0.64, "file": "test-data/claim-tests/levin-papers/levin-2023-competency-06/faithfulness.grok.json" } ], "status": "contested" } }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.847, "truth": 0.845, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.96 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.73 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.825, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAjOghyzLTojIgBOzq_so3ATMJqAfdjEoqSQFQ1mJ-MX8", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2023-competency-07", "key": "f2b439be62da20aa", "label": "Evolvable competency rises rapidly and plateaus at a high level", "statement": "In the 1D artificial embryogeny model, when competency is set by an evolvable gene (range 1–500, initialized at 1–15), the best individual's competency rose rapidly and plateaued around 470, higher than the roughly 364 needed for maximum fitness, a level the authors attribute to random drift among equally fit values.", "quote": "The prevalence of the competency allele rapidly rose, meandering and exploring values up to 485 during evolution (shaded area in Figure 5A) before plateauing at ~470.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2023, "work": "Cellular Competency during Development Alters Evolutionary Dynamics in an Artificial Embryogeny Model", "chapter": "Shreesha L 2023, Cellular Competency during Development Alters Evolutionary Dynamics in an Artificial Embryogeny Model › 3. Results › 3.4. Evolution Results in a High, Constant Level of Competency", "kind": "simulation-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "supports", "evidence_kind": "computational", "data_test": { "verdict": "supports", "confidence": 0.85, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "computational", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/levin-papers/levin-2023-competency-07/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Best-individual competency climbing from <= 15 to a stable plateau near 470 within the first tens of generations, above the inversion count of its genome.", "disconfirming_observation": "A plateau well below 470 (< 400), at or below the needed competency, or no rise.", "admissible_datasets": "Runs of the evolvable-competency model as described in the paper (competency gene range [1, 500], initial [1, 15], 1000 generations, top-10% phenotypic selection, crossover, mutation probability 0.6), with unspecified details from the authors' public code.", "inference_method": "Mean over 30 repeats of the per-generation best-individual competency; plateau as the generation 801-1000 mean compared with the [440, 500] band and with the mean inversion count; rise time as first generation >= 300.", "explicit": true }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.812, "truth": 0.84, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.94 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.74 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.795, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAV3HrPSca4iuRTgbEIUH-Hot7z1gIntaZFqNArBsSk3s", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2023-competency-08", "key": "0b8bc90a5fb5f656", "label": "Evolvable competency decouples genotypic from phenotypic fitness", "statement": "In the 1D artificial embryogeny model with evolvable competency, the correlation between genotypic and phenotypic fitness fell to zero within about 20 generations, so allowing competency to evolve disrupts selection's ability to pick the best structural genes.", "quote": "Correlation dropped to 0 within about 20 generations as individuals who succeeded because of their developmental competencies rapidly dominated the population. We conclude that allowing competency to evolve disrupts the ability to select for the best structural genes.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2023, "work": "Cellular Competency during Development Alters Evolutionary Dynamics in an Artificial Embryogeny Model", "chapter": "Shreesha L 2023, Cellular Competency during Development Alters Evolutionary Dynamics in an Artificial Embryogeny Model › 3. Results › 3.4. Evolution Results in a High, Constant Level of Competency", "kind": "simulation-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "refutes", "evidence_kind": "computational", "data_test": { "verdict": "refutes", "confidence": 0.7, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "computational", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/levin-papers/levin-2023-competency-08/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Across-individual genotype-phenotype fitness correlation near 1 at the start, ~0 from about generation 20 onward.", "disconfirming_observation": "A substantial positive correlation (>= 0.3) persisting after generation 20.", "admissible_datasets": "Runs of the evolvable-competency model as described in the paper, with unspecified details from the authors' public code; seeds independent of the levin-2023-competency-07 test.", "inference_method": "Per-generation across-individual Pearson r averaged over 30 repeats, window means over generations 21-40 and 41-1000 compared with thresholds 0.1 (pass) and 0.3 (fail).", "explicit": true }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": { "verdict": "not-representative", "assessors": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "verdict": "not-representative", "confidence": 0.99, "file": "test-data/claim-tests/levin-papers/levin-2023-competency-08/faithfulness.json" }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "verdict": "faithful", "confidence": 0.7, "file": "test-data/claim-tests/levin-papers/levin-2023-competency-08/faithfulness.grok.json" } ], "status": "contested" } }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.846, "truth": 0.855, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.95 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.76 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.85, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAbMU2wEwnNV2QSAlGZqfo_5kGpEb1i2pF_gr60Q3RAXQ", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2023-competency-09", "key": "32508ee524a826a3", "label": "A cost on competency restores a Baldwin effect and genetic assimilation", "statement": "In the 1D artificial embryogeny model, penalizing fitness in proportion to competency (penalty factors 1×10⁻⁷ to 0.5) produced a Baldwin effect: structural-gene fitness kept improving, selection favoured progressively lower competency, and early competency-based gains were assimilated into the structural genes; the authors note real competency costs are unmeasured.", "quote": "Thus early gains based on the competency gene are later assimilated into the structural genes, paralleling what has been described previously in the context of organism-level learning [59].", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2023, "work": "Cellular Competency during Development Alters Evolutionary Dynamics in an Artificial Embryogeny Model", "chapter": "Shreesha L 2023, Cellular Competency during Development Alters Evolutionary Dynamics in an Artificial Embryogeny Model › 3. Results › 3.5. A Fitness Penalty for Competency Leads to Continued Improvement of an Embryo’s Structural Genes", "kind": "simulation-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.765, "truth": 0.855, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.96 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.75 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.75, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAns4MYYh_FM4h-ZGEwRLhFHEu0n6_BL5GPrx0QmeUC_4", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2023-competency-10", "key": "4c87d4d3215d857a", "label": "Planaria are an example of runaway cellular competency", "statement": "The authors propose that planaria exemplify runaway competency: their cells became so good at compensating for structural-gene deficiencies that selection could no longer pick the best genomes, so evolution instead increased generic competency to reach the target morphology, explaining a chaotic genome with robust anatomy.", "quote": "We propose that planaria are an example of runaway competency: when cells get really good at making up for deficiencies in the structural genes, evolution has such a hard time selecting for the best genomes that further improvements instead increase generic competency to reach their target morphology despite perturbations.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2023, "work": "Cellular Competency during Development Alters Evolutionary Dynamics in an Artificial Embryogeny Model", "chapter": "Shreesha L 2023, Cellular Competency during Development Alters Evolutionary Dynamics in an Artificial Embryogeny Model › 4. Discussion › 4.4. The Paradox of Robustness: Why the Animal with the Worst Genome Has the Best Anatomy", "kind": "historical-inference", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.394, "truth": 0.31, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.3 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.32 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.635, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA0grcoaGfORr9Z_QZYFEsbM-E3DdaNUmBslugyOsetQQ", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2023-competency-11", "key": "42fb8718be42ea39", "label": "Planaria lack morphological mutant lines; the only abnormal line is bioelectric", "statement": "Unlike other model species, planaria have no reported morphologically abnormal genetic strains; the only abnormal line is a permanently two-headed form produced by manipulating bioelectric signalling rather than genes, which the authors say is predicted by their model for species like planaria.", "quote": "In planaria this does not exist—no morphologically abnormal genetic strains have been reported. In fact, the only available abnormal line of planaria is a permanently two-headed form [96,97,98], which was produced not genetically but by manipulating bioelectrical signaling—the modality that is used to coordinate cellular competency [99,100,101], as is predicted by our model for species like planaria.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2023, "work": "Cellular Competency during Development Alters Evolutionary Dynamics in an Artificial Embryogeny Model", "chapter": "Shreesha L 2023, Cellular Competency during Development Alters Evolutionary Dynamics in an Artificial Embryogeny Model › 4. Discussion › 4.4. The Paradox of Robustness: Why the Animal with the Worst Genome Has the Best Anatomy", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.544, "truth": 0.51, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.45 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.57 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.68, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RArkUvKdpQTgda4AKeQemzBb1mVbRE5uuwLd8N6SpoL_U", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2023-competency-12", "key": "2f199d5f702edec6", "label": "Evolution changes the competency gene more often than any structural gene", "statement": "In the 1D artificial embryogeny model with evolvable competency, positional changes to cells over 1000 generations resulted from changes to the competency gene significantly more often than from changes to any of the fifty structural genes.", "quote": "We found that the competency gene is changed significantly more often over the course of evolution than any structural gene (Figure 6).", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2023, "work": "Cellular Competency during Development Alters Evolutionary Dynamics in an Artificial Embryogeny Model", "chapter": "Shreesha L 2023, Cellular Competency during Development Alters Evolutionary Dynamics in an Artificial Embryogeny Model › 4. Discussion › 4.6. Where the Hard Work Is Done: An Intelligence Ratchet", "kind": "simulation-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.809, "truth": 0.84, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.94 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.74 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.77, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA5z-XO6llpftz8M2MHjQ2IjnxoINvBKBtQkOqrIKHhzk", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2023-competency-13", "key": "96952c028d99eb3b", "label": "An intelligence ratchet locks evolution into improving cellular competency", "statement": "The authors suggest that because competency hides genetic deficiencies from selection, a positive-feedback ratchet arises in which evolution increasingly improves the problem-solving competency (intelligence) of its cellular material rather than the structural genome, a possible driver for scaling intelligence in morphological and other spaces.", "quote": "This suggests the existence of a powerful ratchet mechanism in which evolution progressively becomes locked into improvements in the intelligence of the agential material with which it works, with reduced pressure on the structural genes.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2023, "work": "Cellular Competency during Development Alters Evolutionary Dynamics in an Artificial Embryogeny Model", "chapter": "Shreesha L 2023, Cellular Competency during Development Alters Evolutionary Dynamics in an Artificial Embryogeny Model › 4. Discussion › 4.6. Where the Hard Work Is Done: An Intelligence Ratchet", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.445, "truth": 0.34, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.39 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.29 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.66, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA1TGhhDNL5LkdpB_XSX9feBMHvut_3l3fs0nOAAFQ1Rg", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2023-competency-14", "key": "6b3e4a31c3de4d04", "label": "Problem-solving competency drove evolution long before brains", "statement": "The authors suggest that intelligence, understood as problem-solving competency, was an evolutionary driver long before complex brains and muscle-driven behaviour arose, so basal cognition is an important part of evolutionary developmental biology.", "quote": "and that intelligence (problem-solving competency) was an evolutionary driver long before complex brains and muscle-driven behavior arose [52,53,56,136,137,138,139,140,141,142,143].", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2023, "work": "Cellular Competency during Development Alters Evolutionary Dynamics in an Artificial Embryogeny Model", "chapter": "Shreesha L 2023, Cellular Competency during Development Alters Evolutionary Dynamics in an Artificial Embryogeny Model › 5. Conclusions", "kind": "historical-inference", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.251, "truth": 0.58, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.73 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.43 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.65, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAX8MD8dRm9evCvR-kfKDePqmA9rjOMRjn1j8BE5KtdoQ", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2023-goals-01", "key": "1bd87be11d5645a5", "label": "Evolution scales cell-level metabolic homeostasis into a tissue-level French flag axis", "statement": "In a 2D neural cellular automaton in which each cell only pursues metabolic (energy) homeostasis and is rewarded according to how well its stripe matches the pattern, evolution (ES-HyperNEAT) produced cell collectives with tissue-level setpoints that solve the French flag problem, i.e. organize a body-wide three-valued positional information axis.", "quote": "Our system showed the evolution of the much more complex setpoints of cell collectives (tissues) that solve a problem in morphospace: the organization of a body-wide positional information axis (the classic French flag problem in developmental biology).", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2023, "work": "The scaling of goals from cellular to anatomical homeostasis: an evolutionary simulation, experiment and analysis", "chapter": "Pio-Lopez L 2023, The scaling of goals from cellular to anatomical homeostasis: an evolutionary simulation, experiment and analysis › Abstract", "kind": "simulation-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.786, "truth": 0.875, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.96 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.79 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.79, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAxzrWUobOLcO42oySt9gV4UYZ8XjrgdOdLqqVSN-Ykbs", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2023-goals-02", "key": "7a9eb3265ec24e91", "label": "Robust patterning works best from a homogeneous starting state", "statement": "In the evolved neural cellular automaton, French flag patterning works less well from random initial cell states, suggesting that robust development is optimized when cells start from a homogeneous undifferentiated baseline, as real embryos do.", "quote": "It seems to work less well with random initializations, suggesting that robust development is optimized when cells start with a muted, homogeneous ‘baseline’ state, not highly diverse starting states, which is indeed what is observed in real development", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2023, "work": "The scaling of goals from cellular to anatomical homeostasis: an evolutionary simulation, experiment and analysis", "chapter": "Pio-Lopez L 2023, The scaling of goals from cellular to anatomical homeostasis: an evolutionary simulation, experiment and analysis › Computational results › The tissue minimizes error for reaching the target morphology", "kind": "simulation-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.673, "truth": 0.59, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.7 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.48 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.73, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RASxHXq3IXzqNdS5OlWxK2LgOEJLHUXxcowl-U4OXImVc", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2023-goals-03", "key": "334a1ada394a878f", "label": "Evolved tissues repair perturbed patterns although repair was never selected for", "statement": "In the evolved neural cellular automaton, tissues selected only to self-organize the French flag within 100 steps could restore the target pattern after perturbations applied later (e.g. converting two columns of the red stripe to white at step 110), although they failed after very large perturbations such as converting the whole red stripe.", "quote": "Thus, we conclude that even though we did not specifically reward for anything other than the single self-organizing property, the cells were able to repair to the target setpoint from multiple starting configurations.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2023, "work": "The scaling of goals from cellular to anatomical homeostasis: an evolutionary simulation, experiment and analysis", "chapter": "Pio-Lopez L 2023, The scaling of goals from cellular to anatomical homeostasis: an evolutionary simulation, experiment and analysis › Computational results › The tissue is robust to perturbation", "kind": "simulation-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.786, "truth": 0.875, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.94 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.81 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.79, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAdU_IvhqwpmTDXHCWbhLMg__8IWXJPwwQ7f98tecVafw", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2023-goals-04", "key": "27adaa0ca37601f1", "label": "Stress spikes precede spontaneous late remodelling in the simulated tissue", "statement": "In the evolved neural cellular automaton, the tissue spontaneously remodels long after its pattern has stabilized, without external perturbation, and a sharp spike in stress immediately precedes each onset of morphogenetic activity, suggesting that stress drives the morphogenetic changes.", "quote": "In our simulations, a dramatic spike in stress immediately precedes the sharp onset of extensive morphogenetic activity (see electronic supplementary material, figure S1a), suggesting that stress drives the morphogenetic changes in the tissue.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2023, "work": "The scaling of goals from cellular to anatomical homeostasis: an evolutionary simulation, experiment and analysis", "chapter": "Pio-Lopez L 2023, The scaling of goals from cellular to anatomical homeostasis: an evolutionary simulation, experiment and analysis › Computational results › The tissue maintains allostasis in adulthood", "kind": "simulation-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.713, "truth": 0.75, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.86 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.64 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.73, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RACyY0tCY4nxytr9v9wONCSWS7kcoZrwsjntn6nBjOgtM", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2023-goals-05", "key": "303ec39dd449a700", "label": "Long-term tissue stability emerges without selection for it", "statement": "In the evolved neural cellular automaton, tissues evolved only over 100-step development maintained their pattern for 1000 steps (allostasis), showing that in this model long-term stable survival need not be selected for because intrinsic dynamics and emergent regenerative capacity maintain order in an adult phase.", "quote": "Thus, we conclude that long-term stable survival does not need to be specifically selected for, as intrinsic dynamics and emergent anatomical regenerative capacity are enough to maintain order through an adult phase.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2023, "work": "The scaling of goals from cellular to anatomical homeostasis: an evolutionary simulation, experiment and analysis", "chapter": "Pio-Lopez L 2023, The scaling of goals from cellular to anatomical homeostasis: an evolutionary simulation, experiment and analysis › Computational results › The tissue maintains allostasis in adulthood", "kind": "simulation-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.772, "truth": 0.83, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.9 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.76 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.78, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAQpYhHAq-o_U-j0kZnPMS-qSXDzJP1kvOQyP4yHhjdKs", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2023-goals-06", "key": "ef37d94624e0aaf2", "label": "Blocking stress signalling prevents anatomical homeostasis in a stress-using tissue", "statement": "In an evolved neural cellular automaton tissue that uses stress as an instructive signal, forcing stress to zero throughout life (a simulated anxiolytic) lowered pattern accuracy (82.8% vs 95.1% at step 90) and killed the red-stripe cells, so anatomical homeostasis was neither reached nor maintained.", "quote": "These experiments reveal that, in the absence of stress, anatomical homeostasis is not reached nor maintained during the lifetime of the cells.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2023, "work": "The scaling of goals from cellular to anatomical homeostasis: an evolutionary simulation, experiment and analysis", "chapter": "Pio-Lopez L 2023, The scaling of goals from cellular to anatomical homeostasis: an evolutionary simulation, experiment and analysis › Computational results › Evolution exploits stress as an instructive signal to reach the target morphology", "kind": "simulation-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.767, "truth": 0.845, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.97 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.72 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.77, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAcup-fnkWFKosqbFkkl8iQqnQhXzuJ3GJ1qRin7Getas", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2023-goals-07", "key": "19c9d62282975891", "label": "Evolved stress signalling is instructive only at specific concentrations", "statement": "In the evolved neural cellular automaton, imposing very high stress on an already patterned tissue had no immediate effect on cell states but later altered them, indicating that evolution used stress as a communication code in which stress affects cell behaviour only at specific concentrations.", "quote": "We conclude that evolution used stress as a communication system using a particular encoding, in which stress level is instructive and has effects on cell behaviour only at specific concentrations.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2023, "work": "The scaling of goals from cellular to anatomical homeostasis: an evolutionary simulation, experiment and analysis", "chapter": "Pio-Lopez L 2023, The scaling of goals from cellular to anatomical homeostasis: an evolutionary simulation, experiment and analysis › Computational results › Stress is instructive but only at particular levels", "kind": "simulation-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.711, "truth": 0.68, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.83 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.53 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.725, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAyNeQYjc5Uv8YE5FF-2vav2Q2YFnSsPYneTRTbf5Bjrg", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2023-goals-08", "key": "8f40f0e49332aa37", "label": "Stress propagation is not required for patterning but improves adaptation to change", "statement": "Across 10 evolved neural cellular automaton tissues, stress signalling was not required to solve the French flag problem (only 1 of 10 died without it), but the tissue that used stress instructively scored significantly better when the target morphology was changed mid-development (p = 0.0312), suggesting that spatial propagation of stress information increases adaptive fitness under perturbation.", "quote": "For this problem, anatomical homeostasis without stress is possible but exploiting spatial propagation of stress information seems to increase adaptive fitness by improving performance in scenarios where the normal process of morphogenesis is impacted by external perturbations.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2023, "work": "The scaling of goals from cellular to anatomical homeostasis: an evolutionary simulation, experiment and analysis", "chapter": "Pio-Lopez L 2023, The scaling of goals from cellular to anatomical homeostasis: an evolutionary simulation, experiment and analysis › Computational results › Evolution exploits the stress system but anxiolytics do not always have an impact on anatomical homeostasis", "kind": "simulation-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.725, "truth": 0.775, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.88 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.67 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.725, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RArFTmk3tcYBJ3xy8nO7Q_wFXhZ21xQ_mDqr0KCZEbfFk", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2023-goals-09", "key": "420ec2edfbc55266", "label": "Evolved stress signalling acts paracrine rather than autocrine", "statement": "In the evolved neural cellular automaton, transfer entropy from a cell's stress to its neighbours' states is much larger than to its own state, suggesting that the key signalling mode of stress is paracrine, not autocrine.", "quote": "We also compared the transfer entropy from stress of one cell to its own state and found it to be much less important than the transfer entropy from the stress of one cell to the states of its neighbours (figure 8c). This suggests the key signalling mode for the stress is paracrine, not autocrine.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2023, "work": "The scaling of goals from cellular to anatomical homeostasis: an evolutionary simulation, experiment and analysis", "chapter": "Pio-Lopez L 2023, The scaling of goals from cellular to anatomical homeostasis: an evolutionary simulation, experiment and analysis › Computational results › Information-theoretic analysis of the dynamics of the anatomical homeostasis", "kind": "simulation-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.757, "truth": 0.78, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.87 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.69 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.76, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAN1YCGgg6U7zNGGGMlCOsxCTupv_asNuGkQjHheMoBLY", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2023-goals-10", "key": "ad633f6b438feaab", "label": "Simulated embryonic regions take turns acting as the organizer", "statement": "In the evolved neural cellular automaton, transfer entropy between stripes first flows mainly from the red to the white stripe and then reverses, suggesting that the 'organizer' region (a group of cells that instructively patterns others) changes over time and embryonic regions take turns driving large-scale patterning.", "quote": "The ‘organizer’ region (here defined as a region or group of cells in a tissue that can induce and instructively pattern other cells) seemed to change over time, suggesting embryonic regions take turns driving the large-scale process.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2023, "work": "The scaling of goals from cellular to anatomical homeostasis: an evolutionary simulation, experiment and analysis", "chapter": "Pio-Lopez L 2023, The scaling of goals from cellular to anatomical homeostasis: an evolutionary simulation, experiment and analysis › Computational results › Information-theoretic analysis of the dynamics of the anatomical homeostasis", "kind": "simulation-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.736, "truth": 0.69, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.82 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.56 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.81, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAdXqcc-6DUpK1FyE7jeIv1q28zuty69CtweriQDspWNA", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2023-goals-11", "key": "b242229fa205fc4c", "label": "Information flows first from the anatomical loop to single-cell energy", "statement": "In the evolved neural cellular automaton, transfer entropy from energy to cell state peaks before the reverse flow, indicating that information is first driven by the tissue-level anatomical homeostatic loop, which then controls the energy cells need to survive; the authors take this to suggest top-down information is key to manipulating tissue dynamics.", "quote": "Thus, in our scheme, the information was first driven by the anatomical loop, and the energy needed for single-cell survival was controlled by this loop.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2023, "work": "The scaling of goals from cellular to anatomical homeostasis: an evolutionary simulation, experiment and analysis", "chapter": "Pio-Lopez L 2023, The scaling of goals from cellular to anatomical homeostasis: an evolutionary simulation, experiment and analysis › Computational results › Information-theoretic analysis of the dynamics of the anatomical homeostasis", "kind": "simulation-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.689, "truth": 0.61, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.72 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.5 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.78, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA_wR2WOy5hilUMM9iwuzsi3YDtu7X43HfYuihkR6V5W0", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2023-goals-12", "key": "e070e41af40fd362", "label": "Stress rises when cellular memory fails to predict the future", "statement": "In the evolved neural cellular automaton, stress increases concurrently with a fall in local active information storage of cell states, so evolution used the stress system as a communication channel activated when memory of past events does not predict the future, matching the definition of stressors as unpredictable or uncontrollable stimuli.", "quote": "In our scheme, evolution used the stress system as a communication system that was activated when memory of past events was not effective for predicting the future.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2023, "work": "The scaling of goals from cellular to anatomical homeostasis: an evolutionary simulation, experiment and analysis", "chapter": "Pio-Lopez L 2023, The scaling of goals from cellular to anatomical homeostasis: an evolutionary simulation, experiment and analysis › Computational results › Information-theoretic analysis of the dynamics of the anatomical homeostasis", "kind": "simulation-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.663, "truth": 0.68, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.78 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.58 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.755, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAWvx9-KxwkvJznPctGqV67B7WbQeUmQ5ie_mGXkHb-xg", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2023-goals-13", "key": "901c1fa16bdea53a", "label": "Model predicts sudden late remodelling of apparently stable biological patterns", "statement": "Because the neural cellular automaton suddenly remodelled cell fates after a long period of quiescent, stable pattern, the authors predict that something similar may occur in biological systems: some phenotypes that appear complete may need to be followed much longer to see their true dynamics.", "quote": "The sudden remodelling of cell fates after a long period of apparently quiescent, stable pattern in our model (figure 4) predicts that something similar may occur in biological systems.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2023, "work": "The scaling of goals from cellular to anatomical homeostasis: an evolutionary simulation, experiment and analysis", "chapter": "Pio-Lopez L 2023, The scaling of goals from cellular to anatomical homeostasis: an evolutionary simulation, experiment and analysis › Experimental results on repatterning of planaria", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.387, "truth": 0.6, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.58 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.62 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.69, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAqUDl4t5GOp2Xg-1Qg1cRwobrSMUC6MOrFf7_wRip27o", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2023-goals-14", "key": "85d02a2ea900e990", "label": "22% of headless ERK-inhibited planaria spontaneously repattern weeks later", "statement": "In Dugesia japonica made headless by transient U0126 (ERK/MAP kinase inhibitor) treatment after amputation, 22% of 181 animals followed until death showed sudden repatterning after four or more weeks without any intervention, mostly between 4 and 10 weeks, and 61% of those regained a normal single-headed morphology.", "quote": "In headless animals observed from when they were cut until their death (n = 181), 22% showed some form of sudden repatterning even though regeneration had completed and morphogenesis had ceased weeks prior (figure 10b).", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2023, "work": "The scaling of goals from cellular to anatomical homeostasis: an evolutionary simulation, experiment and analysis", "chapter": "Pio-Lopez L 2023, The scaling of goals from cellular to anatomical homeostasis: an evolutionary simulation, experiment and analysis › Experimental results on repatterning of planaria", "kind": "experimental-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.601, "truth": 0.8, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.9 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.7 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.745, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA1VWVpIKnsuZDPRtA1UJUMQ8-HUhTvZHro4cIk304fqI", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2023-goals-15", "key": "05b553d72b34d8bb", "label": "Planarian tissues have processes operating far slower than known regeneration", "statement": "The spontaneous restoration of normal morphology in headless planaria many weeks after regeneration has completed suggests that planarian tissues contain processes operating on a time scale much longer than previously known.", "quote": "This spontaneous repatterning that allows the re-establishment of a normal morphology many weeks after regeneration is completed suggests the existence of tissue processes that operate on a time scale much longer than previously known.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2023, "work": "The scaling of goals from cellular to anatomical homeostasis: an evolutionary simulation, experiment and analysis", "chapter": "Pio-Lopez L 2023, The scaling of goals from cellular to anatomical homeostasis: an evolutionary simulation, experiment and analysis › Experimental results on repatterning of planaria", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.466, "truth": 0.67, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.89 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.45 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.69, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAzWPInRFcg-IzQlPy9EtpfQYnQAExLgxXwcNM3gia2Z0", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2023-goals-16", "key": "4dbcf1ccc18e5a2f", "label": "Evolved tissues show delayed gratification as an unselected free lunch", "statement": "In the evolved neural cellular automaton, the tissue temporarily moves away from its target pattern to remove misplaced cells and then returns (delayed gratification in the TAME framework), and since neither this nor long-term maintenance was selected for, such capabilities of multi-scale homeostatic systems can emerge as a 'free lunch' without direct selection.", "quote": "Interestingly, neither of these things were directly selected for during the evolutionary cycle, revealing how some capabilities of multi-scale homeostatic systems can emerge as a kind of ‘free lunch’, without direct selection pressure [2,88].", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2023, "work": "The scaling of goals from cellular to anatomical homeostasis: an evolutionary simulation, experiment and analysis", "chapter": "Pio-Lopez L 2023, The scaling of goals from cellular to anatomical homeostasis: an evolutionary simulation, experiment and analysis › Discussion", "kind": "simulation-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.657, "truth": 0.71, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.81 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.61 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.75, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAUF2RX5w4aMksTq8ppp__wOFfCatG0s91p-gmma5sFhA", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2023-goals-17", "key": "0599232e48aa6b8a", "label": "Regeneration can start without injury, so a missing-tissue response may be unnecessary", "statement": "Because headless planaria mounted a regenerative response with no triggering injury, the authors argue this is consistent with the idea that a missing-tissue response may not be necessary for regeneration and that subtle internal dynamics may suffice to initiate change long after a process seems to have stabilized.", "quote": "The newly demonstrated ability to mount a regenerative response without any triggering injury is consistent with the idea that a MTR may not be necessary for regeneration to occur [90] and that subtle internal dynamics may be sufficient to initiate change long after the process appears to have reached a stable point.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2023, "work": "The scaling of goals from cellular to anatomical homeostasis: an evolutionary simulation, experiment and analysis", "chapter": "Pio-Lopez L 2023, The scaling of goals from cellular to anatomical homeostasis: an evolutionary simulation, experiment and analysis › Discussion", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.443, "truth": 0.575, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.81 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.34 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.68, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAm_dOGyPm8-vAkAXudYuRvnvWMc5wS0QxnmEtSi1irDI", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2023-goals-18", "key": "0868f3603794db70", "label": "Stress-driven spatial patterning may be conserved across bacteria, metazoa and models", "statement": "Noting that oscillatory nitrogen stress responses pattern bacterial biofilms and that stress responses define stripe regions in their simulated tissue, the authors suggest that conserved stress-based dynamics could underlie the scaling of spatial patterning from single-cell metabolic goals in bacteria, metazoans and minimal in silico models, similar to the clock-and-wavefront model of somitogenesis.", "quote": "Thus, conserved dynamics could be relevant across bacterial, metazoan and in silico minimal models of the scaling of spatial patterning from single-cell metabolic and stress dynamics.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2023, "work": "The scaling of goals from cellular to anatomical homeostasis: an evolutionary simulation, experiment and analysis", "chapter": "Pio-Lopez L 2023, The scaling of goals from cellular to anatomical homeostasis: an evolutionary simulation, experiment and analysis › Discussion", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.447, "truth": 0.37, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.48 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.26 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.63, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAhWF566qtJEFBEDLBvR8Dh0Yv1BbBNDOPsemhHr4l2aQ", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2023-goals-19", "key": "34e8786b785e2e0f", "label": "Somatic cells kept their cognitive repertoire and scaled it to anatomical goals", "statement": "The authors argue that somatic cells did not lose their ancestral cognitive and computational capabilities when they became part of multicellular bodies, but scaled them up to pursue larger anatomical goals.", "quote": "But somatic cells did not lose their cognitive repertoire and computational capabilities during their transitions to multicellularity or in becoming part of metazoan swarms (bodies): they scaled them to pursue larger anatomical goals [4].", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2023, "work": "The scaling of goals from cellular to anatomical homeostasis: an evolutionary simulation, experiment and analysis", "chapter": "Pio-Lopez L 2023, The scaling of goals from cellular to anatomical homeostasis: an evolutionary simulation, experiment and analysis › Discussion", "kind": "historical-inference", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.231, "truth": 0.505, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.58 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.43 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.745, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAgpkwdOM6ojXB-bXi4OsOo1SIVTj6zefP23z_wNJkdgo", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2023-goals-20", "key": "cde2f97e1128b63a", "label": "Evolution pivoted cellular collective intelligence into behavioural intelligence", "statement": "The authors propose that evolution turned the collective intelligence of cells during body morphogenesis into traditional behavioural intelligence by scaling up the goals (homeostatic setpoints) at the centre of homeostatic processes, so that body patterning and cognition lie on one continuum.", "quote": "We propose that evolution pivoted the collective intelligence of cells during morphogenesis of the body into traditional behavioural intelligence by scaling up the goals at the centre of homeostatic processes.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2023, "work": "The scaling of goals from cellular to anatomical homeostasis: an evolutionary simulation, experiment and analysis", "chapter": "Pio-Lopez L 2023, The scaling of goals from cellular to anatomical homeostasis: an evolutionary simulation, experiment and analysis › Discussion", "kind": "historical-inference", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.222, "truth": 0.41, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.43 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.39 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.75, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAAk9-VW8i29tyXtouRKVV9wCZ6oDWszl0Z1-MeuXBlaY", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2023-agential-01", "key": "88c483e497f5bb5b", "label": "Irreversibility of morphogenesis, not Weismann's barrier, is what limits Lamarckism", "statement": "Because morphogenesis is a recursive, highly emergent process, the inverse problem of determining which genomic changes would produce a desired large-scale anatomical feature is in general unsolvable, and this irreversibility, rather than any inability to edit the germline in light of somatic experience, is what limits full-scale Lamarckian inheritance.", "quote": "This irreversibility of the recursive, highly emergent process of morphogenesis is what limits full-scale Lamarckism: the difficulty is not how to penetrate Weismann’s barrier and edit the genome in light of somatic experience—mechanisms exist for this [21–23].", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2023, "work": "Darwin's agential materials: evolutionary implications of multiscale competency in developmental biology", "chapter": "Levin M 2023, Darwin's agential materials: evolutionary implications of multiscale competency in developmental biology › From genotype to phenotype in development: implications of an indirect pathway", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.349, "truth": 0.31, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.24 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.38 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.66, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAsmDTZzNp-wlZAyfYp7RDttc0RW_tOWIUbsJSoW2MawA", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2023-agential-02", "key": "1c7e9fb3c3ea2527", "label": "Evolution searches the space of behaviour-shaping signals rather than local rules", "statement": "Because metazoan cells are agential (they retain adaptive behaviours from unicellular ancestors), what evolution mainly searches is not the enormous space of all possible local rules but the space of behaviour-shaping signals by which cells hack each other's functionality, and the collective intelligence of cell swarms strongly affects the rate and course of evolution.", "quote": "I argue that what evolution is really searching is not the enormous space of all possible local rules, but instead the space of behavior-shaping signals by which cells hack each other’s functionality, and that the collective intelligence [38, 39] of cellular swarms has major implications for the rate and course of evolution.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2023, "work": "Darwin's agential materials: evolutionary implications of multiscale competency in developmental biology", "chapter": "Levin M 2023, Darwin's agential materials: evolutionary implications of multiscale competency in developmental biology › From genotype to phenotype in development: implications of an indirect pathway", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.454, "truth": 0.33, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.34 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.32 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.645, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAti1PS2m174Uqtp16LNEJbCCP7TQltkxj-Xp0IIZXdCY", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2023-agential-03", "key": "fa703050c80d8db2", "label": "A generative, compressed genome pushes evolution toward general-purpose problem solvers", "statement": "By using an architecture akin to a variational autoencoder, in which the genome is a compressed generative representation decoded by the developmental layer, evolution is kept from over-training on past conditions and is pushed to produce general-purpose problem-solving organisms that display robustness, plasticity and adaptive success in entirely novel circumstances.", "quote": "Second is that by using a variational autoencoder-like architecture of compression into a generative genome (Fig. 1), evolution is freed from over-training on past conditions and pushed to evolve general-purpose problem-solving machines which inevitably display robustness, plasticity, and adaptive success in entirely novel circumstances.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2023, "work": "Darwin's agential materials: evolutionary implications of multiscale competency in developmental biology", "chapter": "Levin M 2023, Darwin's agential materials: evolutionary implications of multiscale competency in developmental biology › Intelligence and evolution: the impact of competency at new scales", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.48, "truth": 0.29, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.3 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.28 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.635, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAoCiL_jBoDub4VXrVrnR0ocwaVd5wWsrOJm3Us9A0TQ4", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2023-agential-04", "key": "29422d8582dd02e2", "label": "Gap-junction coupling scales cell competencies into larger collective goal states", "statement": "Basal cellular competencies were not lost in the transition to multicellularity but scaled up into collective intelligence; gap-junctional merging of intracellular milieus and other tissue-level signalling (e.g. stress propagation) share chemical engrams, erase the individuality of cells, and enlarge the memory, predictive capacity and sensory/effector radius of cell networks so they can pursue larger goal states such as anatomical targets.", "quote": "This promotes sharing of chemical engrams, which also help to wipe the individuality of cells, and enlarges the memory, predictive capacity, and sensory/effector radius of cellular networks, enabling them to pursue larger goal states in spaces like anatomical morphospace [14].", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2023, "work": "Darwin's agential materials: evolutionary implications of multiscale competency in developmental biology", "chapter": "Levin M 2023, Darwin's agential materials: evolutionary implications of multiscale competency in developmental biology › Scaling up from cellular competency to collective intelligence", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.463, "truth": 0.615, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.65 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.58 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.65, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAyFFySjTrghMrguhPWQwgAyz728QDFlup1bGSWVUFFhU", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2023-agential-05", "key": "79be591d7dc70616", "label": "Freed from embryonic signals, frog skin cells form self-motile Xenobots", "statement": "Frog (Xenopus) embryonic epithelial cells, which in vivo form a passive protective outer layer, instead form Xenobots (functional, self-motile constructs with novel behaviours) when liberated from the instructive influences of other cells, showing that such behaviours are normally suppressed by signalling from neighbouring cells during development.", "quote": "However, when liberated from the instructive influences of the other cells, frog epithelial cells instead form a Xenobot—a functional, self-motile construct with many novel behaviors that are normally suppressed and hidden by the instructive signaling of other cells during development [125].", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2023, "work": "Darwin's agential materials: evolutionary implications of multiscale competency in developmental biology", "chapter": "Levin M 2023, Darwin's agential materials: evolutionary implications of multiscale competency in developmental biology › Scaling up from cellular competency to collective intelligence", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.618, "truth": 0.855, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.87 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.84 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.74, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RABu_uMGUH-u00dj_oIinm_8_iLHKVv1XwIk6-niIH9PM", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2023-agential-06", "key": "49ff323473ee2cfa", "label": "Bioelectric networks were exploited for information integration since bacterial biofilms", "statement": "Evolution discovered very early, around the time of bacterial biofilms, that electrical networks of ion channels and pumps are a convenient way to integrate and process information across space and time and to scale the functions of individual cells toward large-scale tasks, the same reason brains use this modality.", "quote": "But evolution discovered very early on, around the time of bacterial biofilms [144], that electric networks are also extremely convenient ways to integrate and process information across space and time, and to scale the functions of individual computing units towards a large-scale task (the same reason that brains, and computers, use this modality [145]).", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2023, "work": "Darwin's agential materials: evolutionary implications of multiscale competency in developmental biology", "chapter": "Levin M 2023, Darwin's agential materials: evolutionary implications of multiscale competency in developmental biology › Bioelectric control: a mechanism for scaling cell behaviors to large-scale morphogenetic goals", "kind": "historical-inference", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.485, "truth": 0.605, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.66 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.55 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.66, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RABx7qAVJ9M_iuvH26LQPrnSsfkZO36xFVciQHdx9Bruw", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2023-agential-07", "key": "124579528c33dce9", "label": "Reproducing face bioelectric patterns via ion-channel misexpression induces ectopic eyes", "statement": "The vertebrate face is patterned by bioelectric gradients that regionalize gene expression, and reproducing these voltage patterns elsewhere in a tadpole by misexpressing specific ion channels induces whole ectopic organs such as eyes on the gut or tail, regions not otherwise competent to make eyes in response to Pax6.", "quote": "Reproducing these patterns elsewhere in the body via misexpression of specific ion channels enables the induction of whole ectopic organs, such as eyes [152] on the gut or tail of a tadpole (thus unlocking novel capabilities of body regions, since only the anterior neurectoderm is competent to make eyes via signals from the chemical master regulator Pax6).", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2023, "work": "Darwin's agential materials: evolutionary implications of multiscale competency in developmental biology", "chapter": "Levin M 2023, Darwin's agential materials: evolutionary implications of multiscale competency in developmental biology › Bioelectric control: a mechanism for scaling cell behaviors to large-scale morphogenetic goals", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.616, "truth": 0.72, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.84 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.6 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.72, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAS_16dPonNIULcm37UQVtD_HByyrF4xrocE89C7cllK0", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2023-agential-08", "key": "0d5c657e033ac2dc", "label": "Tadpoles see through an ectopic tail eye without generations of adaptation", "statement": "Tadpoles whose native eyes are prevented from forming and which carry an ectopic eye on the tail can see and perform well in visual behavioural training even though that eye connects to the spinal cord or peripheral tissue rather than the brain, so a radical change to sensory–motor architecture yields successful behaviour without generations of adaptation.", "quote": "Tadpoles, in which the native eyes are prevented from forming and an ectopic eye is instead placed on the tail, can see and perform well in visual behavioral training [176], even though the ectopic eye connects to the spinal cord (or just to peripheral tissue) rather than to the brain—this radical change to the sensory–motor architecture does not require generations of adaptation to produce successful behavior.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2023, "work": "Darwin's agential materials: evolutionary implications of multiscale competency in developmental biology", "chapter": "Levin M 2023, Darwin's agential materials: evolutionary implications of multiscale competency in developmental biology › Morphogenetic control as a collective intelligence", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.65, "truth": 0.825, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.84 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.81 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.75, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RADWe5V0GxaPl7OsK3Fnr_NkINXgBQWYAuaooYXRT7oNw", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2023-agential-09", "key": "0d682dde93749274", "label": "Polyploid newt kidney tubules are built by one giant cell instead of eight to ten", "statement": "In polyploid newts, whose cells are enlarged by extra genome copies, kidney tubules normally made by eight to ten communicating cells are instead formed by a single enormous cell wrapping around itself, so a different molecular mechanism (cytoskeletal bending rather than cell–cell communication) is deployed to reach the same anatomical outcome, an instance of downward causation in the service of a large-scale anatomical goal.", "quote": "In the kidney system of polyploid newts, the normal cell:cell communication that creates a tubule from eight to ten cells working together is swapped for a single enormous cell that wraps around itself to create the same final outcome [184].", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2023, "work": "Darwin's agential materials: evolutionary implications of multiscale competency in developmental biology", "chapter": "Levin M 2023, Darwin's agential materials: evolutionary implications of multiscale competency in developmental biology › Morphogenetic control as a collective intelligence", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.542, "truth": 0.825, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.8 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.85 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.69, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAEg8dXDMOVgiuEx-s4jB3fyw7WiC7-q9yU5dh0fot8Mg", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2023-agential-10", "key": "a7061a14213a52fd", "label": "Bioelectric patterns act as hidden layers that split the genotype–anatomy inverse problem", "statement": "Bioelectric networks mitigate the inverse problem of morphogenesis by acting as 'hidden layers' between genetics and anatomy: the mapping from ion channel genes to bioelectric pattern, and from bioelectric pattern to anatomy, are each easier to invert than the direct genotype–anatomy map, decomposing the control problem into two easier ones for evolution and for engineers.", "quote": "The relationships of ion channel genes to the bioelectric pattern, and bioelectric pattern to its resulting anatomy, are each easier to invert than the direct genotype–anatomy link, so they help to decompose the control problem into two easier problems.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2023, "work": "Darwin's agential materials: evolutionary implications of multiscale competency in developmental biology", "chapter": "Levin M 2023, Darwin's agential materials: evolutionary implications of multiscale competency in developmental biology › Bioelectric networks as reprogrammable interface to morphogenetic capabilities", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.461, "truth": 0.42, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.39 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.45 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.625, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAbyn_60nu5cZNe54LC8o3rjubujQC-dGw-2fz9UzQe_c", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2023-agential-11", "key": "4e956ad240a06439", "label": "Voltage is the instructive variable: an unrelated yeast pump can replace tail V-ATPase", "statement": "Membrane voltage is a coarse-grained, high-order parameter over ion channel and pump microstates: electrogenic proteins can be swapped as long as the bioelectric state is correct, e.g. the V-ATPase function in tadpole tail regeneration can be phenocopied by a yeast proton pump with no sequence or structural homology.", "quote": "electrogenic proteins can be swapped out as needed (e.g., V-ATPase complex in the tadpole tail can be phenocopied by a yeast proton pump with no sequence or structural homology, because it produces the correct physiological signal), and everything still works as long as the bioelectric state is correct [190].", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2023, "work": "Darwin's agential materials: evolutionary implications of multiscale competency in developmental biology", "chapter": "Levin M 2023, Darwin's agential materials: evolutionary implications of multiscale competency in developmental biology › Bioelectric networks as reprogrammable interface to morphogenetic capabilities", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.676, "truth": 0.87, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.86 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.88 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.76, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA8VSH_o6lJisx37TGo1o_PKYFeMXJNvTPbXHsFHyu1JQ", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2023-agential-12", "key": "8c332e280dfa832f", "label": "Genetically wild-type planarian cells can store more than one target morphology", "statement": "In planaria, a brief (2-day) physiological intervention can reset the bioelectric circuit that controls head number from the default one-head pattern memory to a two-head pattern, so the same genetically wild-type cells can harbour multiple bioelectrically encoded target morphologies that guide regeneration.", "quote": "In this case, the exact same hardware (genetically wild-type planarian cells) can harbor multiple representations of the bioelectrically encoded target morphology that guides the cellular collectives during regeneration [193–195].", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2023, "work": "Darwin's agential materials: evolutionary implications of multiscale competency in developmental biology", "chapter": "Levin M 2023, Darwin's agential materials: evolutionary implications of multiscale competency in developmental biology › Bioelectric networks as reprogrammable interface to morphogenetic capabilities", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [ { "id": "beane-planarian-hk-atpase-anterior", "relation": "models", "note": "The simulation implements a bioelectric V_mem polarity switch in which a transient physiological perturbation (ivermectin) converts genetically wild-type planarian regeneration from one-head to two-head (2H0T), the head-number switch the claim asserts.", "label": "Beane et al. (2011) planarian H,K-ATPase bioelectric V_mem anterior polarity switch faithfully reproduces Schmidtea mediterranea freshwater planarian flatworm morphology", "organism": "Schmidtea mediterranea freshwater planarian flatworm", "verdict": "faithful", "score": 91.1, "thompson_verdict": null, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAY03dlmC8QX3tR6hd2O7yMCduf7fnVyXv_cHqpBLMcRU", "registry": "production", "report": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/morphoeval/kg/2026-10-19-planarian-hk-atpase-anterior-audit-v2/REPORT.md" } ], "thumbnail": { "file": "docs/thumbs/beane-planarian-hk-atpase-anterior.jpg", "morpholib": "beane-planarian-hk-atpase-anterior", "source": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/docs/media/planarian_hk_atpase_anterior_growth.gif" }, "testability": 0.628, "truth": 0.815, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.86 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.77 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.745, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAFiMNKsmkcGbt7Yn0eBV6vUvQeQK8uH5xYv-GUu0TYlk", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2023-agential-13", "key": "8d5970354c05abb8", "label": "Bioelectric changes let wild-type planaria grow other species' head shapes in days", "statement": "Head shapes of existing planarian species are readily recapitulated by genetically wild-type planaria whose bioelectric circuit is altered during regeneration, so 100–150 million years of evolutionary distance in morphospace can be crossed in a few days through the dynamics of bioelectric pattern memories.", "quote": "Indeed, it has been shown that existing planarian species’ head shapes are readily recapitulated by a genetically wild-type animal experiencing changes to its bioelectric circuit during regeneration—100–150 million years of evolutionary distance in morphospace can be crossed in a few days because of the dynamics of bioelectric pattern memories [197, 198].", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2023, "work": "Darwin's agential materials: evolutionary implications of multiscale competency in developmental biology", "chapter": "Levin M 2023, Darwin's agential materials: evolutionary implications of multiscale competency in developmental biology › Bioelectric networks as reprogrammable interface to morphogenetic capabilities", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.589, "truth": 0.6, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.72 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.48 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.72, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAZ-Xww7IkLRLXhEcnropszdQG-_7Xq-g3COJFrtHJc4s", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2023-agential-14", "key": "b7df3ef92d1cca71", "label": "Surgically altered ciliate cortex is inherited across generations despite wild-type DNA", "statement": "In unicellular ciliates, changes made to cell-surface form can be inherited across generations independently of DNA: surgical rotation of a small patch of cortex creates a stable line in which part of the ciliary beat pushes food out of the mouth, which the wild-type genome cannot correct.", "quote": "Changes made to unicellular form can persist across generations [203–205]; for example, surgical rotation of a small patch of the cell surface creates a stable line of animals in which a portion of the ciliary beat pushes food out of their mouths—a condition which their perfectly wild-type genome cannot correct.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2023, "work": "Darwin's agential materials: evolutionary implications of multiscale competency in developmental biology", "chapter": "Levin M 2023, Darwin's agential materials: evolutionary implications of multiscale competency in developmental biology › Multiple modalities for computation and control across scales", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.587, "truth": 0.92, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.91 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.93 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.695, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAcddjJoT5RX_jfQ5eF4VbFSxnzrLP-xKEmEG94NMHEL0", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2023-agential-15", "key": "8569d76e5fe29074", "label": "Planaria adapt to barium by changing expression of only a handful of genes", "statement": "Planaria exposed to barium, a non-specific potassium channel blocker that is evolutionarily novel to them, first lose their heads but then regrow barium-insensitive heads, with only a handful of genes up- or down-regulated, showing that cells can navigate transcriptional space to solve a problem for which there was no selection.", "quote": "Transcriptional analysis reveals that these tissues up- and down-regulate just a handful of genes to get back to physiological and anatomical setpoints despite the inability to regulate potassium.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2023, "work": "Darwin's agential materials: evolutionary implications of multiscale competency in developmental biology", "chapter": "Levin M 2023, Darwin's agential materials: evolutionary implications of multiscale competency in developmental biology › Multiple modalities for computation and control across scales", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.715, "truth": 0.705, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.78 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.63 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.79, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAu6V-agRqJKdkiGa1d9mvqHmZUJDglD8QOHSNals0YQk", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2023-agential-16", "key": "d4b1af4d7968bed4", "label": "Animals with robust regeneration also resist cancer and aging", "statement": "Animals with robust morphogenetic control due to high plasticity are resistant to perturbation at many scales: they regenerate lost limbs and organs, readily suppress cancer, and resist aging, contrary to the expectation that easy access to undifferentiated cells should make them highly cancer-prone.", "quote": "Animals with robust morphogenetic control due to high levels of plasticity are resistant to changes of circumstance (injury) at many scales: they regenerate after loss of limbs and organs (degradation of body-scale information), they suppress cancer readily [238] (degradation of tissue-scale information) and they resist aging (degradation of cell-level information).", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2023, "work": "Darwin's agential materials: evolutionary implications of multiscale competency in developmental biology", "chapter": "Levin M 2023, Darwin's agential materials: evolutionary implications of multiscale competency in developmental biology › Beginner’s mind: self-organization on the fly as the origin of multiscale competency", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.514, "truth": 0.53, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.55 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.51 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.675, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RApQgOTDOAYyRvl_d64G1QFCRhZUEOPn3akmxh1NxR1Qo", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2023-agential-17", "key": "b1f308d5ef3fa160", "label": "Competency gains drive a ratchet toward ever greater multiscale competency", "statement": "Because each gain in developmental competency makes the structural genome harder for selection to evaluate, evolution increasingly optimizes the competency mechanisms themselves, a feedback ratchet for multiscale intelligence that appears in computational models and has run to different extents in planaria, salamanders and mammals.", "quote": "This starts a feedback loop, because each gain in competency makes it even harder to judge the structural genome, which exacerbates the drive toward improving competencies—a ratchet for multiscale intelligence that can readily be seen in computational models of the process [240].", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2023, "work": "Darwin's agential materials: evolutionary implications of multiscale competency in developmental biology", "chapter": "Levin M 2023, Darwin's agential materials: evolutionary implications of multiscale competency in developmental biology › An evolutionary intelligence ratchet", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.556, "truth": 0.32, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.34 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.3 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.7, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAvcgWAErLt6_1pCRvJuRG2On-Q7XXYjfTO60DymVziIQ", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2023-agential-18", "key": "278bd91f5018b8ef", "label": "The competency ratchet predicts no planarian mutant strains with abnormal morphology", "statement": "The competency-ratchet model predicts, and it is the case, that there are no known mutant planarian strains with abnormal morphologies (unlike flies or mice), explains the difficulty of making transgenic planaria, and the only known permanent abnormal planarian lines (two-headed and randomized 1- vs 2-head forms) arose from bioelectric rather than genetic change.", "quote": "For example, it predicts the confirmed fact that there are no known mutant planarian strains with abnormal morphologies (the way there are for fruit flies, mice, etc.) and explains why the research community has had such a hard time (despite decades of efforts) generating transgenic planaria.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2023, "work": "Darwin's agential materials: evolutionary implications of multiscale competency in developmental biology", "chapter": "Levin M 2023, Darwin's agential materials: evolutionary implications of multiscale competency in developmental biology › An evolutionary intelligence ratchet", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.613, "truth": 0.435, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.38 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.49 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.69, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAVZd0MMf-_W-PF5wXroHmxBPv-jiTmWW5ZTbJbadokPE", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2023-agential-19", "key": "5117a721981083b6", "label": "Multiscale competency smooths the fitness landscape and lets search escape local maxima", "statement": "The multiscale competency architecture smooths the fitness landscape by reducing phenotypic differences between genotypes, letting evolution explore mutations that would otherwise be lethal (e.g. a mutation that displaces the mouth but has another benefit survives because the mouth self-corrects), which makes search more efficient and helps it overcome local maxima.", "quote": "By smoothing the fitness landscape, MCA makes the search process much more efficient, improving evolvability by enabling the search to overcome local maxima.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2023, "work": "Darwin's agential materials: evolutionary implications of multiscale competency in developmental biology", "chapter": "Levin M 2023, Darwin's agential materials: evolutionary implications of multiscale competency in developmental biology › Implications of multiscale competency for the evolutionary process", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.592, "truth": 0.68, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.79 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.57 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.705, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAhxxtWNqJnFbZpH8rxY4D6LfFrgE7AT5imqvLxEhcybs", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2023-agential-20", "key": "0c352413b9f05a55", "label": "Developmental error-correction makes mutations neutral and builds up cryptic variation", "statement": "By buffering mutational effects through developmental regulation, the multiscale competency architecture makes neutral many mutations that would be deleterious under a direct genotype-to-phenotype mapping, so they persist as a pool of phenotypically dormant cryptic variation that can later be exploited.", "quote": "MCA makes many mutations neutral that would be deleterious in a direct genotype → phenotype architecture. Such mutations whose effects are mitigated by developmental regulation are not weeded out; instead, they persist, generating over time a rich pool of diversity that may be phenotypically dormant, but can be exploited in future.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2023, "work": "Darwin's agential materials: evolutionary implications of multiscale competency in developmental biology", "chapter": "Levin M 2023, Darwin's agential materials: evolutionary implications of multiscale competency in developmental biology › Implications of multiscale competency for the evolutionary process", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.545, "truth": 0.865, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.91 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.82 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.67, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAAlIGwGIpeZCutVAObrDFeFy_GjbD8taVzzjhBXfmq28", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2023-glue-01", "key": "47af5c7d3d4737ea", "label": "Physarum learns and decides without neurons, and its behaviour is its morphological change", "statement": "The unicellular slime mould Physarum learns from repeated experience and makes decisions (e.g. growing towards the heavier of distant inert objects) without a brain, neurons or cellularization, and in Physarum behaviour is implemented as change of body shape, blurring the distinction between morphological and behavioural problems.", "quote": "These examples of learning and decision-making occur in the absence of a brain, neurons, or cellularization. From the perspective of evolutionary change across behavioral domains, one interesting thing is that for Physarum, its behavior is its morphological change.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2023, "work": "Bioelectric networks: the cognitive glue enabling evolutionary scaling from physiology to mind", "chapter": "Levin M 2023, Bioelectric networks: the cognitive glue enabling evolutionary scaling from physiology to mind › Beyond standard model organisms: stories of plasticity and change", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.609, "truth": 0.745, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.77 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.72 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.73, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA5BkASPnQ1BjucCZ4xJ3QaK7poiIlt3lAyg1BMQ_1nlg", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2023-glue-02", "key": "fed0fbdb6fa534cc", "label": "Planarian tail fragments regenerate brains that recall trained behaviour", "statement": "Tail fragments of planarian flatworms trained on specific tasks regenerate into animals that show recall of the trained information, so behavioural memories are apparently imprinted onto the new brain as it forms, linking the information processing that restores body shape with that which preserves past experience.", "quote": "Tails of worms trained on specific tasks regenerate into animals that show recall of the original information: the behavioral memories are apparently also imprinted onto the new brain as it forms (McConnell et al. 1959; Shomrat and Levin 2013).", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2023, "work": "Bioelectric networks: the cognitive glue enabling evolutionary scaling from physiology to mind", "chapter": "Levin M 2023, Bioelectric networks: the cognitive glue enabling evolutionary scaling from physiology to mind › Beyond standard model organisms: stories of plasticity and change", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.527, "truth": 0.505, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.55 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.46 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.7, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAqeceeaTn8ZRSMfvB3r82Ere09B9zGhL8-9QAO_PMH_I", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2023-glue-03", "key": "d0db3935a1ff1094", "label": "Xenopus tadpoles with only a tail eye can see through it", "statement": "Xenopus laevis tadpoles produced with no primary eyes and a single eye on the tail can see out of the ectopic eye, which can connect to the spinal cord, showing that a frog's cellular hardware can adapt within one generation to a radical reconfiguration of its visual system.", "quote": "Tadpoles of the frog Xenopus laevis can be produced with no primary eyes, but one eye on their tails; these animals can see out of an ectopic eye, which can connect to the spinal cord (Blackiston and Levin 2013).", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2023, "work": "Bioelectric networks: the cognitive glue enabling evolutionary scaling from physiology to mind", "chapter": "Levin M 2023, Bioelectric networks: the cognitive glue enabling evolutionary scaling from physiology to mind › Beyond standard model organisms: stories of plasticity and change", "kind": "experimental-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.655, "truth": 0.83, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.86 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.8 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.76, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RASIOk1Y-CitDepDS9qPgR6lk_zeDfZQxXu1HUkh6TUQQ", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2023-glue-04", "key": "924f3fac134b582f", "label": "Bioelectric network information cannot be read from transcript or protein levels", "statement": "Because ion channels open and close post-translationally, the same channels can yield different voltage states depending on cell history and different channels can yield the same voltage map, the information content of a bioelectric network cannot be read out at the transcriptional or proteomic level and must be studied in living tissue.", "quote": "As a corollary, the information content of this network cannot be read out at the transcriptional or even proteomic level: channels open and close post-translationally, and the same channels can give rise to different voltage states depending on cells’ history, while diverse channels can give rise to the exact same voltage map.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2023, "work": "Bioelectric networks: the cognitive glue enabling evolutionary scaling from physiology to mind", "chapter": "Levin M 2023, Bioelectric networks: the cognitive glue enabling evolutionary scaling from physiology to mind › Bioelectricity: the ancient cognitive glue", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.644, "truth": 0.895, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.92 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.87 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.74, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAZl6sYD__A_qp-nq_HNWGsVuUiq2KYlcEZnodHcPIBfU", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2023-glue-05", "key": "af07d96261f07406", "label": "Bioelectric networks are a cognitive glue that enlarges the cognitive light cone of cells", "statement": "Bioelectric networks, through their plasticity, multiscale historicity (memory) and learning capacity, act as a 'cognitive glue' that binds the cybernetic goal-directedness of single cells into a higher-order system pursuing larger-scale goals (a larger cognitive light cone), and this capacity is not unique to brains.", "quote": "Bioelectric networks, with their inherent plasticity, multiscale historicity, and learning capacity, are an ideal kind of “cognitive glue” that binds the primitive goal-directedness (in the cybernetic sense) of single cells into a higher order system with a larger cognitive light cone (Fig. 1E).", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2023, "work": "Bioelectric networks: the cognitive glue enabling evolutionary scaling from physiology to mind", "chapter": "Levin M 2023, Bioelectric networks: the cognitive glue enabling evolutionary scaling from physiology to mind › Bioelectricity: the ancient cognitive glue", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.304, "truth": 0.47, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.58 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.36 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.71, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAaQbT0uMXTXumHKyAVdDaQbhDyNpypn8wQrt-0azHmqQ", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2023-glue-06", "key": "75843e7d6fee0e19", "label": "Neural bioelectric machinery was an evolutionary pivot from navigating morphospace", "statement": "Ion channels, gap junctions and neurotransmitters were originally used to control cell behaviours toward morphogenetic outcomes (navigating anatomical morphospace); their use to drive 3D behaviour via muscle is an evolutionary pivot, exapted with a speed-up from hours to milliseconds and a shift from spatial to temporal (spiking) patterns, and this conservation is why neuroscience tools work throughout the body.", "quote": "The current use of these components to implement behaviors in 3D space by controlling muscle activity represents an evolutionary pivot: their original usage was to navigate anatomical morphospace (Fields et al. 2020) (that is, to control all cell behaviors toward specific morphogenetic outcomes).", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2023, "work": "Bioelectric networks: the cognitive glue enabling evolutionary scaling from physiology to mind", "chapter": "Levin M 2023, Bioelectric networks: the cognitive glue enabling evolutionary scaling from physiology to mind › Bioelectricity: the ancient cognitive glue", "kind": "historical-inference", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.517, "truth": 0.56, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.57 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.55 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.67, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAUkv8ny9n1i1liMj7FVBGLJMtQg4978Q_mNqCaiOdNnY", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2023-glue-07", "key": "36319eeb42b9954a", "label": "Morphogenetic pattern memory habituates: repeatedly amputated axolotl limbs stop regrowing", "statement": "The anatomical setpoint that guides regeneration is a pattern memory that is stable but modifiable by experience; for example, repeated amputation of axolotl limbs leads the tissue to habituate to the loss and eventually stop trying to regrow.", "quote": "This pattern memory can, like any good memory, be modified by experience (it is stable, but also labile to the right kinds of stimuli). For example, repeated amputation of axolotl limbs leads to the tissue habituating to the loss of limb and eventually giving up trying to re-grow (Bryant et al. 2017).", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2023, "work": "Bioelectric networks: the cognitive glue enabling evolutionary scaling from physiology to mind", "chapter": "Levin M 2023, Bioelectric networks: the cognitive glue enabling evolutionary scaling from physiology to mind › Basal cognition without neurons: what dynamic bodies think about › Memory and target morphology", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.59, "truth": 0.55, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.76 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.34 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.735, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA2mbi4BUsY1FZsw67P0CACmGiOiEuLS_V_6jeLBZamgI", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2023-glue-08", "key": "2ab7ee09a86b1941", "label": "Deer antlers re-form an ectopic branch at a past injury site year after year", "statement": "In deer trophic memory, an ectopic branch is formed in the otherwise stereotyped antler at the location of earlier damage year after year, long after the damaged rack has been shed, a memory of 3D position held by scalp cells that regenerate the antler annually.", "quote": "Trophic memory in deer (Bubenik and Pavlansky 1965; Lobo et al. 2014) enables an ectopic branch in their otherwise stereotypical antler structure to be formed year after year, at a specific point of earlier damage, long after the damaged antler rack has been shed", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2023, "work": "Bioelectric networks: the cognitive glue enabling evolutionary scaling from physiology to mind", "chapter": "Levin M 2023, Bioelectric networks: the cognitive glue enabling evolutionary scaling from physiology to mind › Basal cognition without neurons: what dynamic bodies think about › Memory and target morphology", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.456, "truth": 0.74, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.63 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.85 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.695, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAnjty9MpOvqmNhwnIyaIfml5tMP11sd6BI4eaBfoukIY", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2023-glue-09", "key": "ef79276a8bc8cd2f", "label": "Bioelectrically induced two-headed planaria stay two-headed across later regenerations", "statement": "In planarian flatworms the number of heads a regenerating fragment builds is set by the state of a bioelectric circuit with a default of one; transiently modifying it re-sets it to 'two', and the resulting two-headed worms keep regenerating as two-headed through multiple rounds of cutting without further manipulation, unless the pattern is experimentally reset.", "quote": "Remarkably, when cut again in multiple subsequent rounds of regeneration (with no further manipulation), the fragments continue to result in two-headed animals. This shift in the target morphology for regeneration is permanent (unless the animal’s bioelectric pattern memory is reset back to a one-headed state by an experimental manipulation).", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2023, "work": "Bioelectric networks: the cognitive glue enabling evolutionary scaling from physiology to mind", "chapter": "Levin M 2023, Bioelectric networks: the cognitive glue enabling evolutionary scaling from physiology to mind › Basal cognition without neurons: what dynamic bodies think about › Re-writing morphogenetic memories: ontogenetic and evolutionary timescales", "kind": "experimental-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [ { "id": "pietak-bioelectric-morphogen-coupling", "relation": "models", "note": "Simulates bioelectric circuit states that store a two-headed target and persist across regeneration (cryptic two-headed memory).", "label": "Pietak & Levin (2017) electrodiffusive Nernst-Planck gap-junction morphogen transport & cryptic two-headed memory faithfully reproduces Dugesia japonica / Schmidtea mediterranea freshwater planarian flatworm morphology", "organism": "Dugesia japonica / Schmidtea mediterranea freshwater planarian flatworm", "verdict": "faithful", "score": 91.5, "thompson_verdict": null, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAzxekO22jnL1FBa5-4W8-JDCEwD3bElgCIzHy4KTn0Hs", "registry": "production", "report": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/morphoeval/kg/2026-10-19-bioelectric-morphogen-coupling-audit-v2/REPORT.md" } ], "thumbnail": { "file": "docs/thumbs/pietak-bioelectric-morphogen-coupling.jpg", "morpholib": "pietak-bioelectric-morphogen-coupling", "source": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/docs/media/bioelectric_morphogen_coupling_growth.gif" }, "testability": 0.642, "truth": 0.835, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.9 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.77 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.75, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA6DGAgN9cZ2_UcIcMrMusSPGZ7_Uja2XL4376fzoo6j0", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2023-glue-10", "key": "4830cb7bc931738c", "label": "Planarian head number is not directly encoded in the genome", "statement": "How many heads a planarian cellular collective produces is not directly encoded in its genome, since the same wild-type cells can produce 1-, 2- or 0-headed planaria depending on their history; the genome encodes the hardware (e.g. ion channels) while the outcome results from experience-sensitive electrophysiological 'software'.", "quote": "The question, of how many heads a given cellular collective will produce, is, surprisingly, not directly encoded in its genome because exactly the same, wild-type set of cells can produce 1-, 2-, or 0-headed planaria depending on their history.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2023, "work": "Bioelectric networks: the cognitive glue enabling evolutionary scaling from physiology to mind", "chapter": "Levin M 2023, Bioelectric networks: the cognitive glue enabling evolutionary scaling from physiology to mind › Basal cognition without neurons: what dynamic bodies think about › Re-writing morphogenetic memories: ontogenetic and evolutionary timescales", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.561, "truth": 0.82, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.84 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.8 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.695, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RASVg_FvlkG884cZh8DLEeReE8E7-CZ9BCg7yvkTRzIw8", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2023-glue-11", "key": "935e16396c797bb8", "label": "Genetic assimilation of bioelectric phenotypes likely shaped body-plan evolution", "statement": "Evolutionary changes in ion channel properties that lead to genetic assimilation of bioelectrically induced phenotypes are likely an important aspect of the evolution of body plans and other morphological features, analogous to the Baldwin effect for learning.", "quote": "Evolutionary tweaks of ion channel properties that eventually lead to genetic assimilation of bioelectrically induced phenotypes is likely an important aspect of the evolution of body plans and other morphological features, much as the Baldwin effect is thought to be a key dynamic for the role of cognition and learning in evolutionary lineages (Baldwin 1896).", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2023, "work": "Bioelectric networks: the cognitive glue enabling evolutionary scaling from physiology to mind", "chapter": "Levin M 2023, Bioelectric networks: the cognitive glue enabling evolutionary scaling from physiology to mind › Basal cognition without neurons: what dynamic bodies think about › Re-writing morphogenetic memories: ontogenetic and evolutionary timescales", "kind": "historical-inference", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.39, "truth": 0.375, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.45 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.3 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.62, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAQPW8sfkVCN6QrrPw8JKkoTFAsfNm9_QADsLjUEF67MY", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2023-glue-12", "key": "01686443101b5ce7", "label": "Commensal bacteria can hijack planarian morphogenesis to cause two-headed regeneration", "statement": "Like parasites that manipulate host neurobehavioural systems, commensal bacteria can override the default planarian morphogenetic control system and cause two-headed regeneration.", "quote": "the planarian morphogenetic control system too can be hijacked not only by bioengineers (as described above) but also by commensal bacteria which can over-ride the default system and lead to two-headed regeneration (Williams et al. 2020).", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2023, "work": "Bioelectric networks: the cognitive glue enabling evolutionary scaling from physiology to mind", "chapter": "Levin M 2023, Bioelectric networks: the cognitive glue enabling evolutionary scaling from physiology to mind › Basal cognition without neurons: what dynamic bodies think about › Reprogrammability, external manipulation, and representation", "kind": "experimental-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.619, "truth": 0.735, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.8 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.67 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.735, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA-E40lHPfFHTRJYLUUz7l7NoZTy76-4pGvOej40NOLbI", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2023-glue-13", "key": "6aae9ce233892ff4", "label": "A latent two-head bioelectric pattern is a counterfactual memory of the future target form", "statement": "Because a two-headed bioelectric pattern can exist in an anatomically normal one-headed planarian with normal gene expression, the bioelectric pattern is not a readout of current anatomy but a representation of the target morphology to be built if the animal is injured, in effect a counterfactual memory.", "quote": "In the case of a two-headed pattern in a one-headed host, this means that the bioelectrical pattern is not a read-out of what the anatomy is currently, but rather a representation of what it should be, weeks later, following regeneration if the animal is injured.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2023, "work": "Bioelectric networks: the cognitive glue enabling evolutionary scaling from physiology to mind", "chapter": "Levin M 2023, Bioelectric networks: the cognitive glue enabling evolutionary scaling from physiology to mind › Basal cognition without neurons: what dynamic bodies think about › Reprogrammability, external manipulation, and representation", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.478, "truth": 0.72, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.79 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.65 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.65, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAQ1Yp1moB0VlYAipfXmffEFznV7Ph0fhGOZG-aOOKdpM", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2023-glue-14", "key": "627f82ac75cc8a5d", "label": "Ion channel drugs can make planarian head number flip stochastically at each regeneration", "statement": "Exposure to ion channel drugs can put the planarian bioelectric circuit into a bistable state in which, at each regeneration, fragments of these 'cryptic' worms randomly regenerate as one-headed or two-headed, analogous to bistability in perceptual systems.", "quote": "Exposure to ion channel drugs (a physiological experience akin to electrical signals from a retina or other sense organ, not a genetic change) can place the bioelectric circuit into a state in which it cannot decide between two outcomes and flips back and forth stochastically at each regenerative event (recall of target morphology).", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2023, "work": "Bioelectric networks: the cognitive glue enabling evolutionary scaling from physiology to mind", "chapter": "Levin M 2023, Bioelectric networks: the cognitive glue enabling evolutionary scaling from physiology to mind › Basal cognition without neurons: what dynamic bodies think about › Reprogrammability, external manipulation, and representation", "kind": "experimental-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [ { "id": "pietak-bioelectric-morphogen-coupling", "relation": "models", "note": "Models the cryptic bistable bioelectric state in which regenerating fragments can flip between one and two heads.", "label": "Pietak & Levin (2017) electrodiffusive Nernst-Planck gap-junction morphogen transport & cryptic two-headed memory faithfully reproduces Dugesia japonica / Schmidtea mediterranea freshwater planarian flatworm morphology", "organism": "Dugesia japonica / Schmidtea mediterranea freshwater planarian flatworm", "verdict": "faithful", "score": 91.5, "thompson_verdict": null, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAzxekO22jnL1FBa5-4W8-JDCEwD3bElgCIzHy4KTn0Hs", "registry": "production", "report": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/morphoeval/kg/2026-10-19-bioelectric-morphogen-coupling-audit-v2/REPORT.md" } ], "thumbnail": { "file": "docs/thumbs/pietak-bioelectric-morphogen-coupling.jpg", "morpholib": "pietak-bioelectric-morphogen-coupling", "source": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/docs/media/bioelectric_morphogen_coupling_growth.gif" }, "testability": 0.636, "truth": 0.785, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.88 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.69 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.745, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAXR0fm0ufHH7eA9mUqMhmf18iKzdQEPYmRnY84uQOsg0", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2023-glue-15", "key": "4c2bb9bac685400b", "label": "Transient gap-junction blockade makes planarian fragments build heads of other species", "statement": "Temporary exposure of planarian fragments to a blocker of electrical synapses (gap junctions) causes them to build head shapes of other planarian species 100–150 million years distant, with no genetic change; Levin interprets this as the bioelectric network navigating to other attractors in morphospace, and the worms later remodel back to normal.", "quote": "One example of this plasticity of morphogenetic behavior (expanding on the default genetically encoded repertoire) is the fact that temporary exposure to a blocker of electrical synapses (i.e., an anesthetic) causes planarian fragments to create the heads of other species, with no genetic change required (Emmons-Bell et al. 2015; Sullivan et al. 2016).", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2023, "work": "Bioelectric networks: the cognitive glue enabling evolutionary scaling from physiology to mind", "chapter": "Levin M 2023, Bioelectric networks: the cognitive glue enabling evolutionary scaling from physiology to mind › Basal cognition without neurons: what dynamic bodies think about › Creative problem-solving by adaptive morphogenesis: plasticity, not just emergent complexity", "kind": "experimental-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [ { "id": "cervera-levin-mafe", "relation": "models", "note": "Implements transient gap-junction blockade as a mechanism by which planarian fragments build other species' head shapes.", "label": "Cervera–Levin–Mafe gap-junction reaction–diffusion and bioelectric synthesis faithfully reproduces Planarians; photograph is Schmidtea mediterranea, empirical PlanformDB subset is Dugesia japonica morphology", "organism": "Planarians", "verdict": "partially faithful", "score": 55.6, "thompson_verdict": null, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAnyAaMeArVgK24K_7QPPWClzS8NHokd6oybUkFDSDZFo", "registry": "unconfirmed", "report": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/morphoeval/kg/2026-10-17-cervera-audit-v2/REPORT.md" } ], "thumbnail": { "file": "docs/thumbs/cervera-levin-mafe.jpg", "morpholib": "cervera-levin-mafe", "source": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/docs/media/cervera_levin_mafe_gj_block.gif" }, "testability": 0.599, "truth": 0.75, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.83 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.67 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.75, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA0IqB96AcONg9WkLddOozgxRF4AQNbr6pfNd81XR2YZQ", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2023-glue-16", "key": "e551aaab8f64519d", "label": "Newt kidney tubules keep normal diameter with fewer, larger cells, down to one cell", "statement": "In newts whose embryonic cells are made larger (e.g. by polyploidy), kidney tubules use fewer cells to keep the normal tubule diameter and body size, and with enormous cells a single cell bends around itself to form the tubule, showing that different molecular mechanisms are called on to reach the same large-scale anatomical goal.", "quote": "However, if the cells of the early embryo are artificially made to be larger, fewer cells will be used, resulting in the same (normal) tubule diameter and overall body size. Remarkably, this can be pushed to a fascinating extreme: if the cells are made to be enormous, a single cell will bend around itself, producing the normal size tubule diameter.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2023, "work": "Bioelectric networks: the cognitive glue enabling evolutionary scaling from physiology to mind", "chapter": "Levin M 2023, Bioelectric networks: the cognitive glue enabling evolutionary scaling from physiology to mind › Basal cognition without neurons: what dynamic bodies think about › Creative problem-solving by adaptive morphogenesis: plasticity, not just emergent complexity", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.529, "truth": 0.915, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.9 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.93 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.68, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAGpeTFf9IX6tt4QuPryDanFg7dkdXoMX-k3kSJSTSNZc", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2023-glue-17", "key": "295dba2afc2e3317", "label": "Xenobots perform kinematic self-replication not known in any other species", "statement": "Xenobots, proto-organisms that form spontaneously from dissociated frog embryo skin cells, are motile via cilia and perform kinematic self-replication, building copies of themselves from loose cells in the medium, a novel solution reached within 48 h without any evolutionary history of selection as Xenobots.", "quote": "The most remarkable novel behavior is that of kinematic self-replication: Xenobots build copies of themselves by rearranging loose cells provided to them in the medium. This is Von Neumann-style replication that is not, to our knowledge, used by any other species on Earth.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2023, "work": "Bioelectric networks: the cognitive glue enabling evolutionary scaling from physiology to mind", "chapter": "Levin M 2023, Bioelectric networks: the cognitive glue enabling evolutionary scaling from physiology to mind › Basal cognition without neurons: what dynamic bodies think about › Creative problem-solving by adaptive morphogenesis: plasticity, not just emergent complexity", "kind": "experimental-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [ { "id": "kriegman-xenobot-evolutionary-biobots", "relation": "models", "note": "Includes Kriegman et al. (2021) kinematic self-replication of Xenobots from loose cells, the behaviour the claim asserts.", "label": "Kriegman et al. (2020, 2021) Xenobot evolutionary biomechanics & kinematic self-replication faithfully reproduces Xenopus laevis (African clawed frog blastula ectoderm & cardiac progenitor biobots) morphology", "organism": "Xenopus laevis (African clawed frog blastula ectoderm & cardiac progenitor biobots)", "verdict": "faithful", "score": 91.3, "thompson_verdict": null, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA4LlMjjGmAlRq9sBuadz7tO3SSJi1_OPgpXOIE12-5Ts", "registry": "production", "report": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/morphoeval/kg/2026-10-19-xenobot-evolutionary-biobots-audit-v2/REPORT.md" } ], "thumbnail": { "file": "docs/thumbs/kriegman-xenobot-evolutionary-biobots.jpg", "morpholib": "kriegman-xenobot-evolutionary-biobots", "source": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/docs/media/xenobot_evolutionary_biobots_growth.gif" }, "testability": 0.616, "truth": 0.795, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.88 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.71 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.745, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RATzJPm-_vUaOEaSX6_AXNKzx50HOFGfDAJf66Wsa21oA", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2023-glue-18", "key": "3bc0e1a3a3f2eb2c", "label": "Scrambled Xenopus tadpole faces reach a normal frog face by new paths", "statement": "During metamorphosis, Xenopus laevis tadpoles reach the correct frog face configuration not only from a normal tadpole configuration but also from a wide range of experimentally scrambled craniofacial configurations, using new paths through morphospace that end in the same goal region.", "quote": "For example, during metamorphosis, the tadpole of Xenopus laevis can reach the correct frog face region of morphospace not only from its default starting position (a normal tadpole configuration), but also from a wide range of scrambled configurations (Vandenberg et al. 2012)—using new paths through that morphospace that nevertheless end up in the same goal region (Friston et al. 2015; Pezzulo and Levin 2016).", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2023, "work": "Bioelectric networks: the cognitive glue enabling evolutionary scaling from physiology to mind", "chapter": "Levin M 2023, Bioelectric networks: the cognitive glue enabling evolutionary scaling from physiology to mind › Basal cognition without neurons: what dynamic bodies think about › Navigation: an invariant between morphological, behavioral, and other spaces", "kind": "experimental-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [ { "id": "bischof-xenopus-craniofacial-remap", "relation": "models", "note": "Simulates scrambled tadpole faces reaching the correct frog-face configuration by novel paths.", "label": "Vandenberg, Adams & Levin (2012) & Pinet et al. (2019) Picasso tadpole craniofacial attractor remodeling faithfully reproduces Xenopus laevis African clawed frog tadpole and froglet morphology", "organism": "Xenopus laevis African clawed frog tadpole and froglet", "verdict": "faithful", "score": 92, "thompson_verdict": null, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAfabt4u-0fbCGJSZbkTXg1RT8z7rTLqcJN5dvkjtkHNw", "registry": "production", "report": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/morphoeval/kg/2026-10-19-xenopus-craniofacial-remap-audit-v2/REPORT.md" } ], "thumbnail": { "file": "docs/thumbs/bischof-xenopus-craniofacial-remap.jpg", "morpholib": "bischof-xenopus-craniofacial-remap", "source": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/docs/media/xenopus_craniofacial_remap_growth.gif" }, "testability": 0.59, "truth": 0.855, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.91 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.8 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.72, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAwulynIUurNhgFzxGCr2kOUIDbAX2StTcTN65f2To6Ew", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2023-glue-19", "key": "25338f89cd7a4280", "label": "A few bioelectrically induced lens cells recruit host cells to build a normal-sized lens", "statement": "When an ectopic lens is induced in tail tissue by bioelectric modulation, misexpressing the ion channel in only a small subset of the needed cells suffices: these cells recruit unmodified host cells to reach the critical mass for a normal-sized lens, so downstream modules such as size control are activated without micromanagement.", "quote": "For example, when an ectopic lens (in tail tissue) is induced by bioelectric modulation, it is sufficient to misexpress the channel only in a small subset of the needed cells: once their organ-level goal is specified, these cells will secondarily recruit other (un-modified) host cells as needed to achieve the critical mass needed to produce a normal-sized lens.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2023, "work": "Bioelectric networks: the cognitive glue enabling evolutionary scaling from physiology to mind", "chapter": "Levin M 2023, Bioelectric networks: the cognitive glue enabling evolutionary scaling from physiology to mind › Basal cognition without neurons: what dynamic bodies think about › Navigation: an invariant between morphological, behavioral, and other spaces", "kind": "experimental-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.543, "truth": 0.735, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.83 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.64 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.64, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA26hyzsSW6pDZJznbpY_p5rncuiycPMZiFzdOyu7ywPs", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2023-glue-20", "key": "5524b6ffb49cedd4", "label": "Gap junctions wipe ownership of memory molecules, partly erasing cell individuality", "statement": "By directly connecting the cytoplasm of neighbouring cells, gap junctions provide an 'owner wiping property' for stress signals and other molecular traces of experience (e.g. calcium flux), so cells cannot tell whether such a signal is their own or a neighbour's; this partly erases individual cell identity and lets the collective scale up measurements, stored goals and actions.", "quote": "Second, by providing direct connections between the intracellular milieus of cells, they provide an “owner wiping property” for stress signals and other molecular traces of experience: cells cannot tell whether a given memory molecule (e.g., calcium flux) belongs to itself or its neighbors.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2023, "work": "Bioelectric networks: the cognitive glue enabling evolutionary scaling from physiology to mind", "chapter": "Levin M 2023, Bioelectric networks: the cognitive glue enabling evolutionary scaling from physiology to mind › Basal cognition without neurons: what dynamic bodies think about › E pluribus unum", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.328, "truth": 0.53, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.62 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.44 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.71, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAc1an65GQt3KEbdOcxkQG0wwVpQ2oC_OlJM38bTWbNH0", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2024-anthrobots-01", "key": "e330753a8baf471f", "label": "Single adult human lung cells self-construct into motile multicellular biobots", "statement": "A single normal human bronchial epithelial cell from adult lung, cultured in extracellular matrix for two weeks and then transferred to a low-viscosity medium, self-constructs into a multicellular, motile spheroid (an Anthrobot) without genetic editing, scaffolds or manual sculpting.", "quote": "Each Anthrobot begins as a single cell, derived from the adult human lung, and self‐constructs into a multicellular motile biobot after being cultured in extra cellular matrix for 2 weeks and transferred into a minimally viscous habitat.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2024, "work": "Motile Living Biobots Self-Construct from Adult Human Somatic Progenitor Seed Cells", "chapter": "Gumuskaya G 2024, Motile Living Biobots Self-Construct from Adult Human Somatic Progenitor Seed Cells › Abstract", "kind": "experimental-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.604, "truth": 0.89, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.94 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.84 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.83, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAPHGDZeV8nQ5z2LlAFpq5aHaRyVGBEqTyoGXcQLdVB08", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2024-anthrobots-02", "key": "d2c73b75e4ce1766", "label": "Morphogenetic plasticity is not restricted to amphibian or embryonic cells", "statement": "The ability of adult, somatic, genetically wild-type human cells to form a novel functional anatomy with new behaviours shows that the plasticity seen in Xenobots is not restricted to amphibian or embryonic cells, and is a fundamental feature of wild-type cells that needs no direct genetic manipulation to unlock.", "quote": "The ability of adult, somatic, human cells to form a novel functional anatomy, with unique behaviors, reveals that this plasticity is not restricted to amphibian or embryonic cell properties, and is a fundamental feature of wild‐type cells that requires no direct genetic manipulation to unlock.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2024, "work": "Motile Living Biobots Self-Construct from Adult Human Somatic Progenitor Seed Cells", "chapter": "Gumuskaya G 2024, Motile Living Biobots Self-Construct from Adult Human Somatic Progenitor Seed Cells › Introduction", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.441, "truth": 0.635, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.71 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.56 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.72, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAwZx2dp5WSSXcdZvQD_YgHL0g1Hs4nkdKYhjd3Zag-6g", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2024-anthrobots-03", "key": "78a4ecd4cb3f3f63", "label": "Lower viscosity may drive apical-out polarity reversal of airway spheroids", "statement": "The authors hypothesize that airway spheroids keep cilia in the lumen because basal cells interact with the surrounding high-viscosity matrix, and that moving spheroids to a lower-viscosity, water-based medium may trigger basal cells to migrate inward so the ciliated apical layer takes their place on the spheroid surface.", "quote": "Given that cilia naturally localize into the lumen due to the basal cells’ interaction with the surrounding high‐viscosity matrix, we hypothesized that changing the culture environment to a lower viscosity level (e.g., water‐based media instead of gel‐based matrix) may trigger the basal layer cells to migrate inward and allow the apical layer to take their place on the spheroid cortex.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2024, "work": "Motile Living Biobots Self-Construct from Adult Human Somatic Progenitor Seed Cells", "chapter": "Gumuskaya G 2024, Motile Living Biobots Self-Construct from Adult Human Somatic Progenitor Seed Cells › Results › Human Bronchial Epithelial Cells Self‐Construct into Multicellular Motile Living Architectures", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.434, "truth": 0.48, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.54 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.42 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.76, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA9ZXIifgk9qW-G-eSnbuQ-koskM9R-vhQq8mCqRfEZt4", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2024-anthrobots-04", "key": "56e0c4023d0b7b70", "label": "Apical-in spheroids become motile within a week in low-adhesive liquid culture", "statement": "Human bronchial epithelial spheroids that are apical-in and non-motile on release from Matrigel become motile by day 7 in low-adhesive liquid culture, with beating cilia on their outer surface; immunostaining shows a large increase in external multiciliated cells between day 0 and day 7.", "quote": "This new approach has enabled the originally apical‐in spheroids (that show no motility on day 0 as shown on Figure 1b.1) to became motile by day 7 (Figure 1b.2), featuring highly motile ciliary appendages on the spheroid surface.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2024, "work": "Motile Living Biobots Self-Construct from Adult Human Somatic Progenitor Seed Cells", "chapter": "Gumuskaya G 2024, Motile Living Biobots Self-Construct from Adult Human Somatic Progenitor Seed Cells › Results › Human Bronchial Epithelial Cells Self‐Construct into Multicellular Motile Living Architectures", "kind": "experimental-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.651, "truth": 0.905, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.95 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.86 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.835, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAMHTXKdigfF02cMVco-kxwOs_ecrYsLaMJEfWeXPR37M", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2024-anthrobots-05", "key": "d821b69b3f851c96", "label": "Higher culture viscosity reduces Anthrobot motility and size", "statement": "Culturing Anthrobots in environments more viscous than the protocol baseline decreases both their motility and their size, suggesting that low-viscosity environments favour the growth of functional, larger bots.", "quote": "We observed that culture environments with higher viscosity levels than the protocol baseline result in decreased motility (Figure S2, Supporting Information) and size (Figure S3, Supporting Information), suggesting that low‐viscosity environments better facilitate the growth of functional bots as well as yield larger bots.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2024, "work": "Motile Living Biobots Self-Construct from Adult Human Somatic Progenitor Seed Cells", "chapter": "Gumuskaya G 2024, Motile Living Biobots Self-Construct from Adult Human Somatic Progenitor Seed Cells › Results › Human Bronchial Epithelial Cells Self‐Construct into Multicellular Motile Living Architectures", "kind": "experimental-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.569, "truth": 0.82, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.88 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.76 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.81, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RADPTMegMziPLaj7rNNr7XjLieDSTK67fgcbfRdcMfP40", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2024-anthrobots-06", "key": "ff722742b2510dfb", "label": "Initial cell seeding density is a control knob for Anthrobot size and maturation", "statement": "Changing the initial seeding density of bronchial epithelial cells in Matrigel (half, default or double 30,000 cells/mL) significantly changes the resulting Anthrobot sizes and the time course of motility, though not linearly, suggesting that seeding density is a tractable control parameter for Anthrobot morphology and function.", "quote": "These results show that the size and time course of maturation of motile bots could be modulated by altering the concentration of cells in the Anthrobot differentiation culture, suggesting initial cell seeding density to be a tractable control knob for Anthrobot morphology and function.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2024, "work": "Motile Living Biobots Self-Construct from Adult Human Somatic Progenitor Seed Cells", "chapter": "Gumuskaya G 2024, Motile Living Biobots Self-Construct from Adult Human Somatic Progenitor Seed Cells › Results › Human Bronchial Epithelial Cells Self‐Construct into Multicellular Motile Living Architectures", "kind": "experimental-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.577, "truth": 0.845, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.91 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.78 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.81, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RATOITT-tsglYhcKEbC-1J8jXctqVARCZ5oph65H6wXh8", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2024-anthrobots-07", "key": "298a510b168e6c87", "label": "Anthrobot motility onset follows a sigmoidal time course peaking around day 10", "statement": "After release from the matrix, the number of motile Anthrobots rises along a sigmoidal curve over three weeks, with the largest change in motility on day 10, and this rise reflects a morphological reorganization that exposes cilia on the surface.", "quote": "To characterize the temporal dynamics of motility initiation, we periodically (every other day) counted the number of motile spheroids for 3 weeks following dissolution and observed a sigmoidal motility profile with peak change in motility on day 10 (Figure 1C).", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2024, "work": "Motile Living Biobots Self-Construct from Adult Human Somatic Progenitor Seed Cells", "chapter": "Gumuskaya G 2024, Motile Living Biobots Self-Construct from Adult Human Somatic Progenitor Seed Cells › Results › Human Bronchial Epithelial Cells Self‐Construct into Multicellular Motile Living Architectures", "kind": "experimental-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.583, "truth": 0.875, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.92 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.83 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.805, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAwIBkfIU8OfLA3PjULq3ySD_4X9hRQcXvkyVrofVqdfY", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2024-anthrobots-08", "key": "c0ed149bf5c3e684", "label": "Anthrobot motility is cilia-driven", "statement": "Blocking ciliary motion with ciliobrevin sharply decreases Anthrobot motility, showing that their locomotion is driven by surface cilia.", "quote": "We administered the efficient blocker of cilia motion, ciliobrevin,[ 20 ] and observed the expected drastic decrease in motility (See Figure S6, Supporting Information), confirming that the motility of Anthrobots is cilia‐driven.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2024, "work": "Motile Living Biobots Self-Construct from Adult Human Somatic Progenitor Seed Cells", "chapter": "Gumuskaya G 2024, Motile Living Biobots Self-Construct from Adult Human Somatic Progenitor Seed Cells › Results › Human Bronchial Epithelial Cells Self‐Construct into Multicellular Motile Living Architectures", "kind": "experimental-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.576, "truth": 0.925, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.97 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.88 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.82, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA5jUfd4bfD9NKoXZecVn6aAsH0lyrjZXv0mA1QUeuqsE", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2024-anthrobots-09", "key": "5cb8c56012aca915", "label": "Anthrobot trajectories fall into four movement types", "statement": "Unsupervised clustering of 30-second trajectory segments from about 200 Anthrobots, described by straightness and gyration indices, yields four statistically distinct movement types: circular, linear, curvilinear and eclectic.", "quote": "Further investigation of these clusters reveals that each represents a distinct movement type: circular, linear, curvilinear and “eclectic” (Figure 2D).", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2024, "work": "Motile Living Biobots Self-Construct from Adult Human Somatic Progenitor Seed Cells", "chapter": "Gumuskaya G 2024, Motile Living Biobots Self-Construct from Adult Human Somatic Progenitor Seed Cells › Results › Anthrobots Self‐Organize into Discrete Movement Types", "kind": "experimental-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.553, "truth": 0.82, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.9 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.74 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.82, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAQrL7dxkWBLYb6-jBtEnel9SsRW437F9dtQUSLW0nr8o", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2024-anthrobots-10", "key": "1eee5f6d3f93c563", "label": "Circular motion is the most stable Anthrobot behaviour; eclectic motion is transient", "statement": "In a Markov-chain model of transitions between movement types, circular motion is the most persistent Anthrobot behaviour, followed by linear and curvilinear motion, while eclectic motion acts as a transient intermediate that probabilistically resolves into one of the other three types.", "quote": "We observed that the most stable movement pattern for an Anthrobot is circular motion, followed by linear/curvilinear motion. The eclectics act more like an intermediate and over time, at least probabilistically, resolve into one of the 3 other categories.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2024, "work": "Motile Living Biobots Self-Construct from Adult Human Somatic Progenitor Seed Cells", "chapter": "Gumuskaya G 2024, Motile Living Biobots Self-Construct from Adult Human Somatic Progenitor Seed Cells › Results › Anthrobots Self‐Organize into Discrete Movement Types", "kind": "experimental-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.554, "truth": 0.8, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.88 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.72 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.81, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA5EhjOvddOp2rLY1V6TuvnYUH0ds93Sdvy9mC2PgqjOU", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2024-anthrobots-11", "key": "98619213631c807b", "label": "Anthrobots self-organize into discrete, stable movement types with individual fingerprints", "statement": "Because Anthrobot movement types are highly consistent and rarely interconvert (for example between circular and linear), the authors conclude that Anthrobots self-organize into discrete, stable movement types, each bot having a distinct motility fingerprint.", "quote": "The fact that Anthrobots exhibit movement types with high “consistency” and low rates of inter‐type conversion (e.g., between circulars and linear) suggests that Anthrobots self‐organize into discrete and stable movement types, each bot having a distinct motility fingerprint.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2024, "work": "Motile Living Biobots Self-Construct from Adult Human Somatic Progenitor Seed Cells", "chapter": "Gumuskaya G 2024, Motile Living Biobots Self-Construct from Adult Human Somatic Progenitor Seed Cells › Results › Anthrobots Self‐Organize into Discrete Movement Types", "kind": "experimental-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.487, "truth": 0.715, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.76 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.67 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.745, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAhbXNe7Xoe9GKYZ1ir2K_CXSH2mgR78ghWH0CiL1pWDY", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2024-anthrobots-12", "key": "d0f766aafd870dbe", "label": "Morphotype 2 is most ciliated; morphotype 3 has the most polarized cilia", "statement": "Among the three Anthrobot morphotypes, morphotype 2 (the largest and least regular) is significantly more ciliated than the other two, and morphotype 3 has a significantly more polarized, clustered cilia distribution with the fewest isolated cilia patches.", "quote": "These four indices together describe type 2 bots as being significantly more ciliated than type 1 and type 3 bots, and type 3 bots as having a significantly more polarized cilia distribution pattern (with the least amount of extra‐cluster noise) in comparison to type 1 and type 2 bots (Figure 3D).", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2024, "work": "Motile Living Biobots Self-Construct from Adult Human Somatic Progenitor Seed Cells", "chapter": "Gumuskaya G 2024, Motile Living Biobots Self-Construct from Adult Human Somatic Progenitor Seed Cells › Results › Anthrobots Self‐Organize into Distinct Morphological Types", "kind": "experimental-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.565, "truth": 0.85, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.93 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.77 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.81, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA5rRO5nIH1js9z7R_0W2GvxTP1Wr4NM6h3jpDb6GThN0", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2024-anthrobots-13", "key": "19fc1f5050b5a546", "label": "Anthrobots form three morphotypes, split first by size and shape, then by cilia pattern", "statement": "Principal component analysis and clustering of eight shape and cilia indices from about 350 Anthrobots yields three morphotypes, organized as a decision tree in which size and shape smoothness separate small, smooth spherical bots (morphotype 1) from larger, irregular bots, which are then split by cilia pattern into non-polarized (morphotype 2) and polarized (morphotype 3).", "quote": "In summary, our morphological characterization pipeline suggest that Anthrobots self‐organize into 3 major morphotypes (Figure 3E) and this relationship can be represented by a developmental decision tree shown on Figure 3F wherein the first “decision point” determines the Anthrobot size and shape.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2024, "work": "Motile Living Biobots Self-Construct from Adult Human Somatic Progenitor Seed Cells", "chapter": "Gumuskaya G 2024, Motile Living Biobots Self-Construct from Adult Human Somatic Progenitor Seed Cells › Results › Anthrobots Self‐Organize into Distinct Morphological Types", "kind": "experimental-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.512, "truth": 0.815, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.9 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.73 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.785, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAFa1x43HrozCGU96CWXWfcRB0MHpBMjSHWayoXJTXxHE", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2024-anthrobots-14", "key": "ce298578ca0503ec", "label": "Non-movers, linear and circular bots map onto morphotypes 1, 2 and 3", "statement": "Anthrobot behaviour and morphology are significantly associated: non-moving bots fall mostly in morphotype 1 (small, smooth, spherical), linear movers mostly in morphotype 2 (large, non-polarized cilia) and circular movers mostly in morphotype 3 (polarized cilia), and no displacing bot was found in morphotype 1.", "quote": "We have further computed the statistical significance of these overlaps (using the Fisher test, see Materials and Methods) and conclude that the non‐movers, linear, and circulars significantly correspond with the morphotypes 1, 2 and 3, respectively.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2024, "work": "Motile Living Biobots Self-Construct from Adult Human Somatic Progenitor Seed Cells", "chapter": "Gumuskaya G 2024, Motile Living Biobots Self-Construct from Adult Human Somatic Progenitor Seed Cells › Results › Distinct Movement Types and Morphotypes are Highly Correlated", "kind": "experimental-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.535, "truth": 0.745, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.83 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.66 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.815, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAjY6Zqez1TUFbUlxDN1osrgwchz6ppG-svqznIFhcDCc", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2024-anthrobots-15", "key": "9e093c4ed8c1c8e7", "label": "Spherical bots with uniform cilia may not move because ciliary forces cancel", "statement": "Morphotype 1 Anthrobots are likely non-movers or stationary wigglers, which the authors suggest may be because their radially symmetric spherical shape with evenly distributed cilia makes ciliary propulsion forces cancel out, with small imbalances producing only wiggling.", "quote": "This may be attributable to their spherical shape with homogeneously distributed cilia where the propulsion forces generated by the ciliary motion are more prone to canceling each other out due to the radially symmetric spherical shape, resulting in little or no movement.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2024, "work": "Motile Living Biobots Self-Construct from Adult Human Somatic Progenitor Seed Cells", "chapter": "Gumuskaya G 2024, Motile Living Biobots Self-Construct from Adult Human Somatic Progenitor Seed Cells › Results › Distinct Movement Types and Morphotypes are Highly Correlated", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.419, "truth": 0.76, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.78 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.74 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.73, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAB8YAG8ZbPRFxqZFDgu24ugZuQEuki8d185IsLHxBYkE", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2024-anthrobots-16", "key": "5a1cb8813763e398", "label": "Linear-moving Anthrobots are more bilaterally symmetric about their movement axis", "statement": "Linear-moving Anthrobots show higher bilateral symmetry of cilia distribution about their axis of movement than circular movers; for circular bots, but not linear bots, the 90-degree rotated axis is more symmetric than the movement axis (p = 0.048), supporting distinct local symmetry profiles for distinct movement types.", "quote": "Taken together, these findings support our hypothesis that Anthrobots with distinct movement types have distinct local bilateral symmetry profiles, with linear bots showing higher bilateral symmetry.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2024, "work": "Motile Living Biobots Self-Construct from Adult Human Somatic Progenitor Seed Cells", "chapter": "Gumuskaya G 2024, Motile Living Biobots Self-Construct from Adult Human Somatic Progenitor Seed Cells › Results › Anthrobots Show Bilateral Asymmetry Along Movement Axis", "kind": "experimental-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.523, "truth": 0.655, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.79 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.52 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.805, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA0lOlQ4l4Nuu4Da1qO-9hBO73NuyJIeSZ4xJbHVChh7w", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2024-anthrobots-17", "key": "d049de61e52767cc", "label": "Anthrobots recapitulate the bilateral symmetry of many wild-type species", "statement": "The link between straight-line movement and bilateral symmetry in Anthrobots suggests that these synthetic forms, self-assembling in a symmetrical environment, recapitulate a fundamental morphological property seen in many wild-type species and could be used to study how embryos establish a single body midplane.", "quote": "This suggests that these synthetic forms recapitulate a fundamental morphological property observed in many wild‐type species.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2024, "work": "Motile Living Biobots Self-Construct from Adult Human Somatic Progenitor Seed Cells", "chapter": "Gumuskaya G 2024, Motile Living Biobots Self-Construct from Adult Human Somatic Progenitor Seed Cells › Results › Anthrobots Show Bilateral Asymmetry Along Movement Axis", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.368, "truth": 0.455, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.61 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.3 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.725, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAieSW4FiGZFhFUylZhocxtbVKdaLq3gHWb0vUrFPLHeQ", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2024-anthrobots-18", "key": "15943beb2116946f", "label": "Faster and more rotational Anthrobots cover more of a neuronal scratch", "statement": "Anthrobots can move across scratches in human neuronal monolayers in vitro, and bots with higher rotational tendency or higher speed cover a larger proportion of unique positions along the scratch interface.", "quote": "Taken together, these data reveal that Anthrobots are capable of efficiently moving across damaged tissues, and that bots that have a higher rotational tendency and or higher speed have higher degrees of unique coordinate coverage by moving across a higher percentage of the scratch interface.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2024, "work": "Motile Living Biobots Self-Construct from Adult Human Somatic Progenitor Seed Cells", "chapter": "Gumuskaya G 2024, Motile Living Biobots Self-Construct from Adult Human Somatic Progenitor Seed Cells › Results › Anthrobots Can Move Across Scratches on Live Monolayers In Vitro", "kind": "experimental-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.543, "truth": 0.785, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.87 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.7 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.82, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA8g-Seg-_7vApIC0fwVLobZBSM-_nTg9cY2qV9jzc4xA", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2024-anthrobots-19", "key": "1653637b61966e02", "label": "An intermediate gyration maximizes how closely Anthrobots track scratch edges", "statement": "In a constrained set of 13 Anthrobots in neuronal scratches, gyration (rotational tendency) has a quadratic relationship with how closely a bot's trajectory follows the scratch edge (p = 0.006), suggesting an intermediate gyration range maximizes edge tracking.", "quote": "With our constrained dataset, we saw that gyration had a quadratic effect on scratch‐trajectory similarity (Figure 5E) with p = 0.006, suggesting that there is a specific range for gyration where the scratch‐trajectory correlation can be maximized", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2024, "work": "Motile Living Biobots Self-Construct from Adult Human Somatic Progenitor Seed Cells", "chapter": "Gumuskaya G 2024, Motile Living Biobots Self-Construct from Adult Human Somatic Progenitor Seed Cells › Results › Anthrobots Can Move Across Scratches on Live Monolayers In Vitro", "kind": "experimental-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.478, "truth": 0.565, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.71 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.42 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.84, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAPN_OSNfqQX9TL1i9kElpSkKfI3RDBok7dFcl7ttG1hs", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2024-anthrobots-20", "key": "5abd4f2d61ec3fbf", "label": "Superbot bridges induce neuronal gap closure in scratched monolayers", "statement": "Fused Anthrobot assemblies (superbots) placed across a scratch in a human neuronal monolayer induce substantial regrowth of neuronal tissue beneath them within 72 hours, forming a stitch that connects the two sides of the scratch.", "quote": "Strikingly, within the next 72 h upon inoculation of the superbot into the tissue scratch on day 0, we observed a substantial regrowth of the native tissue taking place (i.e., gap closure), resulting in the formation of a stitch right underneath the “superbot bridge,” connecting the two sides of the scratch (Figure 6B).", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2024, "work": "Motile Living Biobots Self-Construct from Adult Human Somatic Progenitor Seed Cells", "chapter": "Gumuskaya G 2024, Motile Living Biobots Self-Construct from Adult Human Somatic Progenitor Seed Cells › Results › Anthrobots Can Promote Gap Closures on Scratched Live Neuronal Monolayer Tissues", "kind": "experimental-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.545, "truth": 0.72, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.84 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.6 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.82, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA-SEwJhMQ_Yt1TD87Hsjm2OSTKT4kkJ-XBRIyMjJx8p4", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2024-anthrobots-21", "key": "0ef3391ee7864ff8", "label": "Superbot-induced gap closure is local and restores native tissue density", "statement": "Neuronal gap closure occurs only at the site where a superbot is placed; the neuronal coverage density there is statistically indistinguishable from intact tissue outside the scratch, while adjacent and distant parts of the scratch have significantly lower coverage.", "quote": "Thus, the density of the induced gap closure area that formed as a result of the presence of the superbot represented full (statistically indistinguishable from 100%) recovery of the original tissue and was uniquely different from the surrounding scratch area.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2024, "work": "Motile Living Biobots Self-Construct from Adult Human Somatic Progenitor Seed Cells", "chapter": "Gumuskaya G 2024, Motile Living Biobots Self-Construct from Adult Human Somatic Progenitor Seed Cells › Results › Anthrobots Can Promote Gap Closures on Scratched Live Neuronal Monolayer Tissues", "kind": "experimental-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.537, "truth": 0.665, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.78 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.55 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.815, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA1Yn5CcWWfJyjjCUxH2-Y0XG5h6dt9N-SY4UIcrq9Ppk", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2024-anthrobots-22", "key": "32e68d92221b2268", "label": "Passive mechanical loading does not reproduce Anthrobot-induced neural repair", "statement": "Placing a piece of agarose on neuronal scratches for 4 days to provide passive mechanical loading induces no repair, indicating that simple mechanical contact is not sufficient for the gap closure seen with Anthrobot superbots.", "quote": "Finally, in order to test whether simple (passive) mechanical contact was sufficient to induce the same effect, we incubated neuronal scratches for 4 days with a piece of agarose on top to provide mechanical loading; this induced no repair (see Figure S11, Supporting Information).", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2024, "work": "Motile Living Biobots Self-Construct from Adult Human Somatic Progenitor Seed Cells", "chapter": "Gumuskaya G 2024, Motile Living Biobots Self-Construct from Adult Human Somatic Progenitor Seed Cells › Results › Anthrobots Can Promote Gap Closures on Scratched Live Neuronal Monolayer Tissues", "kind": "experimental-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.489, "truth": 0.79, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.88 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.7 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.805, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAjLGhc97rHonOu2a0DWi30KFCSzMPCR-u0ge6k7dJnTY", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2024-anthrobots-23", "key": "e12b2b5cfc1eff09", "label": "Anthrobots and Xenobots share similar movement types and transition profiles", "statement": "Anthrobots and Xenobots both show discrete movement types with very low interconversion between linear and circular motion (0.2% and 0.3% for Anthrobots, 0.5% and 1.6% for Xenobots) and highly consistent circular behaviour (92% and 95%), though Anthrobot linear behaviour is more consistent (80% versus 67%).", "quote": "The interconversion between linear and circular is very small for Xenobots (0.5% and 1.6%) and Anthrobots (0.2% and 0.3%), while their consistency of Circular behavior is extremely high for Xenobots (95%) just like for Anthrobots (92%).", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2024, "work": "Motile Living Biobots Self-Construct from Adult Human Somatic Progenitor Seed Cells", "chapter": "Gumuskaya G 2024, Motile Living Biobots Self-Construct from Adult Human Somatic Progenitor Seed Cells › Discussion", "kind": "experimental-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.618, "truth": 0.835, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.91 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.76 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.735, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA0_fXvCxcrufzjVRSw3zZ16aSLaMAH9xMPgYl2jjmEd4", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2024-anthrobots-24", "key": "b6942260eff02114", "label": "Similar forms from divergent genomes point to generic laws of morphogenesis", "statement": "Because Anthrobots and Xenobots, despite highly divergent genomes, ages and tissue origins, assemble into very similar kinds of motile constructs, the authors conclude that generic laws of morphogenesis matter in addition to species-specific genomic information.", "quote": "Despite their highly divergent genome, age, and tissue origin, the two platforms assemble into very similar types of creatures, illustrating the importance of generic laws of morphogenesis[ 31 ] in addition to species‐specific genomic information.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2024, "work": "Motile Living Biobots Self-Construct from Adult Human Somatic Progenitor Seed Cells", "chapter": "Gumuskaya G 2024, Motile Living Biobots Self-Construct from Adult Human Somatic Progenitor Seed Cells › Discussion", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.365, "truth": 0.63, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.72 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.54 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.7, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAQ3_Qo76FmkmJFHKwn1yXWyZXNve9HCxXcpF9eHbKcwA", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2024-anthrobots-25", "key": "5561b75c386cd4c2", "label": "Superbot size is set by bot number and fusion requires exposed basal layers", "statement": "Anthrobots fuse into larger superbots only in the days immediately after release from the matrix, while their basal layers are still exposed and can mediate bot-to-bot fusion, and superbot size can be controlled by the number of Anthrobots cultured together in a well.", "quote": "The tendency of the bots to fuse together and thus form different sized collectives (i.e., superbots) for different scratches can be controlled by modulating the number of Anthrobots cultured together in the same well for fusion, which happens only on days immediately following dissolution while the Anthrobot basal layers are still exposed and thus can mediate the bot‐to‐bot fusion.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2024, "work": "Motile Living Biobots Self-Construct from Adult Human Somatic Progenitor Seed Cells", "chapter": "Gumuskaya G 2024, Motile Living Biobots Self-Construct from Adult Human Somatic Progenitor Seed Cells › Discussion", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.462, "truth": 0.84, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.89 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.79 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.75, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RATfW9lJ4jRlI_DbjLtu9gnkbi8vcMiVG4jbcVoEPgClY", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2024-anthrobots-26", "key": "3ead081135984512", "label": "Tracheal cells healing neural tissue could not be predicted from current models", "statement": "That wild-type cells from the trachea move over and heal neural tissue is unexpected given their normal role in the body and could not be predicted from any current molecular or tissue-level model, which suggests screening engineered tissue interactions to uncover novel cell capabilities.", "quote": "The finding is unexpected given these tissues’ normal roles in the human body – the fact that wild‐type cells from trachea will move over and heal neural tissues could not be predicted from any current molecular or tissue‐level models.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2024, "work": "Motile Living Biobots Self-Construct from Adult Human Somatic Progenitor Seed Cells", "chapter": "Gumuskaya G 2024, Motile Living Biobots Self-Construct from Adult Human Somatic Progenitor Seed Cells › Discussion", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.262, "truth": 0.415, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.55 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.28 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.76, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA2fnCBjS-BUnBBTRUafVpug1cm5abDtWOKw5paGa70hQ", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2024-anthrobots-27", "key": "71ff4441379dde75", "label": "Patient-derived Anthrobots could be deployed in vivo without an immune response", "statement": "Because Anthrobots are made from adult human tissue, they could in future be personalized for each patient and deployed in that patient's body without triggering an immune response.", "quote": "Anthrobots are derived from adult human tissue, and in the future could be personalized for each patient, enabling safe in‐vivo deployment of these robots in the human body without triggering an immune response.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2024, "work": "Motile Living Biobots Self-Construct from Adult Human Somatic Progenitor Seed Cells", "chapter": "Gumuskaya G 2024, Motile Living Biobots Self-Construct from Adult Human Somatic Progenitor Seed Cells › Discussion", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.378, "truth": 0.375, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.55 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.2 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.82, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAPOVePYfyU8Oj3N7LlDuAQmo9gcbwBnbTRB6DGIlvnKY", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2024-anthrobots-28", "key": "7e1c5344b5d8a51d", "label": "Anthrobots may be made from other ciliated human cells such as oviduct or ependyma", "statement": "Anthrobots may be generable from other ciliated human cells, such as oviductal epithelium or brain ependymal cells, and non-ciliated cell types could be used for bots that need no autonomous motility.", "quote": "Anthrobots may be able to be generated from other ciliated cells in the human body (e.g., oviductal epithelia or brain ependymal cells), and other cell types can be used for bots when autonomous motility is not needed", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2024, "work": "Motile Living Biobots Self-Construct from Adult Human Somatic Progenitor Seed Cells", "chapter": "Gumuskaya G 2024, Motile Living Biobots Self-Construct from Adult Human Somatic Progenitor Seed Cells › Conclusion", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.411, "truth": 0.64, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.7 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.58 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.82, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA7adPM5zf6eEWIJanHQU2KP_Oxo1R4a1HWZWZrEqbNvk", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2024-anthrobots-29", "key": "c9f6d44926b0ef30", "label": "One genome yielding diverse forms in different environments could shape evolution", "statement": "The additional morphogenetic competencies revealed by Anthrobots could matter for evolutionary developmental biology, since the evolution of anatomical and functional features could be affected by the ability of the same genome to produce very diverse forms in different environments.", "quote": "More fundamentally, these data reveal additional morphogenetic competencies of cells which could have implications for evolutionary developmental biology, as evolution of anatomical and functional features could be affected by the ability of the same genome to produce very diverse forms in different environments.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2024, "work": "Motile Living Biobots Self-Construct from Adult Human Somatic Progenitor Seed Cells", "chapter": "Gumuskaya G 2024, Motile Living Biobots Self-Construct from Adult Human Somatic Progenitor Seed Cells › Conclusion", "kind": "historical-inference", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.314, "truth": 0.79, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.82 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.76 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.69, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAOfH4JfZ4DK2rJR3TJ-SCxeKgsMN0yFvdNWqKTvL99Ic", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2024-collective-01", "key": "108642b68c153c80", "label": "A collective's perceptual field and ability to find alternative paths grow with its size", "statement": "Extending William James' definition of intelligence (reaching the same goal by different means) to collectives via the perceptual field, the region of space and time an agent can survey for alternative paths to a goal, the authors propose that as a collective grows its perceptual field increases, improving its ability to find variant paths.", "quote": "As the size of a collective increases its perceptual field increases, improving its ability to find variant paths.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2024, "work": "Collective intelligence: A unifying concept for integrating biology across scales and substrates", "chapter": "McMillen P 2024, Collective intelligence: A unifying concept for integrating biology across scales and substrates › Introduction", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.33, "truth": 0.515, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.65 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.38 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.705, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAL24mf4nXLutFvTeC3z_R68EtBDSlL1u4_YEEFNB34Qc", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2024-collective-02", "key": "2af33e8fbe823dda", "label": "Neural unification into a self is a pivot of earlier morphogenetic cell communication", "statement": "It has been hypothesized, and the authors adopt, that the ability of neurons to unify into a centralized self is an evolutionary pivot of earlier cell-communication strategies that first solved problems in anatomical morphospace, a domain also requiring information processing above the single-cell level.", "quote": "Indeed it has been hypothesized that the remarkable ability of neurons to unify toward a centralized self – the emergent agent that is the subject of memories, preferences, and goals which are not assignable to any of the individual components – is an evolutionary pivot of far earlier cell communication strategies that first solved problems in navigating another domain that requires information processing above the single cell level: anatomical morphospace70.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2024, "work": "Collective intelligence: A unifying concept for integrating biology across scales and substrates", "chapter": "McMillen P 2024, Collective intelligence: A unifying concept for integrating biology across scales and substrates › Introduction", "kind": "historical-inference", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.427, "truth": 0.525, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.59 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.46 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.61, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RABCDwJwOhcSMkrdSvP2z0wmpI03TAvr7WPPjoHPQZ9NQ", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2024-collective-03", "key": "bbd4be2e80a20e01", "label": "The number of embryos a blastoderm forms is not fixed by genetics", "statement": "The number of individuals formed by an embryonic blastoderm is not fixed at one by the genome: temporarily introducing breaks that informationally isolate islands of cells yields twins, triplets and so on, showing the blastoderm is an excitable medium in which several coherent embryos can self-organize.", "quote": "Indeed, the question of how many individuals are present in an embryonic blastoderm is not fixed at 1 by the genetics, because temporary introduction of breaks in the blastoderm (leading to informational isolation of islands of cell masses) results in twins, triplets, etc103.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2024, "work": "Collective intelligence: A unifying concept for integrating biology across scales and substrates", "chapter": "McMillen P 2024, Collective intelligence: A unifying concept for integrating biology across scales and substrates › Introduction › Development: transition to multicellularity", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.58, "truth": 0.905, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.88 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.93 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.685, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAx9sm7lJ7nrJQkv2o7RvKle1SmKxW0zM-hSphIGPG_xU", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2024-collective-04", "key": "7ffeb65aebc6afcb", "label": "Keratocyte fragments migrate to the anode while whole keratocytes migrate to the cathode", "statement": "In an electric field, whole keratocytes migrate toward the cathode while fragments of keratocytes migrate toward the anode, so the collective (an intact cell) has the opposite taxis to its parts, illustrating that collective behaviour can be a hard-to-predict function of component tendencies.", "quote": "In an electric field, keratocytes migrate to the cathode, but fragments of keratocytes migrate to the anode104.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2024, "work": "Collective intelligence: A unifying concept for integrating biology across scales and substrates", "chapter": "McMillen P 2024, Collective intelligence: A unifying concept for integrating biology across scales and substrates › Introduction › Cell migration: the group does not go where each of the parts wants to go", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "supports", "evidence_kind": "biological", "data_test": { "verdict": "supports", "confidence": 0.85, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "biological", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/levin-papers/levin-2024-collective-04/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Published mean directedness >= +0.5 for intact keratocytes and <= -0.3 for keratocyte fragments under the same field, each significantly different from zero.", "disconfirming_observation": "Fragments with mean directedness >= 0 or intact cells with mean directedness <= 0.", "admissible_datasets": "Published quantitative measurements (text, tables, figure legends or supplementary data) of migration direction of fish epidermal keratocytes and their fragments in applied DC fields; the review the claim comes from is excluded as it reports no data.", "inference_method": "Read the reported mean directedness, dispersion and n for cells and fragments at matched field strength; one-sample z/t test against 0 where dispersion is reported; apply the pass/fail thresholds.", "explicit": true }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.678, "truth": 0.865, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.85 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.88 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.785, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA2G_oaB96EndAqtgDJgo9Sr5iw_kwblzh5-fbQduaYuE", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2024-collective-05", "key": "d2b5e523734cc1b5", "label": "Targeting instructor-cell voltage converts tadpole melanocytes to a melanoma-like state", "statement": "In Xenopus tadpoles, briefly targeting the bioelectric state of a small population of instructor cells (with a chloride channel activator or a GlyCl mutant), in the absence of carcinogens, oncogenes or DNA damage, converts melanocytes throughout the animal, including distant ones, into an over-proliferative, invasive melanoma-like phenotype via disruption of serotonergic signalling.", "quote": "This could be achieved in the absence of classical carcinogens, oncogenes, or DNA damage, by brief exposure to chemical (chloride ion channel activator drug) or molecular-genetic (GlyCl mutant) targeting of the bioelectric state of a specific cell population: instructor cells which normally keep the melanocytes in their healthy state via serotonergic signaling118.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2024, "work": "Collective intelligence: A unifying concept for integrating biology across scales and substrates", "chapter": "McMillen P 2024, Collective intelligence: A unifying concept for integrating biology across scales and substrates › Introduction › From normal melanocytes to a melanoma phenotype: a collective decision", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.576, "truth": 0.835, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.87 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.8 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.715, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAvJbqoylEohVuDRXNJ3R62kExPwqjWhD7rU4ZwhHban4", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2024-collective-06", "key": "b037b2b6b98fb0f1", "label": "Melanocyte conversion is all-or-none per animal, stochastic only across the cohort", "statement": "Melanocyte conversion after instructor-cell depolarization is a collective, all-or-none decision: different reagents give different incidences in a cohort (e.g. 70% converted), but each animal is either fully converted or fully normal; a computational model fitted to these incidences predicted interventions (two drugs and a dominant-negative construct) that were then confirmed to produce the first partially converted animals.", "quote": "Using different reagents could induce different incidences of hyperpigmentation (conversion) in a cohort of animals, but this was a population-level phenotype: for example, 70% of the animals could be converted, but any given animal was either fully converted or fully normal (Fig. 4a, b).", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2024, "work": "Collective intelligence: A unifying concept for integrating biology across scales and substrates", "chapter": "McMillen P 2024, Collective intelligence: A unifying concept for integrating biology across scales and substrates › Introduction › From normal melanocytes to a melanoma phenotype: a collective decision", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.588, "truth": 0.8, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.86 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.74 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.675, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RANfTfBz7r0fg2EzcSXmIbIzfJIPANereJH0xRsu2V14g", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2024-collective-07", "key": "0e1b2a3d4b739565", "label": "Head-versus-tail choice at a planarian cut cannot be made locally", "statement": "When a planarian is cut once, cells that were adjacent neighbours at the same positional-information value make a head on one side and a tail on the other, so this anatomical decision cannot be made locally: wound cells must coordinate with the rest of the fragment to learn where they are, which way they face and what structures remain.", "quote": "In other words, it is actually impossible for an anatomical decision like this to be made locally – the cells of the wound must coordinate with the remaining fragment to get information about where they are located, which way they are facing, and what other structures exist121,122, in order to make adaptive decisions about large-scale growth and form that enable regeneration of normal worms.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2024, "work": "Collective intelligence: A unifying concept for integrating biology across scales and substrates", "chapter": "McMillen P 2024, Collective intelligence: A unifying concept for integrating biology across scales and substrates › Introduction › Left/right, head/tail: random, but collective anatomical decisions", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.534, "truth": 0.88, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.89 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.87 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.64, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA57QM8K8GCmlJIU45XNHlTOrgWzfWFeO8XAbhsLFI9rI", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2024-collective-08", "key": "5d3080a96dfe738b", "label": "Cryptic planaria randomize head number per animal, not per cell", "statement": "Perturbing the planarian bioelectric control circuit produces 'Cryptic' destabilized worms whose fragments, even from the same parent, regenerate one-headed and two-headed forms at a set frequency of about 1:2, yet each animal has clear heads and tails rather than mixed tissue, so the randomized bioelectric state is interpreted by collectives rather than by individual cells.", "quote": "More specifically, several perturbations targeting the bioelectric control circuit (Fig. 5e) have shown randomization of outcome: such Cryptic planaria are destabilized, and fragments (even from the same parent worm) will form 1-head and 2-head forms at a set frequency of ~1:2130 (Fig. 5f).", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2024, "work": "Collective intelligence: A unifying concept for integrating biology across scales and substrates", "chapter": "McMillen P 2024, Collective intelligence: A unifying concept for integrating biology across scales and substrates › Introduction › Left/right, head/tail: random, but collective anatomical decisions", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.592, "truth": 0.785, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.81 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.76 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.715, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA4ZziZsqApOxpWKez9p-ALdryRrXytjBZLBUcVa8MAw8", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2024-collective-09", "key": "6e2af8bf42c9c4f3", "label": "Left-right randomization is concordant within an embryo except after VANGL knockdown", "statement": "Bioelectric and biochemical perturbations of vertebrate left-right patterning randomize laterality only at the level of whole embryos (each embryo's cells agree on L and R identity); the only known perturbation that breaks this concordance is down-regulation of planar-polarity VANGL signalling, which produces speckled L/R marker expression on both sides of the midline.", "quote": "In all of the many studies on perturbation of the LR pathway, we are aware of only one that actually breaks the concordance: disruption of the planar polarity pathway by down-regulating VANGL signaling149 leads to a speckling on both sides of the midline, consistent with individual cells within a single lateral domain disagreeing on whether they should have L or R identity (Fig. 6a–d).", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2024, "work": "Collective intelligence: A unifying concept for integrating biology across scales and substrates", "chapter": "McMillen P 2024, Collective intelligence: A unifying concept for integrating biology across scales and substrates › Introduction › Left/right, head/tail: random, but collective anatomical decisions", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.579, "truth": 0.575, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.67 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.48 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.665, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAeFAgnQkotnNrjGHzGWPmJwOSAItBk_ueIVn58RduMpM", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2024-collective-10", "key": "bcda32dd11cde32a", "label": "Grafted groups of neural crest cells keep their identity; single grafted cells do not", "statement": "Single neural crest cells transposed to a different anterior-posterior axial domain change their gene expression to match their neighbours, whereas groups of transposed cells keep their original gene expression, which the authors interpret as collectives having greater positional memory (a perceptual field extending further into the past) than individual cells.", "quote": "Individual cells transposed from one anterior-posterior axial domain to another will change their gene expression to match their neighbors159,161,162. In contrast, groups of cells transposed along the anterior-posterior axis maintain their original gene expression, thus resisting the inductive effects of the surrounding tissue159,161,162.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2024, "work": "Collective intelligence: A unifying concept for integrating biology across scales and substrates", "chapter": "McMillen P 2024, Collective intelligence: A unifying concept for integrating biology across scales and substrates › Introduction › Neural crest intelligence is collective", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.583, "truth": 0.8, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.78 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.82 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.725, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAOJ9-Qj0ITiU8V_c8pGjVy1DTUtuygULZxD7ZvhDemIE", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2024-collective-11", "key": "ae6d3caa23a78771", "label": "The segmentation clock needs a cell collective to oscillate and entrains grafted cells", "statement": "The vertebrate segmentation clock depends on collectivity: presomitic mesoderm cells do not oscillate when cultured individually but resume oscillating when cultured together, wild-type cells grafted into non-cycling mutant fish express her1 without cycling, and cells grafted into tissue at a different clock phase synchronize to their neighbours' phase.", "quote": "Similarly, pre-somitic mesoderm cells do not oscillate when cultured independently, but will resume oscillating when cultured collectively169.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2024, "work": "Collective intelligence: A unifying concept for integrating biology across scales and substrates", "chapter": "McMillen P 2024, Collective intelligence: A unifying concept for integrating biology across scales and substrates › Introduction › Segmentation intelligence is collective", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [ { "id": "hubaud-yap-excitable-segmentation", "relation": "models", "note": "The excitable FitzHugh-Nagumo clock gated by density-dependent YAP is the Hubaud et al. (2017) mechanism by which isolated PSM cells stay quiescent and oscillate only as a collective.", "label": "Hubaud, Regev, Mahadevan & Pourquié (2017) excitable FitzHugh-Nagumo segmentation clock gated by YAP mechanotransduction, with FGF/Wnt clock-and-wavefront arrest and stiffness-LATS-YAP kinetics (Pass 3) faithfully reproduces Mus musculus (mouse E9.5-E10.5 presomitic mesoderm LuVeLu Lfng-Venus / Hes7 excitable oscillator) morphology", "organism": "Mus musculus (mouse E9.5-E10.5 presomitic mesoderm LuVeLu Lfng-Venus / Hes7 excitable oscillator)", "verdict": "faithful", "score": 91.8, "thompson_verdict": null, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA1NG7ysmQQFX5WtVt1NnFK7z04xh5IBPi3WquuM79c4s", "registry": "production", "report": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/morphoeval/kg/2026-10-19-yap-excitable-segmentation-audit-v3/REPORT.md" } ], "thumbnail": { "file": "docs/thumbs/hubaud-yap-excitable-segmentation.jpg", "morpholib": "hubaud-yap-excitable-segmentation", "source": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/docs/media/yap_excitable_segmentation_growth.gif" }, "testability": 0.682, "truth": 0.74, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.9 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.58 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.76, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAm3h4br4sNL61UWKdNGIbcxcCNNajiWnHtBtWIsKzUSU", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2024-collective-12", "key": "415cb651b7f1511c", "label": "Frog embryo brain gene expression is driven by voltage differences, not absolute values", "statement": "In the frog embryo brain, downstream gene expression is driven by the spatial difference in membrane voltage between regions rather than the absolute voltage of any cells, so cells must read patterns over whole cell fields: collectivity appears in the input as well as the output of cell-group behaviour.", "quote": "For example, in the frog embryo brain, it is the spatial difference in voltage between regions that drives downstream gene expression, not the absolute value of any cells186,187.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2024, "work": "Collective intelligence: A unifying concept for integrating biology across scales and substrates", "chapter": "McMillen P 2024, Collective intelligence: A unifying concept for integrating biology across scales and substrates › Conclusion", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.545, "truth": 0.67, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.8 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.54 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.74, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RALYVN038A2jqFJ_vy6ytrZ20AA5aHU2uBZeEXirGYRgM", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2024-memory-01", "key": "1624ebbcb815bdc8", "label": "Biological memory preserves salience rather than fidelity", "statement": "Levin proposes that memory, across scales from cells to societies, is best understood as preserving salience (what matters for the agent's future) rather than fidelity to the details of the original data.", "quote": "Using examples from developmental biology, evolution, and synthetic bioengineering, in addition to neuroscience, I propose that a perspective on memory as preserving salience, not fidelity, is applicable to many phenomena on scales from cells to societies.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2024, "work": "Self-Improvising Memory: A Perspective on Memories as Agential, Dynamically Reinterpreting Cognitive Glue", "chapter": "Levin M 2024, Self-Improvising Memory: A Perspective on Memories as Agential, Dynamically Reinterpreting Cognitive Glue › Abstract", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.284, "truth": 0.5, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.64 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.36 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.735, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA_nQtSKT3wpE7TYEANR3U1bFAmOd6G9GYgZrzFJ5nu0g", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2024-memory-02", "key": "f0e7666408c92413", "label": "Adaptive confabulation resolves the persistence paradox for individuals and lineages", "statement": "Levin argues that the paradox that a changing agent or species ceases to be itself while an unchanging one dies out is resolved by continuous commitment to creative, adaptive confabulation (reinterpretation of memories and information) at levels from molecular to behavioural, in individuals and whole lineages.", "quote": "Continuous commitment to creative, adaptive confabulation, from the molecular to the behavioral levels, is the answer to the persistence paradox as it applies to individuals and whole lineages.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2024, "work": "Self-Improvising Memory: A Perspective on Memories as Agential, Dynamically Reinterpreting Cognitive Glue", "chapter": "Levin M 2024, Self-Improvising Memory: A Perspective on Memories as Agential, Dynamically Reinterpreting Cognitive Glue › Abstract", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.092, "truth": 0.355, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.45 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.26 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.875, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RACmIWcmntVDRDrruelyw0COoU6rqKsHYeN9fm7-w-ljQ", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2024-memory-03", "key": "799afb84b3320076", "label": "Memories may be active agents in the sense-making process", "statement": "Levin speculates that, on a substrate-independent, processual view of life and mind, memories, as patterns in the excitable medium of cognitive systems, could be seen as minimally agential participants that help shape their own reinterpretation, blurring the line between thoughts and thinkers.", "quote": "I also speculate that a substrate-independent, processual view of life and mind suggests that memories, as patterns in the excitable medium of cognitive systems, could be seen as active agents in the sense-making process.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2024, "work": "Self-Improvising Memory: A Perspective on Memories as Agential, Dynamically Reinterpreting Cognitive Glue", "chapter": "Levin M 2024, Self-Improvising Memory: A Perspective on Memories as Agential, Dynamically Reinterpreting Cognitive Glue › Abstract", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.074, "truth": 0.25, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.35 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.15 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.91, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAA19do5hygm6gVz8fahNFg7XJmXIQv-K4uxko-bW_osg", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2024-memory-04", "key": "5565f452309d11b5", "label": "Reinterpreting non-local memories is a cognitive glue that makes Selves", "statement": "Levin proposes that mnemonic improvisation, the ability to modify, remap and interpret non-local memories onto new media and contexts, is one of the kinds of cognitive glue that binds parts into a Self at every scale.", "quote": "Thus, I propose that the ability to modify and interpret non-local memories is one of the kinds of cognitive glue that reifies Selves (at all scales) [23,24,25].", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2024, "work": "Self-Improvising Memory: A Perspective on Memories as Agential, Dynamically Reinterpreting Cognitive Glue", "chapter": "Levin M 2024, Self-Improvising Memory: A Perspective on Memories as Agential, Dynamically Reinterpreting Cognitive Glue › 1. Introduction and Overview", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.124, "truth": 0.395, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.49 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.3 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.84, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAoVDOyEskgK9HsyvY-tm75Gt2SKOFlLOEp2xHw0G4gqQ", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2024-memory-05", "key": "f3ecb10720cfadfa", "label": "Memories surviving metamorphosis are remapped to stay salient in the new body", "statement": "In insects whose memories survive metamorphosis (caterpillar to butterfly), recall does not carry over specific caterpillar memories but generalizes and remaps them (e.g. from leaves to food) so that the learned relationship keeps its salience in the new body and environment.", "quote": "The process of memory and recall not only functionally generalizes (abstracts20) the information (not leaves, but “food”), but most importantly, remaps21 it in a way that the basic relationship learned maintains its salience in a new body and environment.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2024, "work": "Self-Improvising Memory: A Perspective on Memories as Agential, Dynamically Reinterpreting Cognitive Glue", "chapter": "Levin M 2024, Self-Improvising Memory: A Perspective on Memories as Agential, Dynamically Reinterpreting Cognitive Glue › 3. Remapping Memories: Beyond Storage and Simple Modification", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.519, "truth": 0.345, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.35 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.34 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.685, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAqjWreDLOg4PH6ykvLF6fxSOtTi241pfpcCaDXmUd8nU", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2024-memory-06", "key": "466d39e309bb7802", "label": "Engrams act more like prompts decoded by an intelligent receiver than like encodings", "statement": "From examples such as frogs that seek out an odorant injected into the egg they developed from, Levin argues that engrams behave less like encoded memories and more like prompts, with much of the work (detecting novelty, remapping across scales, contextualizing and generalizing) done by the encoding and decoding process.", "quote": "The engrams seem less like encoded memories29, and more like a kind of prompt, with a lot of the hard work being carried out through the encoding/decoding process, which adds interpretation, context sensitivity, and generalization (i.e., intelligence) to the process.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2024, "work": "Self-Improvising Memory: A Perspective on Memories as Agential, Dynamically Reinterpreting Cognitive Glue", "chapter": "Levin M 2024, Self-Improvising Memory: A Perspective on Memories as Agential, Dynamically Reinterpreting Cognitive Glue › 3. Remapping Memories: Beyond Storage and Simple Modification", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.27, "truth": 0.34, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.38 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.3 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.69, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAmD8HeiI9stwoamVm2AzSINMBTWClqgGQNFaYSgndg0U", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2024-memory-07", "key": "782357c5c3af294e", "label": "The same bioelectric trigger is reinterpreted by context (monensin: tails vs legs)", "statement": "Low-information bioelectric triggers are interpreted by competent tissues according to context: the voltage-modifying reagent monensin induces tail regrowth in tadpoles but leg regrowth in froglets, never the reverse, preserving high-level information such as 'build whatever normally goes at this location'.", "quote": "Here, the same bioelectric stimulus is functionally reinterpreted based on the specific context, preserving salient, high-level information like “build whatever normally goes at this location” (in the case of the appendage regeneration trigger).", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2024, "work": "Self-Improvising Memory: A Perspective on Memories as Agential, Dynamically Reinterpreting Cognitive Glue", "chapter": "Levin M 2024, Self-Improvising Memory: A Perspective on Memories as Agential, Dynamically Reinterpreting Cognitive Glue › 4. Beyond the Brain: Bowties Everywhere", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.559, "truth": 0.72, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.84 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.6 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.75, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAJvqdxEL26fZ7zJLcL65IysS-GkCKcNqvHk2UvwIrVdc", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2024-memory-08", "key": "73dbad4f535ff625", "label": "Polyploid newts build normal tubules by switching molecular mechanisms", "statement": "Engineered polyploid newts with much larger cells keep kidney tubule diameter normal by using fewer cells and, with truly enormous cells, a single cell bending around itself, showing that tissues call up different molecular mechanisms (cytoskeletal bending instead of cell–cell communication) to reach the same anatomical goal state.", "quote": "This requires using a different molecular mechanism (cytoskeletal bending instead of cell–cell communication of tubulogenesis)—calling up different modular subroutines to accomplish their high-level goal state as needed, while circumstances (indeed, their inner components) change unexpectedly34.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2024, "work": "Self-Improvising Memory: A Perspective on Memories as Agential, Dynamically Reinterpreting Cognitive Glue", "chapter": "Levin M 2024, Self-Improvising Memory: A Perspective on Memories as Agential, Dynamically Reinterpreting Cognitive Glue › 4. Beyond the Brain: Bowties Everywhere", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.589, "truth": 0.89, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.88 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.9 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.73, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAli7bKjfq-E3Md_LtAkHfVrXm_OT9U5slvx_vdeWqqno", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2024-memory-09", "key": "c65e680936bd5a65", "label": "Bowtie compression is common in biochemical, bioelectric and mechanical pathways", "statement": "Levin argues that a bowtie architecture, which compresses data to a generative kernel that must later be re-inflated and reinterpreted, is common at the subcellular scale in biochemical, bioelectrical and biomechanical pathways, as well as in the egg stage of the metazoan life cycle and in learning.", "quote": "Note that this bowtie architecture—which forces a compression36 of data to a generative kernel that then has to be re-inflated and elaborated—is also a common feature of biochemical, bioelectrical, and biomechanical pathways (Figure 7), that is, at the subcellular scale;", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2024, "work": "Self-Improvising Memory: A Perspective on Memories as Agential, Dynamically Reinterpreting Cognitive Glue", "chapter": "Levin M 2024, Self-Improvising Memory: A Perspective on Memories as Agential, Dynamically Reinterpreting Cognitive Glue › 4. Beyond the Brain: Bowties Everywhere", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.526, "truth": 0.665, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.73 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.6 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.7, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAUiYdVMsyISy2zYlwlNWwrqSp6Vq13iP1rxVdFVNvyXI", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2024-memory-10", "key": "0381ebd4ab32b449", "label": "Anatomical plasticity across species reflects willingness to confabulate in morphospace", "statement": "Levin proposes that the spectrum from hardwired, mosaic C. elegans through intermediately plastic amphibians and embryonic mammals to extremely plastic planaria reflects a strategic parameter: the willingness to confabulate in anatomical space, i.e. to rely on pattern extraction and completion rather than taking genetic priors too seriously.", "quote": "What underlying parameter is represented by the spectrum ranging from the hardwired, mosaic C. elegans to the intermediately plastic amphibia and (embryonic) mammals, and to the extreme plasticity of planaria? I propose it is the willingness to confabulate in anatomical space", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2024, "work": "Self-Improvising Memory: A Perspective on Memories as Agential, Dynamically Reinterpreting Cognitive Glue", "chapter": "Levin M 2024, Self-Improvising Memory: A Perspective on Memories as Agential, Dynamically Reinterpreting Cognitive Glue › 4. Beyond the Brain: Bowties Everywhere", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.337, "truth": 0.43, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.52 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.34 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.7, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAggw_wqvM92uZ6s966GSyiiD-PVQ6Y543WFfVYi3ftO4", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2024-memory-11", "key": "efd26adba277add6", "label": "Planaria resist cancer and ageing despite noisy genomes via pattern completion", "statement": "In silico simulations show how lineages such as planarian flatworms can become extremely resistant to transgenesis, ageing, cancer and injury despite very noisy genomes because they commit to a strategy that overrides genetic details with large-scale pattern completion.", "quote": "In silico simulation results [176] show how this kind of process can give rise to remarkable lineages, such as planarian flatworms, which are extremely resistant to transgenesis, aging, cancer, and injury despite40 their incredibly noisy genome because they have fully committed to a strategy that overrides genetic details with large-scale pattern completion [176].", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2024, "work": "Self-Improvising Memory: A Perspective on Memories as Agential, Dynamically Reinterpreting Cognitive Glue", "chapter": "Levin M 2024, Self-Improvising Memory: A Perspective on Memories as Agential, Dynamically Reinterpreting Cognitive Glue › 4. Beyond the Brain: Bowties Everywhere", "kind": "historical-inference", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.487, "truth": 0.415, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.35 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.48 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.64, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAnY8waHl8ZAaM5uSvES1XBhhNcwvhy2AI7SQtDUytH4E", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2024-memory-12", "key": "5d0ed123121ec20f", "label": "Substrate unreliability is the reason, not an obstacle, for biological intelligence", "statement": "Levin argues that the noise and unreliability of biological matter is a feature rather than a bug: morphological and behavioural intelligence arose because of, not in spite of, the vulnerability of the substrate, as suggested by planaria having the noisiest genome and the best regeneration and cancer resistance.", "quote": "It seems that the underlying noise and unreliability of biological matter is not a bug but a feature: we obtained morphological (and behavioral) intelligence because of, not in spite of, the vulnerability of the substrate45.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2024, "work": "Self-Improvising Memory: A Perspective on Memories as Agential, Dynamically Reinterpreting Cognitive Glue", "chapter": "Levin M 2024, Self-Improvising Memory: A Perspective on Memories as Agential, Dynamically Reinterpreting Cognitive Glue › 6. What It Means, and What Next: A Research Program for Further Development", "kind": "historical-inference", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.42, "truth": 0.31, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.4 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.22 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.635, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAP74vxsY0RvIF5NZPLXaQkUV-nuk9V0f4pG4xHuovM9s", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2024-memory-13", "key": "f2e515b28c9e5b4b", "label": "Cellular competency hides genome quality from selection, driving an intelligence ratchet", "statement": "Because competent biological material compensates for defects, selection cannot see genome quality clearly, so more evolutionary change accrues in competency mechanisms than in structural components, producing a positive-feedback intelligence ratchet based on remapping information to new contexts.", "quote": "The competency of our material means that selection cannot see the quality of genomes clearly46. More evolutionary work thus has to be conducted on the competency mechanisms, not the structural components, leading to a positive feedback loop—an intelligence ratchet based on the remapping of information to new contexts47.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2024, "work": "Self-Improvising Memory: A Perspective on Memories as Agential, Dynamically Reinterpreting Cognitive Glue", "chapter": "Levin M 2024, Self-Improvising Memory: A Perspective on Memories as Agential, Dynamically Reinterpreting Cognitive Glue › 6. What It Means, and What Next: A Research Program for Further Development", "kind": "historical-inference", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.414, "truth": 0.43, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.46 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.4 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.615, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RABCCkebkRbnFdgODqk7mG5atnBzHkCa2kmzl0NTZdCzc", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2024-memory-14", "key": "7b18613b3fa13d8a", "label": "There is no single substrate for memory; all components can serve as scratchpads", "statement": "Levin hypothesizes that there is no single substrate for memory: every component of a living system can use everything in its environment, including the high-dimensional reservoir of subcellular structure, as an interpretable scratchpad, rather than engrams residing only in synapses.", "quote": "My current hypothesis, driven by the above multi-scale perspective [218], is that there is no single substrate for memory49.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2024, "work": "Self-Improvising Memory: A Perspective on Memories as Agential, Dynamically Reinterpreting Cognitive Glue", "chapter": "Levin M 2024, Self-Improvising Memory: A Perspective on Memories as Agential, Dynamically Reinterpreting Cognitive Glue › 6. What It Means, and What Next: A Research Program for Further Development", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.418, "truth": 0.57, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.68 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.46 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.65, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA8JNNtL8dTPV1bLNH4VEuYL_GagOyXohtTM9FUY8h-Ac", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2024-memory-15", "key": "350e72266d2be32d", "label": "Training associative memories may increase integration of composite systems", "statement": "Levin proposes that memories belonging to a collective (e.g. a rat's lever–reward association, which no single cell experiences) may help reify the collective Self, and that training associative memories into gene regulatory networks should be tested for increases in integrated information (self-coherence).", "quote": "This is currently being investigated in the context of our training of associative memories into gene-regulatory networks and other substrates, with measures of integrated information to determine if the forming of memories increases the self-coherence of composite systems.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2024, "work": "Self-Improvising Memory: A Perspective on Memories as Agential, Dynamically Reinterpreting Cognitive Glue", "chapter": "Levin M 2024, Self-Improvising Memory: A Perspective on Memories as Agential, Dynamically Reinterpreting Cognitive Glue › 7. A Continuum: From Thoughts to Thinkers", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.587, "truth": 0.46, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.44 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.48 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.775, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAXoad7y8l8AqvxNleO6DpXSFWA0eXFFRshSgNSVQONeQ", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2024-memory-16", "key": "34e28fa0bcba7996", "label": "Consciousness may be palpated uncertainty about one's own memories", "statement": "Extending Solms's idea that consciousness is palpated uncertainty about the outside world, Levin hypothesizes that consciousness is palpated uncertainty about one's own memories and internal states.", "quote": "I propose to expand this idea, with the hypothesis that consciousness is palpated uncertainty about your own memories and internal states.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2024, "work": "Self-Improvising Memory: A Perspective on Memories as Agential, Dynamically Reinterpreting Cognitive Glue", "chapter": "Levin M 2024, Self-Improvising Memory: A Perspective on Memories as Agential, Dynamically Reinterpreting Cognitive Glue › 7. A Continuum: From Thoughts to Thinkers", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.099, "truth": 0.23, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.3 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.16 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.86, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAjVBJ_UtUsmTujyRZ5ey5FXvFg168tLTwi3nmlW4tJgk", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2024-memory-17", "key": "ec3057c1b5659c4e", "label": "Behavioural intelligence evolved from morphogenetic problem-solving", "statement": "Levin proposes that behavioural intelligence in 3D space evolved from morphogenetic problem-solving competencies in anatomical space, which were themselves required by the inevitability of mutation and injury.", "quote": "Behavioral intelligence in 3D space evolved from morphogenetic problem-solving competencies in anatomical space [97,124].", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2024, "work": "Self-Improvising Memory: A Perspective on Memories as Agential, Dynamically Reinterpreting Cognitive Glue", "chapter": "Levin M 2024, Self-Improvising Memory: A Perspective on Memories as Agential, Dynamically Reinterpreting Cognitive Glue › 8. Conclusions", "kind": "historical-inference", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.297, "truth": 0.485, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.55 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.42 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.67, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAYqO0yeA7iW4P5ToIHwgvDPiXQjizO_R5OBCBZNcg2qs", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2025-wisdom-01", "key": "b2edda6affcaef86", "label": "Planaria have chaotic genomes yet regenerate, resist cancer and do not age", "statement": "Planaria, despite chaotic mixoploid genomes from ~400 million years of asexual reproduction and large numbers of plastic proliferative stem cells, are champions of regeneration, cancer resistant and apparently do not age, the opposite of what a 'genome drives function' paradigm would predict.", "quote": "Despite that, they are champions of regeneration, are cancer resistant, and apparently do not age. This is the polar opposite of the outcome that the current paradigm of “genome drives function” would predict for the animal with the messiest genome, full of undifferentiated cells in the adult stage.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2025, "work": "The Multiscale Wisdom of the Body: Collective Intelligence as a Tractable Interface for Next-Generation Biomedicine", "chapter": "Levin M 2025, The Multiscale Wisdom of the Body: Collective Intelligence as a Tractable Interface for Next-Generation Biomedicine › Introduction", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.638, "truth": 0.59, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.66 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.52 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.75, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAj9MaysTMt_Tg9XMWKu9guhqB2m3dJO_SIKeYxBead1E", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2025-wisdom-02", "key": "e1cb3215cc8c5d4e", "label": "The body is a collective intelligence, so behavioural tools should beat micromanagement", "statement": "Levin's central hypothesis is that the body is a collective intelligence behaving in anatomical, physiological and transcriptional spaces, so behavioural-science tools developed to collaborate with complex systems should provide therapeutic advantages over biochemical micromanagement of molecular components.", "quote": "The central hypothesis is that the body is a collective intelligence behaving in anatomical, physiological, and transcriptional spaces [13]. Thus, behavioral science tools developed to collaborate with complex systems should provide therapeutic advantages over biochemical micromanagement.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2025, "work": "The Multiscale Wisdom of the Body: Collective Intelligence as a Tractable Interface for Next-Generation Biomedicine", "chapter": "Levin M 2025, The Multiscale Wisdom of the Body: Collective Intelligence as a Tractable Interface for Next-Generation Biomedicine › Introduction › BOX 1", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.343, "truth": 0.42, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.52 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.32 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.76, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAuI31IyvJVxw1EtifCX-LUKD-3FmyvQE2cWfSfJMeq4M", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2025-wisdom-03", "key": "be8edde7949cb392", "label": "Intelligence is reaching the same goal by different means, including in morphogenesis", "statement": "Levin defines intelligence, following William James, as the ability to reach the same goal by different means; for tissues this is the problem-solving competency to adapt to conditions in order to construct and repair a specific morphology or function, a functional definition that lets intelligence be studied in non-neural substrates.", "quote": "I define intelligence here in William James’ [22] sense as the ability to reach the same goal by different means: the focus is on problem‐solving competency, which in this case is the ability to adapt to conditions to construct and repair a specific morphology or function.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2025, "work": "The Multiscale Wisdom of the Body: Collective Intelligence as a Tractable Interface for Next-Generation Biomedicine", "chapter": "Levin M 2025, The Multiscale Wisdom of the Body: Collective Intelligence as a Tractable Interface for Next-Generation Biomedicine › Intelligence Below the Cellular Level", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.134, "truth": 0.635, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.67 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.6 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.875, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAdAQh0zP2A25NdPTLMEQI9_3BOgwvsR2Eo7RPZAMl7Q0", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2025-wisdom-04", "key": "69124315c5432294", "label": "Gene regulatory network models show habituation, sensitization and Pavlovian learning", "statement": "When standard behavioural-training protocols are applied to even simple models of gene regulatory networks and molecular pathways, the models show habituation, sensitization and Pavlovian (associative) conditioning, a dynamical state memory that requires no change to network topology or edge strengths.", "quote": "By applying standard approaches from behavioral theory [17], it was seen that even simple models of gene regulatory networks (GRNs) and molecular pathways show several different kinds of learning, including habituation, sensitization, and Pavlovian (associative) conditioning [23, 24].", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2025, "work": "The Multiscale Wisdom of the Body: Collective Intelligence as a Tractable Interface for Next-Generation Biomedicine", "chapter": "Levin M 2025, The Multiscale Wisdom of the Body: Collective Intelligence as a Tractable Interface for Next-Generation Biomedicine › Intelligence Below the Cellular Level › The Inner Life of Active Matter", "kind": "simulation-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.792, "truth": 0.78, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.84 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.72 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.76, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAZ4exnxMRgwfjfrmfSMgihIgE3a98DtBpkX7lHfRsFgA", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2025-wisdom-05", "key": "47e2766e7475d5e9", "label": "Planarian heads degenerated by barium regenerate adapted to it via a handful of genes", "statement": "Planarian flatworms exposed to barium, a nonspecific potassium channel blocker, lose their heads but soon regenerate new heads completely adapted to barium, and transcriptomic analysis shows only a handful of genes up- or down-regulated, which Levin interprets as cells solving a problem in high-dimensional transcriptional space without an evolved response to barium.", "quote": "Remarkably, they soon regenerate new heads which are completely adapted to the presence of barium [66]. Transcriptomic analysis reveals just a handful of genes that have been up‐ and down‐regulated to enable this feat of morphological and physiological homeostasis.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2025, "work": "The Multiscale Wisdom of the Body: Collective Intelligence as a Tractable Interface for Next-Generation Biomedicine", "chapter": "Levin M 2025, The Multiscale Wisdom of the Body: Collective Intelligence as a Tractable Interface for Next-Generation Biomedicine › Intelligence Below the Cellular Level › The Inner Life of Active Matter", "kind": "experimental-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "inconclusive", "evidence_kind": "biological", "data_test": { "verdict": "inconclusive", "confidence": 0.6, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "biological", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/levin-papers/levin-2025-wisdom-05/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "At most 20 genes (and at most 0.2% of tested genes) pass FDR < 0.05 and |log2FC| >= 1 between barium-adapted and control planarian heads.", "disconfirming_observation": "100 or more genes pass that threshold, i.e. a broad transcriptional programme rather than a handful of genes.", "admissible_datasets": "Public RNA-seq of planarian heads regenerated under barium chloride with untreated controls, at least two replicates per group, with per-sample counts or normalized expression in the deposit or recomputable from it. The deposit of the original study (Emmons-Bell et al., the claim's ref [66]) is the only known such dataset; it is not independent of the claim's source lab, but the reanalysis is independent of the authors' pipeline.", "inference_method": "Per-gene Welch t-test on log2(CPM+1) (or log2(normalized value+1) if only normalized values are deposited), Benjamini-Hochberg FDR across genes expressed at mean >= 1 in either group; count genes with FDR < 0.05 and |log2FC| >= 1; <= 20 supports, >= 100 refutes, otherwise mixed.", "explicit": true }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.726, "truth": 0.695, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.81 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.58 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.8, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAJD1-B1uhvDi-IIwTf2C_I6w_zm9pVy4f61py4tyjagE", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2025-wisdom-06", "key": "846a11ebddfb9bb6", "label": "Morphogenesis is behaviour of cell collectives navigating anatomical morphospace", "statement": "Morphogenesis can be viewed as behaviour in anatomical morphospace: cellular collectives actively navigate from various starting states to the region corresponding to the species-specific target morphology, with competency ranging from a constrained random walk to advanced problem-solving, a framing Levin presents as a useful metaphor for importing tools from behavioural and cognitive science.", "quote": "We previously argued that morphogenesis can be viewed as behavior in anatomical morphospace [13]; on this model, cellular collectives are systems that actively navigate from various starting states to a region corresponding to the species‐specific target morphology (Figure 2).", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2025, "work": "The Multiscale Wisdom of the Body: Collective Intelligence as a Tractable Interface for Next-Generation Biomedicine", "chapter": "Levin M 2025, The Multiscale Wisdom of the Body: Collective Intelligence as a Tractable Interface for Next-Generation Biomedicine › The Collective Intelligence of Cell Groups › Morphogenesis as Behavior in Anatomical Space", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.163, "truth": 0.7, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.72 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.68 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.75, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAny1FOsilInu7V9_uI6jsSRzzrww7HdScNVtzNBL6rxs", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2025-wisdom-07", "key": "e49618f450abdc1c", "label": "Anatomical homeostasis uses large-scale feedback loops that reduce error from a target", "statement": "Morphogenetic problem-solving cases indicate that anatomical development is not entirely open-loop: large-scale feedback loops measure distance from a target anatomical state and execute diverse molecular steps to reduce the error, and such networks can store setpoints that are complex data structures rather than simple scalars.", "quote": "These examples indicate that these processes are not entirely open‐loop: large‐scale feedback loops exist that measure distance from a given target state and execute diverse molecular steps to implement those goals (reduce error).", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2025, "work": "The Multiscale Wisdom of the Body: Collective Intelligence as a Tractable Interface for Next-Generation Biomedicine", "chapter": "Levin M 2025, The Multiscale Wisdom of the Body: Collective Intelligence as a Tractable Interface for Next-Generation Biomedicine › The Collective Intelligence of Cell Groups › The Competencies of Anatomical Homeostasis", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [ { "id": "bischof-xenopus-craniofacial-remap", "relation": "models", "note": "Contrasts goal-directed closed-loop normalisation with an open-loop fixed-displacement model that fails, the error-reducing feedback the claim asserts.", "label": "Vandenberg, Adams & Levin (2012) & Pinet et al. (2019) Picasso tadpole craniofacial attractor remodeling faithfully reproduces Xenopus laevis African clawed frog tadpole and froglet morphology", "organism": "Xenopus laevis African clawed frog tadpole and froglet", "verdict": "faithful", "score": 92, "thompson_verdict": null, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAfabt4u-0fbCGJSZbkTXg1RT8z7rTLqcJN5dvkjtkHNw", "registry": "production", "report": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/morphoeval/kg/2026-10-19-xenopus-craniofacial-remap-audit-v2/REPORT.md" }, { "id": "pezzulo-bioelectric-target-morphology-memory", "relation": "models", "note": "Homeostatic error correction toward a stored bioelectric target-morphology setpoint is the closed-loop anatomical feedback the claim describes.", "label": "Pezzulo & Levin (2015) / Friston et al. (2015) bioelectric target morphology memory and Variational Free Energy homeostasis faithfully reproduces Ambystoma mexicanum (axolotl salamander) regenerating forelimb morphology", "organism": "Ambystoma mexicanum (axolotl salamander) regenerating forelimb", "verdict": "faithful", "score": 91.5, "thompson_verdict": null, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAyp_B6WkTMIXs9wcDXCdMGdeSaQblmaYV2wbEEdryVFA", "registry": "production", "report": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/morphoeval/kg/2026-10-19-bioelectric-target-morphology-memory-audit-v2/REPORT.md" } ], "thumbnail": { "file": "docs/thumbs/bischof-xenopus-craniofacial-remap.jpg", "morpholib": "bischof-xenopus-craniofacial-remap", "source": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/docs/media/xenopus_craniofacial_remap_growth.gif" }, "testability": 0.489, "truth": 0.75, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.77 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.73 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.68, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAAn_2LZVRqSRqTvf55SOLafJyRv3I_OtYQQry8n7dmB4", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2025-wisdom-08", "key": "08df7b0e5cef7433", "label": "Channelopathies that cause patterning defects link developmental biology and neuroscience", "statement": "The deep symmetry between developmental biology and neuroscience is shown by the many ion-channel diseases (channelopathies) that produce patterning defects, and by the applicability of neuroscience tools, from drugs to optogenetics to training protocols, to morphogenetic decisions.", "quote": "It can be seen in numerous channelopathies that result in patterning defects (see Table 1 in [110], and [111, 112, 113]), and in the applicability of the tools of neuroscience—from drugs to optogenetics to training protocols—to morphogenetic decisions.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2025, "work": "The Multiscale Wisdom of the Body: Collective Intelligence as a Tractable Interface for Next-Generation Biomedicine", "chapter": "Levin M 2025, The Multiscale Wisdom of the Body: Collective Intelligence as a Tractable Interface for Next-Generation Biomedicine › Bioelectricity as the Interface to Multicellularity › Thinking Beyond the Brain", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": "mixed", "evidence_kind": "biological", "data_test": { "verdict": "mixed", "confidence": 0.75, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "biological", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/levin-papers/levin-2025-wisdom-08/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": ">= 20 ion-channel genes with both a face/limb malformation and a nervous-system phenotype in HPO, and a depth-adjusted odds ratio > 1.2 (p < 0.05) for patterning phenotypes in channel vs non-channel disease genes.", "disconfirming_observation": "Fewer than 10 such channel genes, or channel genes depleted for patterning phenotypes (MH OR < 0.8, p < 0.05) while fewer than 20 channel genes have them.", "admissible_datasets": "Curated human gene-phenotype annotations (HPO, built from OMIM and Orphanet) and a gene-function annotation defining ion channels independently of phenotype (GO molecular function). Must not be the review's own Table 1 or cited references; current public releases with checksums.", "inference_method": "Count channel genes co-annotated to patterning and nervous-system branches (with ontology descendants); Mantel-Haenszel odds ratio and one-sided CMH test for patterning annotation, channel vs non-channel, over deciles of distinct-HPO-term count; thresholds as in pass/fail criteria.", "explicit": true }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.71, "truth": 0.77, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.85 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.69 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.78, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA0gONOvWJs2YZy0nyS5FMJwcttNuM-l_sKBTGOSNHmGU", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2025-wisdom-09", "key": "a0ebb8efac2bb387", "label": "An endogenous electric face of resting potentials determines vertebrate face patterning", "statement": "An endogenous spatial distribution of resting membrane potentials (the 'electric face') determines gene expression and anatomical regionalization of the vertebrate face; manipulating it by pharmacology, optogenetics or ion channel misexpression predictably changes craniofacial development and explains why ion channel mutations cause craniofacial phenotypes from frog to human.", "quote": "One example is the electric face (Figure 4B)—an endogenous distribution of resting potentials that determines the gene expression and anatomical regionalization of the vertebrate face [118].", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2025, "work": "The Multiscale Wisdom of the Body: Collective Intelligence as a Tractable Interface for Next-Generation Biomedicine", "chapter": "Levin M 2025, The Multiscale Wisdom of the Body: Collective Intelligence as a Tractable Interface for Next-Generation Biomedicine › Bioelectricity as the Interface to Multicellularity › Applications: Modulating Endogenous Bioelectric Cues", "kind": "experimental-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.542, "truth": 0.77, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.79 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.75 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.76, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA682HLhKB1Ovzx67rzAwmvdG4VOEucxQZUl5sEUTjxUU", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2025-wisdom-10", "key": "9e65cad657cd9dcd", "label": "A membrane-voltage change can induce eyes almost anywhere in the Xenopus body", "statement": "In Xenopus laevis, misexpressing potassium channels to change membrane voltage induces ectopic eyes in many posterior regions including the gut, showing that cells outside the anterior neural field are competent to build eyes when given a higher-level bioelectric signal, contrary to conclusions drawn from prompting cells with the 'master eye gene' Pax6.", "quote": "It was always thought that cells outside the anterior neural field in vertebrates were not competent to build eyes. But prior studies prompted cells with the so‐called master eye gene Pax6 [123]. It turns out that a higher‐level signal (V mem change) can induce eyes almost anywhere in the body.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2025, "work": "The Multiscale Wisdom of the Body: Collective Intelligence as a Tractable Interface for Next-Generation Biomedicine", "chapter": "Levin M 2025, The Multiscale Wisdom of the Body: Collective Intelligence as a Tractable Interface for Next-Generation Biomedicine › Bioelectricity as the Interface to Multicellularity › Applications: Modulating Endogenous Bioelectric Cues", "kind": "experimental-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.589, "truth": 0.835, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.87 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.8 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.795, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAcmuh1G-3yh_UmvvACDQd6fo8vOpCK1MxMK8VOABX4lI", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2025-wisdom-11", "key": "eef709ab3d37e473", "label": "Many ectopic eye spots but one eye reflect competing goals of neighbouring cell groups", "statement": "In Xenopus embryos injected with a potassium channel, many ectopic eye spots appear early but typically only one new eye forms; Levin interprets this as bidirectional signalling between channel-induced cells pushed toward an eye setpoint, which recruit neighbours, and uninjected neighbours whose setpoint is still 'gut', which signal to maintain normal fate.", "quote": "At early stages in embryos injected with the potassium channel, many ectopic eye spots are detected, but just one new eye tends to appear at the end. This is the consequence of conversation between morphogenetic agents with different goals.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2025, "work": "The Multiscale Wisdom of the Body: Collective Intelligence as a Tractable Interface for Next-Generation Biomedicine", "chapter": "Levin M 2025, The Multiscale Wisdom of the Body: Collective Intelligence as a Tractable Interface for Next-Generation Biomedicine › Bioelectricity as the Interface to Multicellularity › Applications: Modulating Endogenous Bioelectric Cues", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.363, "truth": 0.555, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.61 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.5 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.67, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RACkdqVmhbWMBaVx6oaFAsyxiPRSDe-nbfPhRMllcw4C0", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2025-wisdom-12", "key": "8146ba574d65538c", "label": "Restoring the neural-plate bioelectric prepattern rescues teratogen and Notch defects", "statement": "Normal brain morphogenesis in vertebrate (frog) embryos depends on a specific bioelectric prepattern that chemical or genetic teratogens alter; forcing a return to the correct prepattern in the neural plate, for example by activating the HCN2 channel, corrects brain morphology, gene expression and learning capacity in animals exposed to alcohol, nicotine or a dominant Notch mutation.", "quote": "Forcing a return to the correct prepattern in the neural plate can correct brain morphology, gene expression, and learning capacity in animals exposed to alcohol, nicotine, or even mutations of the critical neurogenesis gene Notch [124, 125, 126].", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2025, "work": "The Multiscale Wisdom of the Body: Collective Intelligence as a Tractable Interface for Next-Generation Biomedicine", "chapter": "Levin M 2025, The Multiscale Wisdom of the Body: Collective Intelligence as a Tractable Interface for Next-Generation Biomedicine › Bioelectricity as the Interface to Multicellularity › Birth Defect Repair and Limb Regeneration", "kind": "experimental-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.574, "truth": 0.785, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.82 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.75 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.775, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA0Zfb2Btd5-sjhhZVB_qSHh3kl_5YYG78_y4eNWeILn8", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2025-wisdom-13", "key": "d494828a6da8c242", "label": "Cancer cells are not more selfish; they have smaller selves", "statement": "On the cognitive light cone model of cancer, in which the 'cognitive light cone' is the spatiotemporal size of the homeodynamic goal states a system can pursue, cancer is a pathological rolling back to small cell-level goals: cancer cells are not more selfish but have smaller selves, treating the rest of the body as external environment.", "quote": "But more specifically, the cognitive light cone model suggests that cancer cells are not more selfish; they just have smaller selves.", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2025, "work": "The Multiscale Wisdom of the Body: Collective Intelligence as a Tractable Interface for Next-Generation Biomedicine", "chapter": "Levin M 2025, The Multiscale Wisdom of the Body: Collective Intelligence as a Tractable Interface for Next-Generation Biomedicine › Cancer and the Scaling of the Self", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.179, "truth": 0.38, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.43 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.33 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.83, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAnC7W-Pi11SxPK9clp7ruJlQarGrWCjNOsxL5zrmieSQ", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2025-wisdom-14", "key": "5cc9c6b7e7bc64c3", "label": "Gap-junction closure in transformation is a positive feedback loop of isolation", "statement": "Cells may physiologically disconnect from the tissue network (e.g. closing gap junctions under prolonged stress), and each reduction in connectivity makes local computation easier and further gap-junction closure more likely, a positive feedback loop of dissociation that makes tissue-level goals ever harder to achieve; Levin presents this as consistent with gap-junction closure in early transformation and with tumours induced by non-carcinogenic geometric barriers.", "quote": "Each reduction in physiological connectivity makes it easier for cells to perform computations at the local level. This makes it easier for cells to close off gap junctions even more, driving a positive feedback loop—a cycle of dissociation and isolation that makes it ever harder to achieve large‐scale cell collective goals (maintaining complex anatomical structure).", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2025, "work": "The Multiscale Wisdom of the Body: Collective Intelligence as a Tractable Interface for Next-Generation Biomedicine", "chapter": "Levin M 2025, The Multiscale Wisdom of the Body: Collective Intelligence as a Tractable Interface for Next-Generation Biomedicine › Cancer and the Scaling of the Self", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.52, "truth": 0.475, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.55 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.4 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.705, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAbD_UpbJ_LernRFlyQoEBtVCAPWp35_W80zH4ORrsIys", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2025-wisdom-15", "key": "d4a3f2e70a0e0503", "label": "Oncogene-induced cancer can be detected early by bioelectrical imaging", "statement": "Cancer induced in vivo by human oncogenes can be detected early by bioelectrical (membrane-voltage) imaging, as predicted by the view of cancer as a failure of bioelectric 'cognitive glue'.", "quote": "It has now been shown that (a) cancer induced by human oncogenes in vivo can be detected early by bioelectrical imaging [175]", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2025, "work": "The Multiscale Wisdom of the Body: Collective Intelligence as a Tractable Interface for Next-Generation Biomedicine", "chapter": "Levin M 2025, The Multiscale Wisdom of the Body: Collective Intelligence as a Tractable Interface for Next-Generation Biomedicine › Cancer and the Scaling of the Self", "kind": "experimental-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.548, "truth": 0.855, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.89 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.82 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.75, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAeYQooyrX41a_mqnu09hMPe8HpQ5JeRqRbXb6RqF-We8", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2025-wisdom-16", "key": "fda96463dbe49bd0", "label": "Transient bioelectric and serotonergic perturbation induces a melanoma-like phenotype", "statement": "Transient perturbation of bioelectrical and serotonergic signalling among cells can induce a melanoma-like phenotype in the absence of carcinogens, oncogenes or DNA damage.", "quote": "(b) transient perturbation of bioelectrical and serotonergic signaling among cells can induce a melanoma‐like phenotype in the absence of carcinogens, oncogenes, or DNA damage [176, 177, 178]", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2025, "work": "The Multiscale Wisdom of the Body: Collective Intelligence as a Tractable Interface for Next-Generation Biomedicine", "chapter": "Levin M 2025, The Multiscale Wisdom of the Body: Collective Intelligence as a Tractable Interface for Next-Generation Biomedicine › Cancer and the Scaling of the Self", "kind": "experimental-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.566, "truth": 0.775, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.84 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.71 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.76, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAfUbNTnlNVhIax3BBwfg1eQnyDo2UM1tolic4UeuVR4w", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2025-wisdom-17", "key": "4f53b33aa9e4497c", "label": "Oncogene-induced tumours can be prevented and normalized by managing bioelectric state", "statement": "Tumours induced by powerful human oncogenes can be prevented and normalized by managing their bioelectric state (e.g. forcing hyperpolarization), without correcting the oncogene.", "quote": "(c) tumors induced by powerful human oncogenes can be prevented and normalized by managing their bioelectric state [175, 179, 180, 181]", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2025, "work": "The Multiscale Wisdom of the Body: Collective Intelligence as a Tractable Interface for Next-Generation Biomedicine", "chapter": "Levin M 2025, The Multiscale Wisdom of the Body: Collective Intelligence as a Tractable Interface for Next-Generation Biomedicine › Cancer and the Scaling of the Self", "kind": "experimental-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.573, "truth": 0.81, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.86 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.76 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.775, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAsEXkqLd58sibO0PsktB1hWV7LA7IRTCwlbL5Q82MH4k", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2025-wisdom-18", "key": "55898fd1d361a446", "label": "Physiological information processing, not genetic hardware, dominates cancer outcomes", "statement": "Levin interprets the ability to normalize oncogene-driven tumours by restoring bioelectric connectivity (reinflating cells' cognitive light cone) as showing that physiological information processing, not genetic hardware, dominates cancer outcomes, suggesting a clinical roadmap different from chemotherapy.", "quote": "This ability to reinflate the cognitive light cone of cells shows that physiological information processing, not genetic hardware, dominates outcomes and suggests a clinical roadmap quite different from the chemotherapy that dominates the field today [165, 168, 182].", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2025, "work": "The Multiscale Wisdom of the Body: Collective Intelligence as a Tractable Interface for Next-Generation Biomedicine", "chapter": "Levin M 2025, The Multiscale Wisdom of the Body: Collective Intelligence as a Tractable Interface for Next-Generation Biomedicine › Cancer and the Scaling of the Self", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.39, "truth": 0.185, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.24 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.13 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.71, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAKFS2afaG1mCYVBL0bH22Nsxn7wbMc55pc36LgL3E32E", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2025-wisdom-19", "key": "065bffe11e60d59c", "label": "Embryos in large groups form a 'hyperembryo' that resists teratogens better", "statement": "Individual embryos raised in large groups form a kind of 'hyperembryo' with its own distinct transcriptome and an ability to resist teratogenic challenges far better than individual embryos or small groups.", "quote": "For example, the hypothesis of scale‐free biology [196] has led to the discovery that individual embryos in large groups form a kind of “hyperembryo” with its own unique transcriptome and an ability to solve teratogenic challenges far better than individual embryos (or small groups) exhibit [197].", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2025, "work": "The Multiscale Wisdom of the Body: Collective Intelligence as a Tractable Interface for Next-Generation Biomedicine", "chapter": "Levin M 2025, The Multiscale Wisdom of the Body: Collective Intelligence as a Tractable Interface for Next-Generation Biomedicine › Applications and a Roadmap Toward a Radical Regenerative Medicine › Top‐Down Control Exploits Agential Materials by Pushing Complexity from the Engineer onto the System Itself", "kind": "experimental-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.666, "truth": 0.675, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.74 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.61 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.79, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RACHgsO9yiXNajfFXLFwR7346_xUsGXXGWWDi0m-7zyF0", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2025-wisdom-20", "key": "bf39d35aba00a7ef", "label": "The same electroceutical, monensin, induces tails at tail wounds and legs at leg wounds", "statement": "Applied systemically, the same bioelectric-modifying drug (monensin) triggers tail regeneration at tail wounds and leg regeneration at leg wounds, showing that the specificity of the regenerative response lies in the responding cell collective rather than in the reagent.", "quote": "Even more remarkably, the exact same electroceutical—monensin—triggers tails in tail wounds and legs at leg wounds: the specificity in all of these cases is in the cell collective that responds to the stimulus [128, 200].", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2025, "work": "The Multiscale Wisdom of the Body: Collective Intelligence as a Tractable Interface for Next-Generation Biomedicine", "chapter": "Levin M 2025, The Multiscale Wisdom of the Body: Collective Intelligence as a Tractable Interface for Next-Generation Biomedicine › Applications and a Roadmap Toward a Radical Regenerative Medicine › Top‐Down Control Exploits Agential Materials by Pushing Complexity from the Engineer onto the System Itself", "kind": "experimental-result", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.575, "truth": 0.765, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.87 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.66 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.76, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAx3tZCQO5wyVXOBRORS189qhf3j4E3ATpDlWymjxByw8", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "levin-2025-wisdom-21", "key": "b7631090d4b64abb", "label": "Aging may result from degraded bioelectric pattern memories that maintain tissue order", "statement": "Levin proposes that aging is due to the degradation of endogenous bioelectric pattern memories required throughout life to maintain tissue order, so that solutions to aging need to target this information scaffold as well as cell-level rejuvenation (e.g. Yamanaka factors).", "quote": "we have previously proposed that aging is due to the degradation of important endogenous (bioelectric) pattern memories that are required throughout the lifespan to maintain tissue order [146, 147].", "thinker": "Michael Levin", "year": 2025, "work": "The Multiscale Wisdom of the Body: Collective Intelligence as a Tractable Interface for Next-Generation Biomedicine", "chapter": "Levin M 2025, The Multiscale Wisdom of the Body: Collective Intelligence as a Tractable Interface for Next-Generation Biomedicine › Applications and a Roadmap Toward a Radical Regenerative Medicine › A Better Understanding of Disease: From Molecular Markers to Physiological Patterns", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.347, "truth": 0.175, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.18 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.17 } ], "assessor_confidence": 0.73, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA8vnpvYk64A0lnMZsLZPRK9bhZHo5VfoabgW41q2cJIM", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha01-01", "key": "86dd490ad63c5a96", "label": "Animal parts are either uniform (homogeneous) or composite", "statement": "The parts of animals are of two kinds: simple parts, which divide into parts like themselves (as flesh into flesh), and composite parts, which do not (a hand does not divide into hands).", "quote": "Of the parts of animals some are simple: to wit, all such as divide into parts uniform with themselves, as flesh into flesh; others are composite, such as divide into parts not uniform with themselves", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book I, Part 1", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.168, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.827, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAmkDNwfk0LjsiK3e7xYfZBPtk2tVVDMPYRxnIuMApZZQ", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha01-02", "key": "6bbe17c7c8b6df50", "label": "Parts of different genera can correspond only by analogy, as feather to scale", "statement": "Animals of different genera may have parts that are the same only by analogy: bone corresponds to fish-bone, nail to hoof, hand to claw, and the feather of a bird to the scale of a fish.", "quote": "they are the same only in the way of analogy, as, for instance, bone is only analogous to fish-bone, nail to hoof, hand to claw, and scale to feather; for what the feather is in a bird, the scale is in a fish.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book I, Part 1", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.443, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.633, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAkInFHLmsK2fvQfIlaoTiGJ4GUr7UbNg64CQPXJJHGzs", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha01-03", "key": "e5e58cc93ed4c149", "label": "The gadfly develops from river worms that leave the water", "statement": "Some animals live first in water and later change their shape and live out of water; the gadfly develops from river worms in this way.", "quote": "Some animals at first live in water, and by and by change their shape and live out of water, as is the case with river worms, for out of these the gadfly develops.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book I, Part 1", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.527, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.643, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAcxEDMPRWrh__TCFmkQPJiV8ewEqRaesz3qg0eYj_AeE", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha01-04", "key": "0998ea4eee44b99f", "label": "No bird with crooked talons is gregarious", "statement": "No bird with crooked talons (a bird of prey) lives in flocks.", "quote": "no bird furnished with crooked talons is gregarious", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book I, Part 1", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.725, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.77, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA4TfBhnd8tsyVBkN-HF-GeKfGrZI529epBywAKpnK_9k", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha01-05", "key": "9a562611e0a33c6e", "label": "Every domesticated kind of animal also exists in a wild form", "statement": "Whenever a kind of animal is found domesticated, the same kind is always also found wild, as with horses, cattle, swine, sheep, goats and dogs.", "quote": "whenever a race of animals is found domesticated, the same is always to be found in a wild condition; as we find to be the case with horses, kine, swine, (men), sheep, goats, and dogs.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book I, Part 1", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.76, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.8, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAAOPMzxUxtd6NrXXdu6YwFh4iLerLADuk_kG38JhGaP0", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha01-06", "key": "6d9b2f723265a954", "label": "An animal with a bladder always has an intestine, but not conversely", "statement": "Every animal that has a bladder for wet residue also has an intestine for dry residue, but an animal may have an intestine without a bladder.", "quote": "In other words, an animal has a bowel or intestine if it have a bladder; but an animal may have a bowel and be without a bladder.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book I, Part 2", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.662, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.733, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAC1Iaxs8yNnzE8Cge7yXiur5g2JEuWOPh6ooSBDs5FUo", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha01-07", "key": "5213559c68106c5b", "label": "Touch is the only sense common to all animals", "statement": "Touch is the one and only sense that all animals possess.", "quote": "One sense, and one alone, is common to all animals-the sense of touch.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book I, Part 3", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.446, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.66, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAwdHqbdU0h_yLzGPDLfrq0ceFDTq78hNO-ILuKfn1WZY", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha01-08", "key": "c505ea0d97425825", "label": "Animals with more than four feet are bloodless", "statement": "All animals with more than four feet are bloodless, as are the bee, the wasp, the cuttlefish and the crawfish, while animals with blood have no feet, two feet or four feet.", "quote": "other animals are bloodless, such as the bee and the wasp, and, of marine animals, the cuttle-fish, the crawfish, and all such animals as have more than four feet.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book I, Part 4", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.725, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.797, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAZknsX6yWBsyCeBed3VRJwq45yohiVW8_S1qdW-YnAf8", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha01-09", "key": "2f70bbf68619d912", "label": "In an egg the embryo forms from part of it, the rest being food", "statement": "In an egg the embryo arises from only part of the egg, and the rest serves as food for the developing embryo, whereas a grub develops into the animal as a whole.", "quote": "in respect to its primitive germ it comes from part only of the egg, while the rest serves for food as the germ develops.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book I, Part 5", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.707, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.787, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAlAB5_CIcLLi3Qnl75LNvjl9VUt-M4986fRmdlIn2HCY", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha01-10", "key": "9b0753b30ef17f9f", "label": "Sharks hatch eggs inside their own bodies", "statement": "Some viviparous animals, such as the sharks, hatch eggs inside their own bodies, while others, such as man and the horse, carry a live foetus.", "quote": "Of viviparous animals, some hatch eggs in their own interior, as creatures of the shark kind; others engender in their interior a live foetus, as man and the horse.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book I, Part 5", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.848, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.883, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAzbQWYh70QrYUsXcLJ9UMjLer0m9ivvNsEIbAkMrED4E", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha01-11", "key": "9e558f7b8f85a0d3", "label": "Bloodless animals are largest in mild climates and in the sea", "statement": "Among bloodless animals, the largest kinds live in milder climates, and those living in the sea are larger than those living on land or in fresh water.", "quote": "And of these bloodless genera, those are the largest that dwell in milder climates, and those that inhabit the sea are larger than those living on dry land or in fresh water.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book I, Part 5", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.621, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.71, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RANj921z4KJgr6YTz4sc-6kg3crgQXpzretK_Rp7MMrfg", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha01-12", "key": "fa1e6afbc5bec002", "label": "All hair-coated animals are viviparous", "statement": "Every animal with a coat of hair (counting the spines of hedgehogs and porcupines as hair) bears live young.", "quote": "All animals, however, that are hair-coated are viviparous.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book I, Part 6", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.889, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.897, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA-fNa2_MN800H4ND0g-BbFPZg6bx0F8ow-i4B7gd4qds", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha01-13", "key": "5f5ed545d856e19f", "label": "Women's skulls have one circular suture, men's usually three meeting", "statement": "The skull of a woman has one circular suture, while the skull of a man, as a general rule, has three sutures meeting at a point.", "quote": "The skull has sutures: one, of circular form, in the case of women; in the case of men, as a general rule, three meeting at a point.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book I, Part 7", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.715, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.783, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAK0zv13flSmq4-1jNpws_L5lghpiHn_C6DnR9lAPgsHQ", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha01-14", "key": "a878467546a14524", "label": "The mole has stunted eyes hidden under the skin", "statement": "The mole cannot see and has no externally visible eyes, but beneath its skin lie the eye region and the dark parts of the eyes, stunted and overgrown by skin; it is the only viviparous animal without eyes.", "quote": "For in point of absolute fact it cannot see, and has no eyes visible externally; but when the outer skin is removed, it is found to have the place where eyes are usually situated, and the black parts of the eyes rightly situated", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book I, Part 9", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.741, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.78, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA11kjrhvbnC_geQML0rBkM-Yot-70FDGBect4nXn5CKo", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha01-15", "key": "aba3f96e1c312ca0", "label": "Man is the only, or nearly only, animal with varied eye colours", "statement": "Man is the only, or nearly the only, animal whose eyes vary in colour between individuals; other animals as a rule have eyes of a single colour, though some horses have blue eyes.", "quote": "Man is the only, or nearly the only, creature, that has eyes of diverse colours. Animals, as a rule, have eyes of one colour only.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book I, Part 10", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.604, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.683, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAIz_4ozXSKxyVZ648V2U3x1KXFiJYAk3gsNBV-tT9cm8", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha01-16", "key": "58f917909e12597c", "label": "The inner ear connects to the palate, not to the brain", "statement": "The inner cavity of the ear has no passage to the brain but does have a passage to the palate.", "quote": "This receptacle does not communicate by any passage with the brain, but does so with the palate", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book I, Part 11", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.782, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.84, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAkx8L81K6E4vXPBkMaWVfYgbzwu8tQDDhDu697LNf3G4", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha01-17", "key": "35615f3389ac3595", "label": "Man is the only animal with ears that cannot move them", "statement": "Of all animals that have ears, man is the only one that cannot move them.", "quote": "Of animals possessed of ears man is the only one that cannot move this organ.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book I, Part 11", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.644, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.723, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RApM_ikpThWrBhM4pNRcHx5lmK_e5td8bJAL3xehhGs44", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha01-18", "key": "6e6c60d21e0a1c60", "label": "The crocodile alone moves its upper jaw instead of its lower", "statement": "All animals move the lower jaw except the river crocodile, which moves only its upper jaw.", "quote": "All animals move the lower jaw, with the exception of the river crocodile; this creature moves the upper jaw only.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book I, Part 11", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.743, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.843, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAEFWFqRt2q4gdKAcwmMZNt8TkvfmmyzeYXkamEVdpo4g", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha01-19", "key": "ad9f006313b17bc3", "label": "Man has eight ribs on each side", "statement": "The human trunk has eight ribs on each side.", "quote": "Common to the upper and lower part of the trunk are the 'ribs', eight on either side", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book I, Part 15", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.931, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.94, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA4fVkVUXCeNRb0mxbG4ZKWoNryS8XReiStpL_R28SuGw", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha01-20", "key": "32deb4fd66fce4eb", "label": "Man has the largest and moistest brain for his size", "statement": "Relative to body size, man has the largest and the moistest brain of any animal.", "quote": "But, taking size for size of animal, the largest brain, and the moistest, is that of man.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book I, Part 16", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.665, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.73, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA4E2zpDKXqDoSnb7zS2BOGplxNtXEFdpfZbi2Fye_tgM", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha01-21", "key": "27fa3ac5f963503d", "label": "The brain is bloodless, has no veins and is cold", "statement": "In all animals the brain is bloodless, has no veins in it and is naturally cold to the touch.", "quote": "The brain in all animals is bloodless, devoid of veins, and naturally cold to the touch", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book I, Part 16", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.725, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.777, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAnuQE9kE8XH4zrhjZfC6DvN4VuCaWkaWwRko8amys1BE", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha01-22", "key": "e32c68a62dc08c6f", "label": "The heart has three cavities, the right largest and the left smallest", "statement": "The heart has three cavities: the right-hand one is the largest, the left-hand one the smallest, and the middle one intermediate in size.", "quote": "It has three cavities, as has been said: the right-hand one the largest of the three, the left-hand one the least, and the middle one intermediate in size.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book I, Part 17", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.867, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.883, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAEv6MdkSMq4GsocNDpbHSi7wE7wrLY5aDbG91B7y51Ls", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha01-23", "key": "15b8c95f56128777", "label": "The lung is the organ most richly supplied with blood", "statement": "In animals that have a lung and bear live young, the lung is the organ most richly supplied with blood, being spongy and reached at every pore by branches of the great vein; it is not empty, as some suppose.", "quote": "the lung is of all organs the most richly supplied with blood; for the lung is throughout spongy in texture, and along by every single pore in it go branches from the great vein.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book I, Part 17", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.694, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.757, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAH2jUqHr6gp_NEnx-C7Foi8IQwzsjXYqOzr1_r6rRVpo", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha01-24", "key": "3684d0d8788acd6a", "label": "The right kidney lies higher than the left in all animals", "statement": "In all animals that have kidneys, the right kidney lies higher in the body than the left.", "quote": "In all animals that are provided with this organ, the right kidney is situated higher up than the other.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book I, Part 17", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.778, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.827, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA6FFSAIRMeQQNt6Mh4ZBhLHq08NvWDgcmt5gEP2BjIok", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha02-01", "key": "e7b834a528d5649e", "label": "The lion's neck is a single bone without vertebrae", "statement": "The lion's neck consists of a single bone instead of vertebrae.", "quote": "The lion has its neck composed of one single bone instead of vertebrae", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book II, Part 1", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.88, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.9, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA88jCVpxcs4MeN_sl5EMDpQWiEQwajceYcmLll8sXbFs", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha02-02", "key": "7e3cbabbc3208f57", "label": "The elephant sleeps lying on its side, not standing", "statement": "The elephant does not sleep standing; it bends its legs, settles down and sleeps lying on one side.", "quote": "The elephant does not sleep standing, as some were wont to assert, but it bends its legs and settles down", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book II, Part 1", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.698, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.757, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAH4VrWYV74uDKBRPi9RQb-5qZSQbB0OusH2zszcIKK8U", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha02-03", "key": "08ed5f43ec8e564d", "label": "Horned animals are mostly cloven-hoofed; none is solid-hoofed with two horns", "statement": "The great majority of horned animals are cloven-hoofed, and no solid-hoofed animal with a pair of horns has ever been found.", "quote": "The great majority of the horned animals are cloven-footed, as the ox, the stag, the goat; and a solid-hooved animal with a pair of horns has never yet been met with.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book II, Part 1", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.793, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.823, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA2Pz8gSfccXfB8xtpBEdrwFQrdgmRfXmyX6Cv6VaHykk", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha02-04", "key": "0306d198adb09887", "label": "Only the deer sheds its horns, annually after age two", "statement": "The deer is the only animal that sheds its horns; it does so every year after reaching the age of two and grows them again.", "quote": "The deer is the only animal that sheds its horns, and it does so annually, after reaching the age of two years, and again renews them.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book II, Part 1", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.767, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.82, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RADCdfjQWhKtaZcsybzq8OUCl09IdRt5Au2XVOTU4MjHQ", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha02-05", "key": "7d3392a013447501", "label": "The fox, wolf, marten and weasel have a bony penis", "statement": "In some animals the penis is bony, as in the fox, the wolf, the marten and the weasel.", "quote": "in other cases it is bony, as with the fox, the wolf, the marten, and the weasel; for this organ in the weasel has a bone.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book II, Part 1", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.835, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.867, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAsePWmCoJfr6vQMkimWxFftP5m_N7USQDluI4jvsVy2o", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha02-06", "key": "fdbb0c6b87151d7f", "label": "No animal has both tusks and horns, nor does any saw-toothed animal", "statement": "No animal has both tusks and horns, and no animal with interlocking pointed (saw-like) teeth has either tusks or horns.", "quote": "No animal is there that possesses both tusks and horns, nor yet do either of these structures exist in any animal possessed of 'saw-teeth'.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book II, Part 1", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.663, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.72, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAs-X8ObhtYxifbMxktK4p2LqsU6JT3rtzTpuIvUqbTI0", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha02-07", "key": "d65d3acd3601e5f0", "label": "No animal sheds its molars, and the pig sheds no teeth at all", "statement": "Man sheds his front teeth, but no animal sheds its molars, and the pig sheds none of its teeth at all.", "quote": "And man sheds his front teeth; but there is no instance of an animal that sheds its molars. The pig sheds none of its teeth at all.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book II, Part 1", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.754, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.807, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAPFiTKIJu1UV6K6Dy4tNvlw4PPUWFXolKWeN6QVjMxdE", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha02-08", "key": "2b842a31bfe2229d", "label": "Teeth blacken with age except in the horse, whose teeth whiten", "statement": "As animals grow older their teeth generally become blacker, but the horse's teeth become whiter with age.", "quote": "for, generally speaking, as animals grow older their teeth get blacker, but the horse's teeth grow whiter with age.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book II, Part 3", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.554, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.68, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA90dbdfKBT_BtchzN7mfFpx8KNjUj3LNkhyB3eI229pQ", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha02-09", "key": "b81931c6e1cddcde", "label": "Males have more teeth than females in man, sheep, goats and swine", "statement": "In men, sheep, goats and swine, males have more teeth than females.", "quote": "Males have more teeth than females in the case of men, sheep, goats, and swine", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book II, Part 3", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.761, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.84, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAKJxX-k-8_TOVbIRJ_kkWQ7a6HSz3sSBoYM2uFg_DGXo", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha02-10", "key": "ac72835f2f530eab", "label": "Animals with more teeth live longer, as a rule", "statement": "As a rule, animals with more teeth live longer, and those with fewer and more thinly set teeth are correspondingly short-lived.", "quote": "the more teeth they have the more long-lived are they, as a rule, while those are short-lived in proportion that have teeth fewer in number and thinly set.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book II, Part 3", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.628, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.713, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA5VAxbcmBXa3DFzoV28xVBmJqm58plQJmIwiXMv_nSwY", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha02-11", "key": "7bbb725f0f270ecb", "label": "Oviparous quadrupeds lack external ears, breasts and a copulatory organ", "statement": "Oviparous blooded quadrupeds have no external ears but only an auditory passage, no breasts, no copulatory organ, and no external testicles, only internal ones.", "quote": "Again, oviparous blooded quadrupeds are unprovided with ears, but possess only the passage for hearing; neither have they breasts, nor a copulatory organ, nor external testicles, but internal ones only", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book II, Part 10", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.726, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.79, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA0fwfvhktSCwGywtC5PG9nf0j7yLksTDTqKhB-yZHAIo", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha02-12", "key": "1ab6f392eca340f9", "label": "River crocodiles spend the day on land and the night in water", "statement": "As a rule, river crocodiles spend the daytime on land and the night in the water.", "quote": "As a rule, they pass the day-time on land and the nighttime in the water", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book II, Part 10", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.686, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.743, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA-j1oe-xb_8fbMrFmCdBA_ejgMHd0NMzJAGuS0PvZkM4", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha02-13", "key": "89b0ed67236c9713", "label": "Crocodiles enter water at night because it is then warmer than the air", "statement": "Crocodiles spend the night in the water because at night the water is warmer than the open air.", "quote": "for the temperature of the water is at night-time more genial than that of the open air.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book II, Part 10", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.601, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.67, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAECgc44Ncl3rW3lWX9-mtqBeBeBRQC0puRy7PrHCxNoo", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha02-14", "key": "93679c4a82ad26e9", "label": "The chameleon changes colour when it inflates itself with air", "statement": "The chameleon changes colour when it is inflated with air, turning black, or green with black spots, over its whole body including the eyes and tail.", "quote": "The change in its colour takes place when it is inflated with air; it is then black, not unlike the crocodile, or green like the lizard but black-spotted like the pard.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book II, Part 11", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.553, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.683, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA3ZXjkeZCbjupe7NIFtAyDs9zBkNM5x5frYQ-ze_i_5A", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha02-15", "key": "94734a2a70e522b3", "label": "High-flying birds are four-toed, most three-forward one-back", "statement": "Birds that fly high are all four-toed; most have three toes in front and one behind, and a few, such as the wryneck, have two in front and two behind.", "quote": "Birds that fly high in air are in all cases four-toed: that is, the greater part have three toes in front and one behind in place of a heel; some few have two in front and two behind, as the wryneck.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book II, Part 12", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.651, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.733, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA9dCVVmKeGHz-qYkFOzilouvC-MSC5IGM29cV3vbtWf4", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha02-16", "key": "ef6ada753a99008b", "label": "No fish has a neck, limbs, testicles or breasts", "statement": "No fish has a neck, any limb, testicles (internal or external), or breasts.", "quote": "No fish has a neck, or any limb, or testicles at all, within or without, or breasts.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book II, Part 13", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.768, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.843, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAipP_tzyabe1VAXE7pOm08v552NICBtbEvo6bqmaiCdE", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha02-17", "key": "87c7e920561f3b4d", "label": "The dolphin has two breasts near its genitals", "statement": "The dolphin bears live young directly and has two breasts placed near its genitals rather than high up, with no visible teats but two slits from which milk flows.", "quote": "Thus the dolphin is directly viviparous, and accordingly we find it furnished with two breasts, not situated high up, but in the neighbourhood of the genitals.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book II, Part 13", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.81, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.85, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAX7BZr8Fc9ju0dd7ByKbot0kgRDXEgNq4ArYtf5WJJ04", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha02-18", "key": "257c54633ecd4769", "label": "Fishes have no organs or passages for hearing or smell", "statement": "Of the sense organs fishes have only eyes; they have neither the organs of hearing and smell nor any passages for them.", "quote": "with regard to the organs connected with the other senses, hearing and smell, they are devoid alike of the organs themselves and of passages indicative of them.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book II, Part 13", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.784, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.83, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA4hHbjI-CBybzN9rEFnSPBfipzk47oS-ujJipj6RaQck", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha02-19", "key": "fee0de11deba828b", "label": "Scaly fish lay eggs; cartilaginous fish bear live young", "statement": "Scaly fishes are always oviparous, and cartilaginous fishes are all viviparous except the fishing-frog.", "quote": "scaly fish are invariably oviparous, but cartilaginous fishes are all viviparous, with the single exception of the fishing-frog.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book II, Part 13", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.856, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.887, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAjL-QKbdz15s7Tphmv2M3t0iCOPD2sYJpCe6aJVlw3f8", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha02-20", "key": "377ba9a418c57561", "label": "Some oxen and the horse have a bone inside the heart", "statement": "In one kind of ox, though not in every individual, a bone is found inside the heart, and the horse's heart also has a bone in it.", "quote": "there is one species of ox where, though not in all cases, a bone is found inside the heart. And, by the way, the horse's heart also has a bone inside it.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book II, Part 15", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.69, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.757, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA492hZPdK1ZEfnH_dMhPiYRdpdPWt6T53PqIU03qwuaI", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha02-21", "key": "570dae14e368a67d", "label": "Deer, horse, mule, ass, seal and some pigs lack a gall-bladder", "statement": "Among viviparous quadrupeds the deer, the roe, the horse, the mule, the ass, the seal and some kinds of pig have no gall-bladder.", "quote": "Of viviparous quadrupeds the deer is without the organ, as also the roe, the horse, the mule, the ass, the seal, and some kinds of pigs.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book II, Part 15", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.775, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.833, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAaMM1BvspTk1v2p38LPcRmWegJoVpAAAXP5YGaDijKkk", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha02-22", "key": "89633fea2b0fb30c", "label": "Stags always have about twenty maggots inside the head", "statement": "Without exception, stags have maggots living inside the head, in the hollow beneath the root of the tongue and near the first vertebra, usually about twenty in a cluster.", "quote": "However, without any exception, stags are found to have maggots living inside the head", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book II, Part 15", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.577, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.67, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAFaGDlXuc20h1jJr8ES7NRLO6EUxQOLGvgzlHl9MDG8o", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha02-23", "key": "b0d4f690cb4f5a7a", "label": "No fish or bird has kidneys or a bladder", "statement": "No oviparous animal that is not a quadruped, whether fish or bird, is known to have kidneys or a bladder.", "quote": "Of the ovipara that are not quadrupedal there is no instance known of an animal, whether fish or bird, provided with these organs.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book II, Part 16", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.784, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.83, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAUg_B6je3OQuaHRh1hzRN-lHqjsevP9Bd7x-I21HuiK4", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha02-24", "key": "b9ddf2a2271c726a", "label": "Horned animals lacking upper front teeth have four stomachs and ruminate", "statement": "Horned quadrupeds that lack a full set of teeth in both jaws have a stomach of four chambers, and these are the animals that chew the cud.", "quote": "such of the horned animals as are not equally furnished with teeth in both jaws are furnished with four such chambers. These animals, by the way, are those that are said to chew the cud.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book II, Part 17", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.795, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.853, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAyt8Sav5aKTc-60btjxCJ-YzyTMXyNxCvGJAaTyyeAOc", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha02-25", "key": "b280814ce3b8861f", "label": "Serpents have thirty ribs, as many as the days of a month", "statement": "Serpents have thirty ribs.", "quote": "Their ribs are as numerous as the days of the month; in other words, they are thirty in number.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book II, Part 17", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.84, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.877, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAPv9DkZrGfK0DwhRmPlQuSUkemID85Y5z9nvJcolOf28", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha03-01", "key": "45d86b5bfe0e9d35", "label": "Fishes, gilled animals and serpents have no testicles", "statement": "No fish, no other gill-bearing animal and no serpent has testicles; nor does any footless animal except those that are viviparous within themselves.", "quote": "No fish is furnished with testicles, nor any other creature that has gills, nor any serpent whatever: nor, in short, any animal devoid of feet, save such only as are viviparous within themselves.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book III, Part 1", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.744, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.797, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAje3PGt_oYAZJWDAB5emgxChavcgvxzFK9Uf282Al7HY", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha03-02", "key": "b185c9ffe63e5191", "label": "Birds, oviparous quadrupeds and the hedgehog have internal testicles near the loin", "statement": "Birds have testicles placed internally close to the loin, as do oviparous quadrupeds such as the lizard, the tortoise and the crocodile, and among viviparous animals the hedgehog.", "quote": "Birds are furnished with testicles, but these are internally situated, close to the loin. The case is similar with oviparous quadrupeds, such as the lizard, the tortoise and the crocodile; and among the viviparous animals this peculiarity is found in the hedgehog.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book III, Part 1", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.765, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.817, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAvCGI3rIziGiShZcqdP2WWNDvQp6y7kiQ_WuCZO2gk18", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha03-03", "key": "85e1b1e15a3c7d64", "label": "Bird testicles enlarge greatly in the breeding season", "statement": "Before the breeding season the testicles of birds are small or invisible, but during the breeding season they become greatly enlarged in all birds.", "quote": "before the breeding season the organ is small in some birds and quite invisible in others, but during the season the organ in all cases is greatly enlarged.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book III, Part 1", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.713, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.773, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAqy5DSBkrmXhFeF0TCl68qQBUTM0d9oWtNeS-nragLQ4", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha03-04", "key": "079aa771f09388f5", "label": "Selachians are internally oviparous and externally viviparous", "statement": "The dogfish and the other selachians (footless gilled animals that bear live young) produce eggs inside the body, and the eggs turn into young within the womb before birth.", "quote": "With animals devoid of feet that are internally oviparous and viviparous externally, as is the case with the dogfish and the other so-called Selachians", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book III, Part 1", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.845, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.873, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAMAzov6ZQW2Q6haesJKb6Ir_vIU5ctQ-lKXX_1LxCafE", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha03-05", "key": "16e8ae9eeb5cbf48", "label": "The viper is the only viviparous serpent", "statement": "Serpents as a rule lay eggs; the viper is the only serpent that bears live young, and it does so by first producing eggs internally.", "quote": "Serpents as a rule are oviparous, the viper being the only viviparous member of the genus. The viper is, previously to external parturition, oviparous internally", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book III, Part 1", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.79, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.827, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA27LKYy_CcsagWzz-a6EXUSCCcUD8GpN08UPa8biosrc", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha03-06", "key": "f773ef5ce277460c", "label": "Horned animals, hare, mouse and bat have cotyledons in the pregnant womb", "statement": "Pregnant females of horned animals lacking upper front teeth have cotyledons in the womb, as do the hare, the mouse and the bat; all other viviparous footed animals with teeth in both jaws have a smooth womb with the embryo attached directly to it.", "quote": "the females of horned nonambidental animals are furnished with cotyledons in the womb when they are pregnant, and such is the case, among ambidentals, with the hare, the mouse, and the bat", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book III, Part 1", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.645, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.73, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA3EjAsD0XV_AG9Bwm3t0_BSaAcNCjjqh9BhEzvR8b7EY", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha03-07", "key": "caf838efdc9e118c", "label": "The great blood-vessels originate in the heart, not the head", "statement": "The two great blood-vessels (the great vein and the aorta) have their origin in the heart, not, as earlier writers held, in the head or brain.", "quote": "These blood-vessels have their origins in the heart, for they traverse the other viscera, in whatever direction they happen to run, without in any way losing their distinctive characteristic as blood-vessels", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book III, Part 3", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.842, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.857, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAhGdVtVDqQTCgjgL3wZoyfodeWCKV2GV_IuEwVJXsARQ", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha03-08", "key": "948c10b1b0adcaa2", "label": "The heart has three chambers, all visible only in the largest animals", "statement": "The heart has three chambers; in small animals even the largest chamber is scarcely visible, in medium-sized animals the second is scarcely visible, and only in the largest animals are all three distinctly seen.", "quote": "In the case of the smaller animals even the largest of the chambers is scarcely discernible; the second larger is scarcely discernible in animals of medium size; but in the largest animals all three chambers are distinctly seen.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book III, Part 3", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.788, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.83, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RADL7CBxrSI-gHOUqD29IMBgwqSCpWdyZqmYDJ2cqsZT0", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha03-09", "key": "de6e205efe4e5e9b", "label": "The brain contains no blood and no vein", "statement": "In all animals the brain itself is bloodless, and no vein, large or small, runs within it; veins end in the membrane around the brain.", "quote": "The brain itself in all animals is destitute of blood, and no vein, great or small, holds its course therein.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book III, Part 3", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.842, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.88, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAetwNc1jOoHaX9EVifZYwHy3HtMLpAAzF_EJZyVBS6L0", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha03-10", "key": "2aa2f76f5af5157d", "label": "Fibres in the blood cause it to coagulate", "statement": "Blood coagulates because of a fibrous matter it contains; if the fibre is left in, the blood coagulates, and if it is removed, the blood cannot coagulate.", "quote": "If this fibre be left in the blood, the blood will coagulate; if it be removed or extracted, the blood is found to be incapable of coagulation.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book III, Part 6", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.708, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.777, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAEWAERHcS3JguUW_Ilkw7fIv2MK0sQVnCN0WE5fhbruU", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha03-11", "key": "65a56e50979198b6", "label": "Deer, roe and antelope blood lacks fibre and clots weakly", "statement": "The blood of the deer, the roe, the antelope and some other animals lacks the coagulating fibre, and so does not coagulate as firmly as the blood of other animals.", "quote": "we fail to find it in the blood of the deer, the roe, the antelope, and some other animals; and, owing to this deficiency of the fibrous tissue, the blood of these animals does not coagulate to the extent observed in the blood of other animals.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book III, Part 6", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.564, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.673, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAgKnqu_fsc_CXeDy951rHsbbjODNZDaTll36QoSksEQw", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha03-12", "key": "9b32e6b7b0a275a1", "label": "The crocodile is the only animal that moves its upper jaw", "statement": "Animals in general move the lower jaw; the river crocodile is the only animal that moves the upper jaw.", "quote": "Animals in general move the lower jaw; the river crocodile is the only animal that moves the upper one.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book III, Part 7", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.731, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.83, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAu-zrbKkc5KA2RYEMUztIUWb2L4hZzIQ05WSrikqeavM", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha03-13", "key": "5b1326d60014e592", "label": "The dolphin has true bone, not fish-spine", "statement": "The dolphin's skeleton is made of bone, like that of viviparous quadrupeds, not of fish-spine.", "quote": "The dolphin has bones, and not fish-spine.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book III, Part 7", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.886, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.907, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAbtBS-ZkGoOoEtPrWQyL5NQWg6k2LYfQq5-MEO5Z15vI", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha03-14", "key": "68344f8c485abfb1", "label": "Only the stag has solid branching horns, shed annually unless castrated", "statement": "Of all animals only the stag has horns that are solid throughout and branched, and only the deer sheds its horns, annually, unless it has been castrated.", "quote": "In the case of the stag alone of all animals the horns are solid throughout, and ramify into branches (or antlers). And, whereas no other animal is known to shed its horns, the deer sheds its horns annually, unless it has been castrated", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book III, Part 9", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.718, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.79, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAIGPhuLFX_T7YI5rlR3LkDNPGwlQ6q2ZR0hHi2fn2Tnk", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha03-15", "key": "51ee25558f6ae2eb", "label": "All toed animals have nails except the elephant", "statement": "All animals that have feet with toes have nails, except the elephant, whose toes are undivided and slightly jointed and which has no nails at all.", "quote": "all animals have nails that have toes, and toes that have feet, except the elephant; and the elephant has toes undivided and slightly articulated, but has no nails whatsoever", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book III, Part 9", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.789, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.843, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAZkbZ4QsxjLwjN0zzz8tkV-BA18CidlFv-ttscIsMW4A", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha03-16", "key": "e6bdab096383f991", "label": "Viviparous footed animals have hair, oviparous footed have scutes, fishes scales", "statement": "All viviparous animals with feet have hair; all oviparous animals with feet have horny plates; and fishes, and only fishes, have scales.", "quote": "All viviparous animals furnished with feet have hair; all oviparous animals furnished with feet have horn-like tessellates; fishes, and fishes only, have scales", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book III, Part 10", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.765, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.837, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAieCmHM3fOpYQCv67IUNvdZFjH3NmqLJlRKOqllreXss", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha03-17", "key": "bb5149df04fabbe3", "label": "Grey hairs are mostly white from the start, so greying is not withering", "statement": "Hair greys from the tip back toward the root, but most grey hairs are white from the beginning, which shows that greying is not a withering or decrepitude of the hair.", "quote": "Hair turns grey from the point backwards to the roots. But, in the majority of cases, grey hairs are white from the beginning; and this is a proof that greyness of hair does not, as some believe to be the case, imply withering or decrepitude", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book III, Part 11", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.514, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.64, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAQMD8Bap-OPMcvZYW23vFvgCmC4268smUWvg3sS-gqp0", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha03-18", "key": "b155cba30868ab1c", "label": "Boys, women and castrated men never go bald", "statement": "No boy, no woman and no castrated man ever becomes bald, and a man castrated before puberty never grows the later hair (pubic, axillary, beard).", "quote": "For no boy ever gets bald, no woman, and no castrated man. In fact, if a man be castrated before reaching puberty, the later growths of hair never come at all", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book III, Part 11", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.644, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.69, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAoLZ723f3U4Et9ylSqZHl95hGlhqayBJkPfQpNrLCW2c", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha03-19", "key": "fb2380cedd43dfd7", "label": "The crane is the only bird that changes colour with age", "statement": "No bird changes colour by reason of age except the crane, whose wings are ash-coloured at first and turn black as it grows old.", "quote": "no creature is liable to change of colour by reason of age, excepting the crane. The wings of this bird are ash-coloured at first, but as it grows old the wings get black.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book III, Part 12", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.663, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.727, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAjh6yQH7Fox-6EuOag5Cj9P-IR4e9u3BGIM-d6t-5uys", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha03-20", "key": "07af3e1958887405", "label": "Drinking water can make rams beget black lambs", "statement": "In many places the drinking water is of such a quality that rams that drink it before mating beget black lambs.", "quote": "water in many places is of such peculiar quality that rams, if they have intercourse with the female after drinking it, beget black lambs", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book III, Part 12", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.379, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.683, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RARdQwE-Yy3WjeoTMmQhRcsFMxA02gkp6HXkr2O2KFHXU", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha03-21", "key": "bf4c47b08506cf62", "label": "Blood forms first in the heart before the body is differentiated", "statement": "In development, blood appears first in the heart, before the body as a whole is differentiated.", "quote": "Blood is developed first of all in the heart of animals before the body is differentiated as a whole.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book III, Part 19", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.601, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.68, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA_qhxZr_EDYE_SJ2WrNsLANbNEazils1JQ9UspNrAp-M", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha03-22", "key": "84d5f6ff2629412e", "label": "All internally and externally viviparous animals, including cetaceans, have breasts", "statement": "All animals that are viviparous both internally and externally, including all hairy animals and the cetaceans (dolphin, porpoise, whale), have breasts and milk; oviparous animals and those only externally viviparous have neither.", "quote": "All animals have breasts that are internally and externally viviparous, as for instance all animals that have hair, as man and the horse; and the cetaceans, as the dolphin, the porpoise, and the whale-for these animals have breasts and are supplied with milk.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book III, Part 20", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.829, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.877, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA7fKGOztp02loEuOBQnb3iVws-4u10KhVBC2CWUwvvZQ", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha03-23", "key": "c98c8df9cceef7e7", "label": "Camel's milk is thinnest, then human, then ass; cow's milk is thickest", "statement": "Of milks, the camel's is the thinnest, human milk next, then the ass's, and cow's milk is the thickest.", "quote": "Now the camel's milk is the thinnest, and that of the human species next after it, and that of the ass next again, but cow's milk is the thickest.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book III, Part 20", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.657, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.717, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAHfBe2HToewHFBVhxZWmjVhJdyRuvknPZo6xWgfAUlOM", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha03-24", "key": "b349797412039a20", "label": "Fertile sperm sinks in water, infertile sperm dissolves", "statement": "Sperm capable of impregnating sinks in water, while infertile sperm dissolves away.", "quote": "Sperm capable of impregnating or of fructification sinks in water; sperm incapable Of producing that result dissolves away.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book III, Part 22", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.416, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.683, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA3LMz7kDcMQwlmoxPnXcJt7Vd02wYT6PhnszLVuhOA70", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha04-01", "key": "91aafab1d772a01c", "label": "Molluscs have eight feet with two rows of suckers, save one octopus", "statement": "All molluscs (cephalopods) have eight feet, each with a double row of suckers, except one species of octopus.", "quote": "All molluscs are furnished with eight feet, and in all cases these feet are severally furnished with a double row of suckers, with the exception of one single species of poulpe or octopus.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book IV, Part 1", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.794, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.83, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAOcZxEDqC19hsrhPCl_9e5FgiWUI23nu_lo_yH1rKP24", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha04-02", "key": "1c5ef95b8cf0e248", "label": "The octopus copulates with a special arm", "statement": "The octopus uses its last arm for copulation, and that arm is sharp, whitish and forked at its tip.", "quote": "the last of his feelers he employs in the act of copulation; and this last one, by the way, is extremely sharp, is exceptional as being of a whitish colour, and at its extremity is bifurcate", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book IV, Part 1", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.762, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.817, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RADesDv28nqx53c5OANzdhadhn9NpQxQ-lq1zAcia9W0k", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha04-03", "key": "043bec2fda0ddf28", "label": "All cephalopods discharge ink when frightened, the cuttlefish most", "statement": "All molluscs (cephalopods) discharge a black juice when frightened, and the cuttlefish discharges it most copiously.", "quote": "All molluscs, when frightened, discharge such a juice, but the discharge is most copious in the cuttle-fish.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book IV, Part 1", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.697, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.777, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAdqfbX5-i19NRvNJLO2VjI9FjpC9a1OVr4d_kYJEBJAk", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha04-04", "key": "67031ec757d50e0a", "label": "Crawfish and crabs have ten feet including the claws", "statement": "The crawfish has five feet on each side including the claws, and the crab likewise has ten feet in all including the claws.", "quote": "The crawfishes have five feet on either side, including the claws at the end; and in like manner the crabs have ten feet in all, including the claws.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book IV, Part 2", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.871, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.893, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA1Ma1gONsOF7sI9Ln6jnWYSzMOAcfgVTPAGfFw_VmBC8", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha04-05", "key": "58366bb9f3e4a989", "label": "Lobsters always have one claw larger than the other, in both sexes", "statement": "In the lobster both male and female have one claw larger than the other, and no lobster of either sex is ever found with both claws the same size.", "quote": "There is no apparent difference between the male and female, for they both have one claw, whichever it may be, larger than the other, and neither male nor female is ever found with both claws of the same size.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book IV, Part 2", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.719, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.807, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAOkN1omfO0tDtb9oT9R8S8hy2lc-_HIRnwos40RHSTSg", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha04-06", "key": "ada4a6c67acd3a48", "label": "Crabs mostly have the right claw larger", "statement": "Crabs for the most part have the right claw bigger and stronger than the left.", "quote": "for the most part they have the right claw bigger and stronger than the left.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book IV, Part 3", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.663, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.76, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAXPM7xybmDz_hmg35BSfILPjdTutPh3ikxqzoUPUpcxk", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha04-07", "key": "111f392bf816f4fa", "label": "Spiral-shelled testaceans all coil to the right", "statement": "All spiral-shelled testaceans have their shells on the right-hand side and move in the direction opposite to the spire.", "quote": "all stromboid testaceans have their shells on the right hand side, and move not in the direction of the spire, but the opposite way.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book IV, Part 4", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.728, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.787, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAdQafZUPe4SkkFOTLWiGZLPupRN7YRy9fj75qZ9NszK0", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha04-08", "key": "694f7920f4a080d3", "label": "Murex and trumpet-shell bore through other shells with a proboscis", "statement": "The purple murex and the trumpet-shell have a firm proboscis with which they bore right through the shells of the shellfish they prey on.", "quote": "so is that proboscis proportionately stronger in these testaceans; for they bore right through the shells of other shell-fish on which they prey.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book IV, Part 4", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.736, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.8, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAMPlsInV7pkkZFVz-lmXwv4fHiDXcy5tFFdoi6HQBOBY", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha04-09", "key": "12a985d602f085e1", "label": "The hermit crab is intermediate between crustaceans and testaceans", "statement": "The hermit crab is by nature like the crawfish but lives inside a shell like a testacean, and so is intermediate between crustaceans and testaceans.", "quote": "In its nature it resembles the crawfish kind, and it is born simple of itself, but by its habit of introducing itself into a shell and living there it resembles the testaceans, and so appears to partake of the characters of both kinds.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book IV, Part 4", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.265, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.793, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAXW-lZNw3FFv_NlrrIssRQxjqXV4Nj6IcML1UregSLF0", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha04-10", "key": "c96ea6969dd3531e", "label": "The sea-urchin's mouth is below because its food lies below", "statement": "The sea-urchin has its mouth underneath and its excretory outlet on top because its food lies below, so the mouth is placed where it is best suited to reach the food.", "quote": "For the food on which the creature lives lies down below; consequently the mouth has a position well adapted for getting at the food, and the excretion is above, near to the back of the shell.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book IV, Part 5", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.278, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.84, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAizyuypVpSmMYCIC1a0HZCbmNi3bcCSjOrt6SGzJjCT8", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha04-11", "key": "a712d1a859247175", "label": "Sea-urchins always have five egg masses", "statement": "The sea-urchin always has the same number of so-called eggs, an odd number, namely five, lying beneath the stomach.", "quote": "Underneath the stomach, in another membrane, are the so-called eggs, identical in number in all cases, and that number is always an odd number, to wit five.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book IV, Part 5", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.775, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.837, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAb3bcE06DzHTna5cJ0SQ9YgGs6v9XFBZCJHUyz7FhcpU", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha04-12", "key": "83216a3bfd3b86e2", "label": "The sea-anemone has no excretion and so resembles a plant", "statement": "The sea-anemone appears to produce no excretion at all, and in this respect resembles a plant.", "quote": "The sea-nettle appears to be devoid altogether of excretion, and in this respect it resembles a plant.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book IV, Part 6", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.635, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.737, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAyAlM63BOmHTNVDxfLASUfURpmg8KKuK9cCI_3g-yOR8", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha04-13", "key": "22e30fe73fc3c237", "label": "Insects cut in two continue to live", "statement": "All insects continue to live when cut in two, except those that are cold by nature or so small that they chill quickly.", "quote": "All insects when cut in two continue to live, excepting such as are naturally cold by nature, or such as from their minute size chill rapidly", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book IV, Part 7", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.452, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.673, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAYGFd4wlkSEfh-AV0H_QRGYCtUCYRlKWZ9TCshnGnZpU", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha04-14", "key": "bacc06c66266ee8e", "label": "No two-winged insect has a sting in the rear", "statement": "No insect with only two wings has a sting at the rear of its body.", "quote": "no insect with only two wings has a sting in the rear.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book IV, Part 7", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.769, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.817, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAv6RMtWJNNLASJ_JAYYSw05wGPCdM0TcQgZ6k2Qcc8qU", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha04-15", "key": "6ba91860c747ad89", "label": "The cicada has no mouth and feeds only on dew", "statement": "The cicada, alone of all creatures, has no mouth but a long tongue-like organ, and with it feeds on dew alone, so that no excrement is ever found in its stomach.", "quote": "by the aid of this the creature feeds on dew, and on dew only, and in its stomach no excretion is ever found.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book IV, Part 7", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.778, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.837, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA3LBsiJE2ff_FeLXg9rdVsUg8aiwAcD-a4v0i45fzr_c", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha04-16", "key": "32ac72c9e1f5b738", "label": "There are exactly five senses", "statement": "There are five senses, sight, hearing, smell, taste and touch, and no other special sense is known.", "quote": "The total number of the senses (for we have no experience of any special sense not here included), is five: sight, hearing, smell, taste, and touch.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book IV, Part 8", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.132, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.803, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA1cayzFre0aCfjda50pFBFOSntXgPsyz7ugEuDsP25KU", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha04-17", "key": "08de22456eb6c511", "label": "The mole has complete but stunted eyes hidden under the skin", "statement": "The mole is blind and has no visible eyes, but under the thick skin of the head it has stunted eyes containing all the parts of ordinary eyes.", "quote": "the eyes are found inside in a stunted condition, furnished with all the parts found in ordinary eyes", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book IV, Part 8", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.774, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.827, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAnT6FhLDif3lYRsDQwV6vX1_ZZE9AK3vKNmmXwZnN4fA", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha04-18", "key": "54f6fac7a5525ba3", "label": "Fishes hear and smell despite having no visible organs for either", "statement": "Although fishes have no visible organs of hearing or smell, they undoubtedly hear and smell, as shown by their fleeing from loud noises.", "quote": "but for all this fishes undoubtedly hear and smell. For they are observed to run away from any loud noise, such as would be made by the rowing of a galley", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book IV, Part 8", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.693, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.787, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAMqugSLX7TH8d8Fy68Jcij3WQnlEkllMMZkF7k0xpxlY", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha04-19", "key": "acd23e9b1712573e", "label": "Bloodless animals fall into four genera", "statement": "With very few exceptions, the animals without blood fall into four kinds: molluscs (cephalopods), crustaceans, testaceans (shelled molluscs and the like) and insects.", "quote": "All other animals may, with very few exceptions, be comprehended within four genera: to wit, molluscs, crustaceans, testaceans, and insects.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book IV, Part 8", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.335, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.753, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAExB9OmL5tpwN5yTNjh9f-T7_MC4TZLF2SUAqCNkK-Ds", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha04-20", "key": "203d4a47cb342e25", "label": "Animals without lungs have no voice", "statement": "No animal can produce voice except by the action of the pharynx, so animals without lungs have no voice.", "quote": "no animal can give utterance to voice except by the action of the pharynx, and consequently such animals as are devoid of lung have no voice", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book IV, Part 9", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.644, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.74, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RANNj2Qd6Auv7nU4CVASe3fsyhzDwh2YY9-75VL4e2cXU", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha04-21", "key": "f063ae7f82ee2370", "label": "No insect breathes", "statement": "Insects have no voice and make sound by internal air rather than by expelling air, because no insect breathes.", "quote": "they can emit sound by internal air or wind, though not by the emission of air or wind; for no insects are capable of respiration.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book IV, Part 9", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.6, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.717, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAnSsDUcoVakoVnrkA8_IvwJz00A4IIuDT69tHO0EV6K8", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha04-22", "key": "81b0d894eecf766d", "label": "Language is peculiar to man", "statement": "Viviparous quadrupeds utter various vocal sounds but cannot converse; language is peculiar to man.", "quote": "Viviparous quadrupeds utter vocal sounds of different kinds, but they have no power of converse. In fact, this power, or language, is peculiar to man.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book IV, Part 9", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.234, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.747, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAcgdANP1ivR8hjBSHRXZzFN9KHqwmgbnsz6GDVSvMMJs", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha04-23", "key": "203e953a065ec6ff", "label": "Bird song is learned and varies by locality", "statement": "Some young birds removed from the nest sing a different note from their parents after hearing other birds, so bird song is not wholly innate but can be modified and improved, and it varies by locality.", "quote": "Of little birds, some sing a different note from the parent birds, if they have been removed from the nest and have heard other birds singing", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book IV, Part 9", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.709, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.777, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA4jnuqUu3kBeNaTvElG3dLZQNzaap87zd4bxYi0e6v8E", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha04-24", "key": "225013b2cb2f88e5", "label": "Horses, dogs, oxen and all viviparous quadrupeds dream", "statement": "Not only men but horses, dogs, oxen, sheep, goats and all viviparous quadrupeds appear to dream, dogs showing it by barking in their sleep.", "quote": "it would appear that not only do men dream, but horses also, and dogs, and oxen; aye, and sheep, and goats, and all viviparous quadrupeds; and dogs show their dreaming by barking in their sleep.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book IV, Part 10", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.523, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.653, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAzrqCoJrdCJLI2ps7I600tsWEVg4JgYHWv10eTSQBWD0", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha04-25", "key": "026d0ae55b7b7114", "label": "Fishes, cephalopods and crustaceans sleep, but briefly", "statement": "Water animals such as fishes, molluscs (cephalopods) and crustaceans undoubtedly sleep, though their sleep is very short.", "quote": "These animals sleep without doubt, although their sleep is of very short duration.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book IV, Part 10", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.589, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.697, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAYoIwa8FNkTFlGk4Se_ICy_YCxdKz3nbDM3De_r8229A", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha04-26", "key": "850207f2918ad3f1", "label": "Cetaceans sleep with the blow-hole above the water", "statement": "The dolphin, the whale and all animals with a blow-hole sleep with the blow-hole above the surface, breathing through it while gently moving their fins.", "quote": "The dolphin and the whale, and all such as are furnished with a blow-hole, sleep with the blow-hole over the surface of the water", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book IV, Part 10", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.695, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.77, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAoTQ2PCKNkMu924fL21CT_nYFvfRh069okKmUl8KqKI4", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha04-27", "key": "553569c5c2509dab", "label": "Sessile animals and testaceans have no separate sexes", "statement": "Animals that live fixed in one place have no distinction of sex, nor does any testacean.", "quote": "In animals that live confined to one spot there is no duality of sex; nor is there such, in fact, in any testaceans.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book IV, Part 11", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.733, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.797, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAFEjamqUT6XjCL4L81G_3cAdPRi7nP-dollGRtGietyc", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha04-28", "key": "12c3a6f19259def2", "label": "The eel is neither male nor female and engenders nothing", "statement": "The eel is neither male nor female and produces no offspring; no eel has ever been seen with an egg.", "quote": "For instance, the eel is neither male nor female, and can engender nothing.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book IV, Part 11", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.803, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.867, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RALyffvQiB2GBW--72X0slYlYn3sGITewa5RRpzqESNp4", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha04-29", "key": "fb7043ea1dd9eb07", "label": "The psetta, erythrinus and channe are always found with eggs", "statement": "Among fishes, the psetta, the erythrinus and the channe are always found bearing eggs, having what bears and engenders but nothing that impregnates.", "quote": "so is it, among fishes, with the psetta, the erythrinus, and the channe; for these fish are in all cases found furnished with eggs.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book IV, Part 11", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.579, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.65, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAQY-Bfc54RFlFV9UL8lR_3ZMcwjU0Qi3MNxrtRIzo7Zw", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha04-30", "key": "b716c73ca2b3cad2", "label": "Males larger in viviparous footed animals, females larger in egg-layers", "statement": "As a general rule, in viviparous footed animals with blood the male is larger and longer-lived than the female (the mule excepted), whereas in oviparous and larva-producing animals such as fishes and insects the female is larger than the male.", "quote": "in red-blooded animals furnished with feet and not oviparous, the male is larger and longer-lived than the female (except with the mule, where the female is longer-lived and bigger than the male); whereas in oviparous and vermiparous creatures, as in fishes and in insects, the female is larger than the male", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book IV, Part 11", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.73, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.79, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAmQyq8fs4YBAgfiXW6Ima8QJmoZW9zy33sGuRZjS2Ozc", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha05-01", "key": "ab46e484f789a9f1", "label": "Some animals arise by spontaneous generation from putrefying matter", "statement": "Some animals are born from parents of their own kind, while others arise spontaneously and not from kindred stock, some of them out of putrefying earth or vegetable matter (as many insects do) and others inside animals out of the secretions of their organs.", "quote": "some spring from parent animals according to their kind, whilst others grow spontaneously and not from kindred stock; and of these instances of spontaneous generation some come from putrefying earth or vegetable matter, as is the case with a number of insects", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book V, Part 1", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.675, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.797, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RALtds_chasTr-BpgYxNCQsTsfRpBwXXGbB4XHFFXL18U", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha05-02", "key": "49e34814d64f66b7", "label": "Female cartilaginous fishes are larger than males", "statement": "In the cartilaginous fishes (selachians) the female is larger than the male, and the same holds for most other fishes.", "quote": "In the cartilaginous species the female is larger than the male; and the same is the case with other fishes for the most part.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book V, Part 5", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.766, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.807, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAu05VkeTyz-zMrErC_G_jMyszg7nz52-AnAYkq9YtBzY", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha05-03", "key": "7b4158481d9f0176", "label": "Male sharks and dogfish have two appendages near the vent", "statement": "In cartilaginous fishes the male, unlike the female, has two appendages hanging down near the vent, and this sex difference is found in all species of sharks and dogfish.", "quote": "in cartilaginous fishes the male, in some species, differs from the female in the fact that he is furnished with two appendages hanging down from about the exit of the residuum, and that the female is not so furnished", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book V, Part 5", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.853, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.893, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA59Cx4tBV0wxBxBejRgcH1j166cPCbMh0ZMxdIka8Lpg", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha05-04", "key": "4f18017e3cd7e121", "label": "Fishes and footless animals lack testicles but have paired sperm ducts", "statement": "Neither fishes nor any footless animals have testicles; instead male serpents and male fishes have a pair of ducts that fill with milt in the breeding season and discharge a milky fluid.", "quote": "Now neither fishes nor any animals devoid of feet are furnished with testicles, but male serpents and male fishes have a pair of ducts which fill with milt or sperm at the rutting season", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book V, Part 5", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.717, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.767, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAuvEuoTsD_N2DrOOUTw9kwFpscRdxs-SaaEa30AMcjjA", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha05-05", "key": "028a06d75a10440b", "label": "Birds and footed egg-layers have internal testicles", "statement": "Birds have their testicles inside the body, and so do all oviparous animals that have feet.", "quote": "birds, by the way, have their testicles in their interior, and so have all ovipara that are furnished with feet", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book V, Part 5", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.759, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.82, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAgu7mgvL3u_NjNw36RHWuJCmxpqBunIFEfBsJMBZ3zWM", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha05-06", "key": "b43198695cafbf6a", "label": "Non-viviparous animals lack a bladder, except the tortoise", "statement": "Animals that are not viviparous have no bladder, with the single exception of the tortoise.", "quote": "these animals are unprovided with a bladder except in the case of the tortoise", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book V, Part 5", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.734, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.787, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA-qA26KKdXGsyt5_nWA4hPwelfDsubW2GAfxPV8jYJzk", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha05-07", "key": "0dad2d3e6f51d93c", "label": "A female partridge downwind of the male becomes impregnated", "statement": "A female partridge becomes impregnated if she gets to leeward of the male, and often merely by hearing his voice or by his breathing on her as he flies overhead.", "quote": "With partridges, by the way, if the female gets to leeward of the male, she becomes thereby impregnated.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book V, Part 5", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.474, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.707, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAuB1-Q0e1zuL8wI-ndpwxUGwOb60inGKe6lq4gozzSP4", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha05-08", "key": "cfad6ef596490b93", "label": "Cephalopods copulate mouth to mouth by interlacing tentacles", "statement": "The octopus, the cuttlefish and the squid all mate in the same way, uniting at the mouth by interlacing their tentacles.", "quote": "Molluscs, such as the octopus, the sepia, and the calamary, have sexual intercourse all in the same way; that is to say, they unite at the mouth, by an interlacing of their tentacles.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book V, Part 6", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.725, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.797, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA8gfHwWaKkVLwMziLEjDA8eE8yi49STjPZZcbJ2U1yFY", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha05-09", "key": "826c16d51f2979ef", "label": "In insects the female inserts her organ into the male", "statement": "In copulating insects the female pushes her sexual organ up into the body of the male, the reverse of what happens in other animals.", "quote": "The female pushes from underneath her sexual organ into the body of the male above, this being the reverse of the operation observed in other creatures", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book V, Part 8", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.627, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.73, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA6bjfMUFWeETLAwSbdsSrLpi_p59BOt6gtJ75LcZ_f5Y", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha05-10", "key": "f376daa5e69e41b8", "label": "Most animals mate in spring, when winter turns to summer", "statement": "Animals in general are naturally disposed to mate at about the same time of year, in spring as winter changes into summer, when almost all flying, walking and swimming creatures pair.", "quote": "Animals in general seem naturally disposed to this intercourse at about the same period of the year, and that is when winter is changing into summer.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book V, Part 8", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.669, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.74, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAhPa0GgPlOevXxa0vWxQfQeLZlwXD8QXxpr1UzNnPbHU", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha05-11", "key": "6ae593a10fcc1847", "label": "The halcyon breeds at the winter solstice", "statement": "The halcyon (kingfisher) breeds at the time of the winter solstice, unlike nearly all other birds, which breed in spring and early summer.", "quote": "The halcyon breeds at the season of the winter solstice.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book V, Part 8", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.708, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.74, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAFjsKVCvZeDmn4UKwjZXUZVTF-kYAXrHrrS-BybHKvik", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha05-12", "key": "fae610295ac99112", "label": "Most wild animals give birth only once a year", "statement": "Most wild animals bring forth young once and only once a year, except animals such as the hare whose females can conceive again while already pregnant.", "quote": "The greater part of wild animals bring forth once and once only in the year, except in the case of animals like the hare, where the female can become superfoetally impregnated.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book V, Part 9", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.679, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.74, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAOHMRgoQGpS0JMmIBkuktXLsp285npPiyMWhZMRX74nA", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha05-13", "key": "49e2f40dbfcaeb47", "label": "The pelamys and the tunny breed only in the Black Sea", "statement": "The pelamys (young tunny or bonito) and the tunny breed in the Black Sea and nowhere else.", "quote": "The pelamys and the tunny breed in the Euxine, and nowhere else.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book V, Part 10", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.707, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.77, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RATiGWDQC9_lgt0GjOYyGP5M-Vj-lPPU_FCIzPiBLGB3I", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha05-14", "key": "3469fef7f7295f9c", "label": "The brooding female octopus stops feeding and loses condition", "statement": "The female octopus, after laying her eggs, broods over them and loses condition because she does not go out for food during the hatching period.", "quote": "The female, after laying her eggs, broods over them, and in consequence gets out of condition, by reason of not going in quest of food during the hatching period.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book V, Part 12", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.71, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.797, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAZlR-Vdl2DKiyDglseFcDWDc5i_BqJoP5ACL0E3YGDIg", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha05-15", "key": "ee1aa055b79690ba", "label": "Sea urchins have most eggs in warm weather and at full moon", "statement": "The edible sea urchin is never without its so-called eggs, but has them in greatest abundance in spring and autumn, in warm weather, and when the moon is full.", "quote": "it is furnished with them in especial abundance in warm weather or when a full moon is in the sky", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book V, Part 12", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.592, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.703, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAPa5ELwkpX5Uk9a4J3NdvFZmVsGb73jNhkaXp6FyuqmI", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha05-16", "key": "dab12fdf718c2d15", "label": "Wild birds breed once a year; the swallow and blackbird twice", "statement": "Wild birds as a rule pair and breed only once a year, but the swallow and the blackbird breed twice.", "quote": "Of birds the wild species, as has been stated, as a general rule pair and breed only once a year. The swallow, however, and the blackbird breed twice.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book V, Part 13", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.763, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.797, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAheU9AZ5iG-oeMzc5F-JQNJ-YTobP5hhudNcEQAyQYhs", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha05-17", "key": "ee73c460f1c0c97b", "label": "Ring-dove is the largest pigeon, the turtle-dove the smallest", "statement": "Among the pigeons the ring-dove is the largest, the stock-dove next and a little larger than the common pigeon, and the turtle-dove the smallest.", "quote": "The largest of all the pigeon species is the phatta or ring-dove; and the next in size is the oenas or stock-dove; and the stock-dove is a little larger than the common pigeon. The smallest of all the species is the turtle-dove.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book V, Part 13", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.854, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.877, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA07U_w0bFi8G0dOLz8eJZVMWx6FI5SPfl7kLyR6C0opc", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha05-18", "key": "18df6ec8a00ef8a2", "label": "The first semen produced is infertile or yields poor offspring", "statement": "In all animals the earliest semen produced is infertile, or if fertile gives smaller and poorer offspring, as seen especially in man, viviparous quadrupeds and birds (whose first eggs are smaller).", "quote": "in all animals, the earliest secretion of sperm is unfruitful, or if it be fruitful the issue is comparatively poor and small", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book V, Part 14", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.556, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.667, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAJawU24kBAQh_KVjJt25dCiOU7irk2JoIWiGFnU92inU", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha05-19", "key": "2179844bcac76bca", "label": "Men produce semen at about fourteen and are fertile at about twenty-one", "statement": "A man begins to produce seminal fluid at about fourteen years of age and becomes capable of generation at about twenty-one.", "quote": "Man begins to possess seminal fluid about the age of fourteen, and becomes generatively capable at about the age of twenty-one years.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book V, Part 14", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.737, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.787, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAiX0HYyPpOlouxOoDUg5NytqFST8R7mA-HXwvGGTOdGc", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha05-20", "key": "c8ee1d0fe97bd6d9", "label": "Females and young animals have higher-pitched voices than males and adults", "statement": "As a general rule the female has a higher-pitched voice than the male, and the young animal than the older one.", "quote": "As a general rule the female is sharper-toned in voice than the male, and the young animal than the elder", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book V, Part 14", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.671, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.747, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAzELEJ2z9H7wpQRKrBhpRqaSTpmMSvQl6YSSOKyB9V7o", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha05-21", "key": "7a5e42ffa2d2b610", "label": "In cattle the cow's voice is deeper than the bull's", "statement": "In cattle, contrary to the general rule, the cow has a deeper voice than the bull, and calves a deeper voice than grown cattle.", "quote": "the cow has a deeper note than the bull, and the calves a deeper note than the cattle", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book V, Part 14", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.663, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.747, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA0ZBjwW1cSKAWOY8KxxmgH27y0aAHGa0V6rNjbLocHUM", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha05-22", "key": "0f476bfc55701500", "label": "Castrated males take on female characters, including voice", "statement": "Male animals that are castrated take on the characters of the female, which explains the change of voice in gelded animals.", "quote": "And we can thus understand the change of voice in animals that undergo gelding; for male animals that undergo this process assume the characters of the female.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book V, Part 14", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.624, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.717, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAsofXuoqRX1QzFaEDD7Vn4eMl8y4W1HSE7CX-br5E5L4", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha05-23", "key": "c6816bc5ab4c5418", "label": "The bitch's gestation lasts sixty to sixty-three days", "statement": "Gestation in the dog lasts sixty to sixty-three days and never less than sixty, or if less the litter does not survive.", "quote": "The period of gestation with the bitch is sixty days, or sixty-one, or sixty-two, or sixty-three at the utmost", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book V, Part 14", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.847, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.877, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAEr7flaao8p8gF1HW7wEx3lNhd6LZzUeZTq3IpjIs7dU", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha05-24", "key": "5aac53c6208ed02d", "label": "Stallions live about thirty-five years, mares a little over forty", "statement": "The stallion as a rule lives about thirty-five years and the mare a little over forty, so that horses remain sexually capable almost all their lives.", "quote": "the stallion, as a rule, lives for about thirty-five years, and the mare for a little over forty", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book V, Part 14", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.741, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.807, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAKHsvaiZuGAsR7WbSSVEs2Ehk9jF02hPAdA1s9FPJwlM", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha05-25", "key": "4fd443ef30d756d7", "label": "Men are generative to about sixty-five, women conceive to about forty-five", "statement": "As a rule a man can beget children up to about sixty-five and a woman can conceive up to about forty-five; at most the limits are seventy and fifty, and these are rare.", "quote": "As a rule, the male is generative up to the age of sixty-five, and to the age of forty-five the female is capable of conception.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book V, Part 14", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.808, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.833, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA1S2-ZgszCjxhkKyXUd2lIgX03XvOJ8tradoB0HKN9J4", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha05-26", "key": "7bc53485963975aa", "label": "Camel gestation lasts twelve months with a single young", "statement": "The camel carries its young for twelve months and never bears more than one at a time.", "quote": "Its period of gestation is twelve months; and it is never delivered of more than one foal at a time.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book V, Part 14", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.87, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.9, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAm7u2ZGRiHBhNzImOrsxFJI9KsYPOcde76PdPPzE8BfA", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha05-27", "key": "19f5132b95367cae", "label": "Elephant gestation lasts two years with a single calf", "statement": "The female elephant carries her young for two years and bears only one at a time.", "quote": "The period of gestation with the female is two years; and only one young animal is produced at a time, in other words it is uniparous.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book V, Part 14", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.878, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.9, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAOClzHDG44zEB4E18ayianCz1IzCZZwxqgQZmEy09TRU", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha05-28", "key": "9635937a419bbf05", "label": "The murex lives about six years, with yearly growth marked on its shell", "statement": "The purple murex lives about six years, and each year's growth is marked by a distinct interval in the spiral of its shell.", "quote": "The murex lives for about six years; and the yearly increase is indicated by a distinct interval in the spiral convolution of the shell.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book V, Part 15", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.648, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.723, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAMcZKqvPCjN393AxOfBzvucHW64S0dTOJRisB6It6WS8", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha05-29", "key": "8b7e2afb7e374bad", "label": "The pinna dies if deprived of its pinna-guard crab or shrimp", "statement": "The pinna (fan mussel) houses a small shrimp or crab, the pinna-guard, and if it loses this companion it soon dies.", "quote": "these creatures have inside them a parasite nicknamed the pinna-guard, in some cases a small carid and in other cases a little crab; if the pinna be deprived of this pinna-guard it soon dies", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book V, Part 15", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.579, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.697, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAPqg2_W4Y44fOnrPoRWsmeR8VFZLG7uWpLDSwRrHr4TM", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha05-30", "key": "c1bf4c2e4b273225", "label": "All testaceans are spontaneously generated in mud, according to the material", "statement": "As a general rule all testaceans (shelled molluscs and the like) arise by spontaneous generation in mud, and differ according to the material: oysters in slime, cockles on sandy bottoms, ascidians, barnacles and limpets in rock hollows.", "quote": "As a general rule, then, all testaceans grow by spontaneous generation in mud, differing from one another according to the differences of the material", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book V, Part 15", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.653, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.78, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAfeWbf1AQ1Z1hYfCjO-5uUcFhijvGfD6t0kbTGmv6l1c", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha05-31", "key": "918d60c68b38ec02", "label": "Eggs of crustaceans, molluscs and oviparous fishes grow after laying", "statement": "In crustaceans, molluscs and oviparous fishes the egg continues to grow after it has been laid.", "quote": "This same phenomenon is observable in molluscs also, and in such fishes as are oviparous; for in all these cases the egg continues to grow.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book V, Part 17", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.617, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.707, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAdO_lqmxU7--gCjitpseWx8hi-QVNz_r2Rcr9SJ8DXjc", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha05-32", "key": "83e03cd3317f25ce", "label": "Squid, cuttlefish and octopus rarely live beyond a year", "statement": "The squid and the cuttlefish are short-lived and with few exceptions do not live out a year, and the same is true of the octopus.", "quote": "The calamary and the cuttle-fish are short-lived, as, with few exceptions, they never see the year out; and the same statement is applicable to the octopus.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book V, Part 18", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.754, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.78, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAvLdmcmqzUN5Ub6nB4fCev1E4tm1088WpgscC7azCyhw", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha05-33", "key": "934062b5582e5d06", "label": "The whole insect grub develops into the animal, not part of it", "statement": "All insects produce grubs (except one kind of butterfly that lays a hard egg), and the young insect develops from the whole grub, not from a part of it as an animal develops from part of an egg.", "quote": "But from the grub, the young animal does not grow out of a mere portion of it, as a young animal grows from a portion only of an egg, but the grub entire grows and the animal becomes differentiated out of it.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book V, Part 19", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.664, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.73, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAsRkzNkpU7x37Lr-k8ciW36rMPy2y0_5YqjyN70zild0", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha05-34", "key": "4a7b9f3d5fcedb34", "label": "Intestinal worms do not reproduce their kind", "statement": "Intestinal worms, of which there are three kinds (flat-worm, round-worm and ascarid), never propagate their kind, although the flat-worm lays something like a melon seed.", "quote": "These intestinal worms do not in any case propagate their kind.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book V, Part 19", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.703, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.8, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAoUq-4peORcsOZlbZ3XvxhFEqyCMpgmZCoINdPPtfyuo", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha05-35", "key": "71ffb0e9abf32a1b", "label": "Caterpillars feed and excrete; chrysalises do neither", "statement": "The butterfly caterpillar feeds and voids excrement, but once it becomes a chrysalis it neither feeds nor voids excrement; the same holds for all insects that develop from a grub, such as bees and wasps.", "quote": "At first, when it is a caterpillar, it feeds and ejects excrement; but when it turns into the chrysalis it neither feeds nor ejects excrement.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book V, Part 19", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.784, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.85, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAwAkJuZGD4In28RNGe2KE1gYxHf756aAPGzVulR5lZr8", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha05-36", "key": "1068a711d2f95db1", "label": "Generation of grubs is due primarily to the sun's heat or wind", "statement": "In all grubs and all animals that emerge from the grub state, generation is caused primarily by the heat of the sun or by wind.", "quote": "With all grubs and all animals that break out from the grub state, generation is due primarily to the heat of the sun or to wind.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book V, Part 19", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.466, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.643, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAFr_YXq_VVl6pNdx_WqiXq_D60Kc8C8Hww9o9bbiuOG0", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha05-37", "key": "2bb9f68335462ad7", "label": "A winged animal in Cyprus is generated in copper-smelting fires", "statement": "In Cyprus, where copper ore is smelted, a winged animal somewhat larger than a bluebottle fly is generated in the fire, can hop or crawl through it, and perishes when kept away from the fire.", "quote": "In Cyprus, in places where copper-ore is smelted, with heaps of the ore piled on day after day, an animal is engendered in the fire, somewhat larger than a blue bottle fly, furnished with wings, which can hop or crawl through the fire.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book V, Part 19", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.314, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.683, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAYN9vH2kt9LXRnmDqlfraUBsj3AHRZHFjqY8WP9ocInA", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha05-38", "key": "2b2041f19055fbb3", "label": "Ichneumon wasps provision mud-sealed holes with dead spiders", "statement": "The wasps called ichneumons, smaller than ordinary wasps, kill spiders, carry them to a hole in a wall, seal it with mud and lay their grubs inside, and from the grubs come new ichneumons.", "quote": "kill spiders and carry off the dead bodies to a wall or some such place with a hole in it; this hole they smear over with mud and lay their grubs inside it, and from the grubs come the hunter-wasps", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book V, Part 20", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.695, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.757, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAi7H9WQWOT9TWMCeWS1Bm3Wj_cNE1YElmcV2k5utXNaI", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha05-39", "key": "c085c0d130596bb2", "label": "Bees make wax from flowers but gather honey from the air", "statement": "The bee makes wax from flowers but does not make honey; it merely gathers honey that is deposited out of the atmosphere as dew.", "quote": "The bee, then, makes the wax from flowers. The honey, however, it does not make, but merely gathers what is deposited out of the atmosphere", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book V, Part 22", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.733, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.817, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA3B3rOSay7EHUK8rlz7fQx91-bVz5h_kmm4BbD1CBMSE", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha05-40", "key": "2a705ba403effab4", "label": "A bee lives six years, at most seven", "statement": "The bee lives six years as a rule and seven at most.", "quote": "The bee lives for six years as a rule, as an exception for seven years.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book V, Part 22", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.649, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.7, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAswoE0nsrXAnJmqoi7pM4R-AMXdog3z0_ptdxI9eoQak", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha05-41", "key": "3296586aba4aed79", "label": "Young scorpions and spiders kill their parent after hatching", "statement": "When the land-scorpion's brood has hatched, the young eject and kill the parent, as also happens with the spider.", "quote": "When the hatching is completed, the parent animal, as happens with the parent spider, is ejected and put to death by the young ones", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book V, Part 26", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.608, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.727, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAFlYv1lGYpOeEZZW6gGypg9I3L78f1AfixvP0UuREx3o", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha05-42", "key": "fd5b61a65a16cd1a", "label": "Grasshoppers lay eggs at summer's end and then die", "statement": "The grasshopper lays its eggs at the close of summer and dies after laying them, the males dying about the same time.", "quote": "The grasshopper lays its eggs at the close of summer, and dies after laying them.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book V, Part 28", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.665, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.743, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RApJcJwsdH5vehIZkSLZeswTin4CxGhDiiXedp0a5CPMA", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha05-43", "key": "3e6cc6e93bf74729", "label": "Only male cicadas sing", "statement": "In both the large and small cicadas it is the male that sings and the female is silent.", "quote": "In both species, the larger and the smaller, it is the male that sings, and the female that is unvocal.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book V, Part 30", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.773, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.827, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAqu3EYxosLCYFimwEGAdsACpw2ubqZiOOD5sAoDEt1nM", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha05-44", "key": "9cf69d500225e0a9", "label": "Lice, fleas and bugs produce nits that generate nothing", "statement": "Insects that live on the juices of living flesh, such as lice, fleas and bugs, all produce nits, and these nits produce nothing further.", "quote": "all, without exception, generate what are called 'nits', and these nits generate nothing", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book V, Part 31", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.779, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.837, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAkVaNXRAVPaXwh5uwT2jCKL2toYC6rMFlAQciAK9lcd0", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha05-45", "key": "0687b69c1a76130a", "label": "The ass alone among hairy animals has neither lice nor ticks", "statement": "All feathered and hair-coated animals are infested with lice, with the single exception of the ass, which has neither lice nor ticks.", "quote": "All other winged animals that are furnished with feathers are similarly infested, and all hair-coated creatures also, with the single exception of the ass, which is infested neither with lice nor with ticks.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book V, Part 31", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.731, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.78, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAggzzrqJUh8Z1gHBKaDFFMbFMSWC14fgbKqnqYlw7uCc", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha05-46", "key": "c42708c8891749a8", "label": "Fig-wasps from wild figs enter cultivated figs and keep them from dropping", "statement": "The fig-wasp develops in the fruit of the wild fig, then flies into the fruit of the cultivated fig through its opening and makes the fruit stay on the tree, which is why farmers hang wild figs on fig trees.", "quote": "the psen leaves the husk behind it and flies away, and enters into the fruit of the fig-tree through its orifice, and causes the fruit not to drop off", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book V, Part 32", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.788, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.847, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAXCoSXhcYwrLwaSgvj4XQLIub387R03yLRsEZK0DPy9I", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha05-47", "key": "714f515d7df194bd", "label": "The viper is internally oviparous and externally viviparous", "statement": "The viper produces eggs internally but gives birth to live young, all in one day, about twenty in number and one at a time, whereas other serpents lay eggs.", "quote": "the viper is externally viviparous, having been previously oviparous internally", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book V, Part 34", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.771, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.823, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAkmTfGnRjN6liUvKj5w12iH6w8QpWiKOW4_7LoRMdDME", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha06-01", "key": "9b9aa33355e1b7c2", "label": "Birds of prey lay few eggs, the kestrel excepted", "statement": "All birds of prey (birds with crooked talons) are unprolific, except the kestrel, which is the most prolific of them and lays four or occasionally more eggs.", "quote": "All birds of prey, or birds with crooked talons, are unprolific, except the kestrel: this bird is the most prolific of birds of prey; as many as four eggs have been observed in the nest, and occasionally it lays even more.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book VI, Part 1", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.833, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.84, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAVg1Htxo87k7rGeI57DI2Z0WCPdw2Ua3oinfmBtAExaY", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha06-02", "key": "b83cb6615e0fcbc4", "label": "Waterbird eggs have more yolk and less white than landbird eggs", "statement": "The eggs of birds that frequent rivers and marshes have proportionally more yolk and less white than the eggs of land birds.", "quote": "the eggs of waterbirds have comparatively more of the yellow or yolk and less of the white", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book VI, Part 2", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.677, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.773, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RASuX_gFl9kIgjfWMgfBJksJ62s1jCLGX5mlE3qrqzWXQ", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha06-03", "key": "fcbd1013979becf1", "label": "Long pointed eggs hatch females, rounded eggs hatch males", "statement": "Long, pointed eggs produce females, while round eggs, or eggs more rounded at the narrow end, produce males.", "quote": "Long and pointed eggs are female; those that are round, or more rounded at the narrow end, are male.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book VI, Part 2", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.667, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.783, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RABZmF4lrUiMrsi159wUPpcPBxroUcgBUGip8n8GPGn3s", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha06-04", "key": "d42da5403c350074", "label": "Hens and geese lay wind-eggs without ever copulating", "statement": "Wind-eggs (infertile eggs) are not residues of earlier copulation: hens and geese that have never copulated lay them.", "quote": "we have cases well authenticated where chickens of the common hen and goose have laid wind-eggs without ever having been subjected to copulation", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book VI, Part 2", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.761, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.833, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAn54mBwwygafRzsCDYmRpzwIhgUIGzV8JnKGr5D4ci7w", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha06-05", "key": "34b381f3de3e8002", "label": "Egg and incubation periods in birds increase with body size", "statement": "The time for an egg to form after copulation and for the chick to hatch differs between birds according to the size of the parents.", "quote": "The generation of the egg after copulation and the generation of the chick from the subsequent hatching of the egg are not brought about within equal periods for all birds, but differ as to time according to the size of the parent-birds.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book VI, Part 2", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.768, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.833, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RANPGP6duUgFOqOHcwZKny65kt8Hu_S94ssqbmw1rR6wI", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha06-06", "key": "f0d068037e4d0556", "label": "The heart is the first organ, a beating speck of blood", "statement": "The heart appears in the developing egg as a speck of blood that beats and moves as though alive, and two blood vessels lead from it.", "quote": "and the heart appears, like a speck of blood, in the white of the egg. This point beats and moves as though endowed with life, and from it two vein-ducts with blood in them trend in a convoluted course", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book VI, Part 3", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.816, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.85, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA4c5g6Fp_U90E51YiBIH9XWHQ1Jx1Cnlqm_Z0ezWCFUU", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha06-07", "key": "8f72c4de25ea95b5", "label": "The chick forms from the white and is nourished by the yolk", "statement": "The principle of life of the chick lies in the white of the egg, while its nutriment comes from the yolk through a navel-string.", "quote": "The life-element of the chick is in the white of the egg, and the nutriment comes through the navel-string out of the yolk.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book VI, Part 3", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.715, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.807, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAAzRxisGswheVGjSwwFbFkoULidhxLe5xMRrhwbTMzwA", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha06-08", "key": "eed47c74efb01e96", "label": "Very few birds breed in their first year", "statement": "Very few birds breed within their first year.", "quote": "Very few birds propagate within their first year.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book VI, Part 4", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.827, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.853, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAk3wp2wvXXVli4pi6W6qVCot38NlYFTppIdVYgTByfPY", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha06-09", "key": "a903b9015f0b23c4", "label": "Blinded swallow chicks recover their sight", "statement": "If the eyes of young swallow chicks are pricked out, the birds recover and later see again.", "quote": "If you prick out the eyes of swallow chicks while they are yet young, the birds will get well again and will see by and by.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book VI, Part 5", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.495, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.747, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAghdO_P62oOQzikw2s5ZvwLQylhp4-8m84mR5fEAq9no", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha06-10", "key": "c24f6e71efc47d34", "label": "The eagle usually rears two young and expels one from the nest", "statement": "The eagle usually lays three eggs and hatches two (occasionally three), and as the young grow the mother, wearied of feeding them, expels one from the nest; she broods for about thirty days.", "quote": "This is the case in most instances, though occasionally a brood of three has been observed. As the young ones grow, the mother becomes wearied with feeding them and extrudes one of the pair from the nest.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book VI, Part 6", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.7, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.79, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RABMtg8G13sRG5uf23c1JbdU39qcxeVOoHv9JS7kADcro", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha06-11", "key": "4f73df60e42faf4e", "label": "The cuckoo is not a transformed hawk", "statement": "The cuckoo is not a transformed hawk: it lacks the hawk's crooked talons, resembles the pigeon in head and claws, and is preyed on by hawks, which never happens between birds of one kind.", "quote": "The cuckoo has been seen to be preyed on by the hawk; and this never happens between birds of the same species.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book VI, Part 7", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.87, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.907, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAdKreui6q0wkIo00yzZvu6CkNmDDHyTs0y5qWSbqOIdU", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha06-12", "key": "bb6dd157284900d2", "label": "The cuckoo builds no nest and lays in other birds' nests", "statement": "The cuckoo builds no nest but lays its egg, usually one, in the nest of a smaller bird, after devouring that bird's eggs, and the host bird hatches and rears the young cuckoo.", "quote": "The bird eggs, but does not build a nest. Sometimes it lays its eggs in the nest of a smaller bird after first devouring the eggs of this bird", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book VI, Part 7", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.826, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.907, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RATML1BqoS5yhDnXUrJcrC1EtAoOA5s3UuNJAsacCWTlE", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha06-13", "key": "9891f76a60803de5", "label": "Bird testes enlarge in the breeding season, most in salacious birds", "statement": "In male birds the testicles are visibly larger at pairing time than at other times, most conspicuously in the more salacious birds such as the cock and the cock partridge.", "quote": "With male birds about pairing time the testicles are obviously larger than at other times, and this is conspicuously the case with the more salacious birds, such as the barn-door cock and the cock partridge", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book VI, Part 9", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.68, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.763, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA5LLo_ERCJzEfOHKufIBdd-cPPXSRtkErNmO3NN04c6U", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha06-14", "key": "9aa3124fb0c7cc27", "label": "Cartilaginous fishes are viviparous after internal eggs", "statement": "Cartilaginous fishes (selachians) are viviparous and all other fishes are oviparous; selachians first produce eggs internally and then bear live young, the fishing-frog excepted.", "quote": "Fishes of the cartilaginous genus are viviparous; the rest are oviparous. And cartilaginous fishes are first oviparous internally and subsequently viviparous; they rear the embryos internally, the batrachus or fishing-frog being an exception.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book VI, Part 10", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.846, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.89, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RALg4DSPtRQofCKtlxL2WFG-GYliTaaA4le9N8wmvVI80", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha06-15", "key": "29ab6172a873f740", "label": "The smooth shark's embryo is nourished by a cord attached to the womb", "statement": "In the smooth shark the young develop with a navel-string attached to the womb, so that once the yolk is used up the embryo is sustained as in quadrupeds, with a chorion and membranes.", "quote": "the young develop with the navel-string attached to the womb, so that, as the egg-substance gets used up, the embryo is sustained to all appearance just as in the case of quadrupeds", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book VI, Part 10", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.762, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.83, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAyw1aj5loySwoHJ-gel7XNCGi5h77cesFRqodW0lZZco", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha06-16", "key": "fd73e2067caf8e88", "label": "Selachians come inshore to give birth, for warmth and protection", "statement": "Cartilaginous fishes move from the open and deep sea towards the shore to bear their young, for the sake of warmth and of protection for the young.", "quote": "Cartilaginous fishes come out from the main seas and deep waters towards the shore and there bring forth their young, and they do so for the sake of warmth and by way of protection for their young.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book VI, Part 11", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.615, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.74, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAKtGxvN6YAn__liuVCNYPax2lHxjBcMpkCEzAwagEqFs", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha06-17", "key": "68e0a63876557729", "label": "Fishes of different kinds do not interbreed", "statement": "As a general rule no kind of fish pairs with another kind.", "quote": "Observations would lead to the general rule that no one variety of fish pairs with another variety.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book VI, Part 11", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.689, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.783, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAqNQ7zV4sq7tp8h0nJdMbg96nPOZLTSAqZW9eGr8hB44", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha06-18", "key": "257b53a72a2d2712", "label": "All cetaceans are viviparous, never carrying eggs", "statement": "The dolphin, the whale and all other cetaceans (animals with a blow-hole instead of gills) are viviparous, carrying an embryo rather than eggs, as do humans and viviparous quadrupeds.", "quote": "The dolphin, the whale, and all the rest of the Cetacea, all, that is to say, that are provided with a blow-hole instead of gills, are viviparous.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book VI, Part 12", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.923, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.937, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAXnknP3tIayzVJYa_EmPeP2aN853BYXtcxAFLtOI5ymQ", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha06-19", "key": "4572df388de2fbc5", "label": "Dolphins and porpoises suckle their young", "statement": "The dolphin and the porpoise have milk and suckle their young.", "quote": "The dolphin and the porpoise are provided with milk, and suckle their young.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book VI, Part 12", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.884, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.93, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RALS39xjjb6dxYDwL3U0hyxnWVVqWiRiu32fCFDfZwGrg", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha06-20", "key": "58942fd2eeab8cc4", "label": "All scaly fishes are oviparous", "statement": "All scaly fishes are oviparous, as are all smooth or slippery fishes except the eel.", "quote": "all scaly fish are oviparous, as the basse, the mullet, the grey mullet, and the etelis, and all the so-called white-fish, and all the smooth or slippery fish except the eel", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book VI, Part 13", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.801, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.84, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RABPRiCrslZsbJnrubsR-wsnIGMcnW7bmwGct8QLbiUxA", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha06-21", "key": "8d630edc3ed5a4e1", "label": "Erythrinus and channa are always caught full of eggs", "statement": "Fishes are mostly divided into males and females, but specimens of the erythrinus and the channa are never caught except full of eggs.", "quote": "Fishes for the most part are divided into males and females, but one is puzzled to account for the erythrinus and the channa, for specimens of these species are never caught except in a condition of pregnancy.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book VI, Part 13", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.606, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.697, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA3jAp2RUbKYPkBHGTX48XqxqiSBFj6hj0s4453ih4h3g", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha06-22", "key": "8cda81422c065fed", "label": "Only fish eggs sprinkled with milt after laying develop", "statement": "In oviparous fishes the female lays her eggs and the male then sheds milt over them; only the eggs so sprinkled produce young, the rest being lost.", "quote": "The greater number of these eggs so deposited are not productive, but only those over which the male sheds the milt or sperm; for when the female has laid her eggs, the male follows and sheds its sperm over them", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book VI, Part 13", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.796, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.863, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAGNgYnp4787gBuAVXKMdFSLKzHeU-pyJdETjbMO1tW80", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha06-23", "key": "239a60a25210a34d", "label": "Fishes spawn inshore for warmth, food and protection from predators", "statement": "Fishes in general lay their eggs close to shore, because inshore water is warmer, richer in food, and protects the spawn from larger fishes.", "quote": "for the water close in to shore is warm and is better supplied with food than the outer sea, and serves as a protection to the spawn against the voracity of the larger fish", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book VI, Part 13", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.633, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.747, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RATQBLq6SM1bGO18xE5oNAy6lK4Z_AnFoVoJEnosRC-JQ", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha06-24", "key": "a8cb241b770b7221", "label": "In fish embryos the large eyes are the first organs visible", "statement": "In oviparous fishes the embryo forms at the upper end of the egg within a membrane and its large spherical eyes are the first organs visible, so fishes do not develop like grubs, which form the lower end first.", "quote": "the embryo comes at the upper end of the egg and is enveloped in a membrane, and the eyes, large and spherical, are the first organs visible", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book VI, Part 13", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.743, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.797, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAytniD-4K-clT4UaWJPZVdBOl3T3UWdyoG9Jprc2obeI", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha06-25", "key": "405eeb107c725672", "label": "The male sheat-fish guards the spawn for forty to fifty days", "statement": "In the sheat-fish the eggs develop exceptionally slowly and the male guards the spawn for forty or fifty days against small fishes, while the female leaves after spawning.", "quote": "In the case of the sheat-fish the growth from the egg is exceptionally slow, and, in consequence, the male has to keep watch for forty or fifty days to prevent the-spawn being devoured by such little fishes as chance to come by.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book VI, Part 14", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.688, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.773, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAww8pSzx4oAJu5PxXSjN880UKeQILXNLkBxFXU6a-H-M", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha06-26", "key": "8c49717fde9b0253", "label": "Eels go down from rivers to the sea while mullet go up", "statement": "The mullet migrates up from the sea into marshes and rivers, while eels migrate down from marshes and rivers to the sea.", "quote": "The mullet goes up from the sea to marshes and rivers; the eels, on the contrary, make their way down from the marshes and rivers to the sea.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book VI, Part 14", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.843, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.883, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAOI80u_K6vxL4uReTd2jD20OdNMpTyqS8qvUna5Ju5-U", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha06-27", "key": "fbcb01fbf709c49e", "label": "Some fishes arise spontaneously from mud and sand", "statement": "Certain fishes come into existence spontaneously, not from eggs or copulation, arising from mud or from sand and decaying matter; such fry cannot grow or reproduce.", "quote": "From the facts above enumerated it is quite proved that certain fishes come spontaneously into existence, not being derived from eggs or from copulation.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book VI, Part 15", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.673, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.763, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAQkMRC1PH8ONBnLpWg1AgVTbUsuAkOLKOm6ddcBT1Fs4", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha06-28", "key": "e5941b5e761d73c6", "label": "Eels have no milt, spawn or reproductive passages", "statement": "Eels are neither born from pairing nor oviparous: no eel has ever been found with milt or spawn, nor with passages for spawn or eggs.", "quote": "nor was an eel ever found supplied with either milt or spawn, nor are they when cut open found to have within them passages for spawn or for eggs", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book VI, Part 16", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.83, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.9, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA1daxddXy2Ma3N9gpDIZAen7PgHxXniDz6ZS5mgUHvdw", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha06-29", "key": "d4a7e897f54734dc", "label": "Eels arise from 'earth's guts' in mud and wet ground", "statement": "Eels arise from the so-called 'earth's guts', worms that grow spontaneously in mud and humid ground where sun heat causes putrefaction.", "quote": "Eels are derived from the so-called 'earth's guts' that grow spontaneously in mud and in humid ground", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book VI, Part 16", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.736, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.853, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RApbpur3NY61eI8SP-g1jX32zN2nZfD2Bbb3Odrk6lcrk", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha06-30", "key": "c85cacd631a264d1", "label": "Fish gestation always lasts a number of days divisible by seven", "statement": "In fishes gestation lasts thirty days or less, but always a number of days divisible by seven.", "quote": "With some fishes the time of gestation is not longer than thirty days, with others it is a lesser period; but with all it extends over a number of days divisible by seven.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book VI, Part 17", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.684, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.783, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAGqS91GZGeDXoeIKmfWUg4MRJt4m9HiisQu0PR-B1liU", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha06-31", "key": "cf899f7a17c9ad47", "label": "Viviparous selachians are less fecund but their young survive better", "statement": "Cartilaginous fishes as a rule are less prolific than other fishes because they are viviparous, and their young, being large, have a better chance of escaping destruction.", "quote": "As a rule, cartilaginous fish are less prolific than other fish owing to their being viviparous; and their young by reason of their size have a better chance of escaping destruction.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book VI, Part 17", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.699, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.777, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA7j6EhNdMH1IV-ABADjjuT4TwpbsJatDUKYH7jUK1TgI", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha06-32", "key": "7ad117baa97e2b39", "label": "Females are fiercest after giving birth, males in the rut", "statement": "Female animals are most bad-tempered just after giving birth and males during the pairing season.", "quote": "The female is most cross-tempered just after parturition, the male during the time of pairing", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book VI, Part 18", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.504, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.703, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAjgCWjVy30Cg1IXKIF9Bo_yBVckd5uBdH5g9pgoHkAvU", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha06-33", "key": "be76c53f8124689d", "label": "Breeding seasons are timed so the young are reared at a good season", "statement": "Sexual appetite is keenest in spring, but the pairing season differs between animals and is adapted so that the young are reared at a convenient season.", "quote": "In general the sexual appetites of animals are keenest in spring-time; the time of pairing, however, is not the same for all, but is adapted so as to ensure the rearing of the young at a convenient season.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book VI, Part 18", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.642, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.753, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA2794TmpytP49YZhb62m3p8S5vD0XMsTSG25d5cnSFCY", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha06-34", "key": "75d6499873da2a34", "label": "North winds at mating give male lambs, south winds female", "statement": "Sheep and goats mated when north winds blow tend to bear males, and when south winds blow, females.", "quote": "And if they submit to the male when north winds are blowing, they are apt to bear males; if when south winds are blowing, females.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book VI, Part 19", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.439, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.707, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RALuDqCNyTgIirChoKrEdFp-CHoepppnzb1_G6IlhmeRI", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha06-35", "key": "de88328e7031b0ba", "label": "Male horses die sooner because of the cost of sexual service", "statement": "The male horse is shorter-lived than the female because of the sexual service it renders, and stable-reared horses live longer than those reared in troops.", "quote": "The male is less long-lived than the female by reason of the sexual service he is called on to render; and horses that are reared in a private stable live longer than such as are reared in troops.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book VI, Part 22", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.6, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.733, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAczUrxwniIrkbOrPj-PV-02Ds7ClkX28Z9jDFJk2vvnk", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha06-36", "key": "ecf9fd10340103a3", "label": "Hybrid gestation follows the sire; the foal resembles the mother", "statement": "In a cross between horse and ass, gestation lasts as long as it would for the sire's own species, while in size, looks and vigour the foal tends to resemble the mother more than the sire.", "quote": "The period for gestation in the case of a cross depends on the male, and is just what it would have been if the male had had commerce with a female of his own kind. In regard to size, looks, and vigour, the foal is more apt to resemble the mother than the sire.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book VI, Part 23", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.685, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.78, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RArS4GlLsYcolQhVKfZXxS_lV_N7lorA-K-OW0jdcE-I8", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha06-37", "key": "dceb7b9299f9aedb", "label": "Female mules can conceive but never carry to birth", "statement": "A female mule has been known to be impregnated, but without giving birth.", "quote": "A female mule has been known to be impregnated, but without the impregnation being followed up by parturition.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book VI, Part 24", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.703, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.793, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RANOKIwGfsFfqK4hVe_XwTBmpidpEy4frs4Z760m9tuew", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha06-38", "key": "008e7262095e0123", "label": "Short gestation and fast growth argue against long deer lifespans", "statement": "The short gestation and rapid growth of the fawn indicate that the deer is not extremely long-lived, contrary to fabulous stories.", "quote": "the brevity of the period of gestation and the rapidity of growth in the fawn would not lead one to attribute extreme longevity to this creature", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book VI, Part 29", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.731, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.783, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAAATNl6oyccEqMxWR-487k5H7prCDPQiTRmoegRQ3gB4", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha06-39", "key": "416398a7f5d29eb9", "label": "Bear cubs are the smallest newborns relative to the mother", "statement": "Of all animals the newborn bear cub is the smallest relative to its mother, larger than a mouse but smaller than a weasel, and is born hairless, blind and with its limbs and organs unformed.", "quote": "Of all animals the newly born cub of the she bear is the smallest in proportion to the size of the mother; that is to say, it is larger than a mouse but smaller than a weasel.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book VI, Part 30", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.782, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.817, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAieY4CK2h-eI6R6PMhdzhZ3vfBYwJLLEVyywTX1NkerQ", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha06-40", "key": "533c2febdc051094", "label": "Hyenas are not hermaphrodites", "statement": "It is untrue that every hyena has the organs of both sexes: the male has a male organ like the dog's and a blind female-like part under the tail, and the female has a blind male-like part and a true female organ.", "quote": "What is recounted concerning its genital organs, to the effect that every hyena is furnished with the organ both of the male and the female, is untrue.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book VI, Part 32", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.782, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.857, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA4GQUAdfrewCsXuygLV7tPVY-u1JZn4wZwDA1pcbmcIw", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha06-41", "key": "191fe14f3e6d66b1", "label": "Hares breed year-round, superfoetate and bear every month", "statement": "Hares breed and bear at all seasons, superfoetate during pregnancy, bear young every month, and can conceive again immediately after giving birth while suckling.", "quote": "They breed and bear at all seasons, superfoetate during pregnancy, and bear young every month.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book VI, Part 33", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.749, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.837, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAX7IWefJOrySCcIjclU17HRVNWJc_xbWeUptrhwpRIBM", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha06-42", "key": "3b89f5be88974c3f", "label": "Mice are the most prolific animals in litter size and frequency", "statement": "The mouse is the most astonishing of animals in generation, both for the number of its young and for how quickly births recur.", "quote": "The phenomena of generation in regard to the mouse are the most astonishing both for the number of the young and for the rapidity of recurrence in the births.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book VI, Part 37", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.764, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.81, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAIQrCzybx-YxqfmNbmepMRau6gChw5VYr5eaqXQANrS0", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha07-01", "key": "eeb29d1fea7e33af", "label": "Male puberty begins at about fourteen with seed and pubic hair", "statement": "In most cases a boy begins to produce seed at about fourteen years of age, and pubic hair appears at the same time.", "quote": "When twice seven years old, in the most of cases, the male begins to engender seed; and at the same time hair appears upon the pubes", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book VII, Part 1", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.747, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.81, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RARwCah8igLR4fJURykj50M1EmrRAHWLlAE_h6s11xFRg", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha07-02", "key": "4ddb866e8aee0c47", "label": "Menstruation and breast growth begin at about fourteen in girls", "statement": "In girls, at about fourteen years of age (the same age as male puberty), the breasts swell and menstruation begins.", "quote": "At the same age in the female, the breasts swell and the so-called catamenia commence to flow", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book VII, Part 1", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.834, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.867, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAO0jUFPvuD8gDQ9eXXFG--9tA643VZDpJoe8MdLhv1w4", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha07-03", "key": "af472c68d7ab70b9", "label": "Semen is infertile until twenty-one and young parents have small, imperfect offspring", "statement": "Until about the age of twenty-one a man's seed is infertile; after that it becomes fertile, but very young men and women produce undersized and imperfect offspring, as do young animals generally.", "quote": "At the outset and till the age of one and twenty the spermatic discharge is devoid of fecundity; afterwards it becomes fertile, but young men and women produce undersized and imperfect progeny, as is the case also with the common run of animals.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book VII, Part 1", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.727, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.79, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAuZ5kgMaxQtdeC2p5LbVNfhRsR4j_bJwuTMmdg9MQZ9k", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha07-04", "key": "4da136b39cdcc5c4", "label": "Thick, granular semen tends to produce males and thin semen females", "statement": "Thin seed is infertile; granular seed is fertile and likely to produce male children, while thin, unclotted seed tends to produce female children.", "quote": "When the spermatic fluid is of a thin consistency it is infertile; when granular it is fertile and likely to produce male children, but when thin and unclotted it is apt to produce female offspring.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book VII, Part 1", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.508, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.727, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAbafgoSsxHV7fyCAgfYOAv54PEF2lturpKzbHP1z6T8I", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha07-05", "key": "615a60ca2295731c", "label": "In non-viviparous animals the menstrual residue becomes body, scales and feathers", "statement": "Animals that do not bear live young have no menstrual discharge, because the corresponding residue is turned into bodily substance, scutes, scales or feathers; in viviparous quadrupeds it becomes hair, flesh and urine, and only in women is it discharged.", "quote": "In creatures that do not bring forth their young alive nothing of the sort manifests itself, this particular superfluity being converted into bodily substance", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book VII, Part 2", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.519, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.687, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA4gg0toDzE79Yt_ndJc8tyuXYrSs0rv3UEJQc-OSv584", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha07-06", "key": "ecc1e55c92cc46c5", "label": "A male foetus first moves at about forty days, a female at about ninety", "statement": "A male foetus usually first moves on the right side of the womb at about the fortieth day, a female on the left side at about the ninetieth day, though there are many exceptions.", "quote": "In the case of male children the first movement usually occurs on the right-hand side of the womb and about the fortieth day, but if the child be a female then on the left-hand side and about the ninetieth day.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book VII, Part 3", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.731, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.807, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAdD0AHOUbg8QH3Ia_0XlQfYacDhEf7yJINTNHOC_EKO0", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha07-07", "key": "1ed4c5a67730f5ee", "label": "An aborted male embryo at forty days is ant-sized with limbs and eyes visible", "statement": "A male human embryo aborted at the fortieth day is about the size of a large ant, with all the limbs, the penis and the disproportionately large eyes plainly visible.", "quote": "If the membrane be pulled to bits the embryo is revealed, as big as one of the large kind of ants; and all the limbs are plain to see, including the penis, and the eyes also, which as in other animals are of great size.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book VII, Part 3", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.796, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.84, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAQOGuUCpENw33DrVXPsQCrk1sMNcKqZRgy_uSAYecaXY", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha07-08", "key": "b5db824821eea6e5", "label": "Female embryos develop more slowly in the womb than male embryos", "statement": "In the womb a female embryo completes the development of its parts more slowly than a male, and more often than a male takes ten months to reach full term.", "quote": "In short, while within the womb, the female infant accomplishes the whole development of its parts more slowly than the male, and more frequently than the man-child takes ten months to come to perfection.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book VII, Part 3", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.738, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.803, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RALRJN8sljGtu5i4hbIHkxA-owBWIex4BH-Are7e4uMX4", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha07-09", "key": "b2ec197039ae0425", "label": "Humans alone have a variable term of pregnancy, from seven to eleven months", "statement": "Every other animal has a single fixed term of pregnancy, but in humans alone it varies, lasting seven, eight, nine or, most commonly, ten months, and occasionally into the eleventh.", "quote": "But in the case of mankind alone of all animals the times are diverse; for pregnancy may be of seven months' duration, or of eight months or of nine, and still more commonly of ten months, while some few women go even into the eleventh month.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book VII, Part 4", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.834, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.87, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAvBHbF49M19hPyngK3x9_kdg22bDw3BZw8hULcqpYpds", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha07-10", "key": "8eabc4decf6bb3be", "label": "Children born before seven months never survive", "statement": "Children born before the seventh month of pregnancy can never survive; seven-month children are the earliest viable, and most of them are weakly.", "quote": "Children that come into the world before seven months can under no circumstances survive. The seven-months' children are the earliest that are capable of life, and most of them are weakly", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book VII, Part 4", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.837, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.873, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAZ1mWNm5WwH_ALDjS3UkMHIYfLYMgwRPWGgUTBKZsRxk", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha07-11", "key": "bfa6cf84a811365b", "label": "Eight-month children mostly die in Greece but survive in Egypt", "statement": "Children born in the eighth month are reared successfully in Egypt and some other places, but in Greece only a few survive and most perish.", "quote": "in these places the eight-months' children live and are brought up, but in Greece it is only a few of them that survive while most perish.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book VII, Part 4", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.67, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.743, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAm-HXW5gWJVv32t4_rb9Q3dFIiY1fnG9RkvGF4Sogyj8", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha07-12", "key": "2dc0de67705cd966", "label": "The most children a woman has borne at one birth is five", "statement": "The largest number of children ever born to a woman at one birth is five, which has been observed several times.", "quote": "The largest number ever brought forth is five, and such an occurrence has been witnessed on several occasions.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book VII, Part 4", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.88, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.91, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RACT160OYcW_SdfTWRZaCRlmlk5iUHhQYztMLQJr2hhWM", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha07-13", "key": "f7f5702118af9892", "label": "Women and mares, unlike other animals, accept the male during pregnancy", "statement": "Of all animals the woman and the mare are most inclined to accept mating during pregnancy; all other animals avoid the male when pregnant, except those that show superfoetation, such as the hare.", "quote": "Of all animals the woman and the mare are most inclined to receive the commerce of the male during pregnancy; while all other animals when they are pregnant avoid the male, save those in which the phenomenon of superfoetation occurs, such as the hare.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book VII, Part 4", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.544, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.69, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAN4tIzhPumnSDS_CRRtOlgzXcAMPI-0GG8ZRU1YOB-pk", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha07-14", "key": "037595fac3e99e6b", "label": "Menstruation ceases at about forty, at the latest fifty, ending childbearing", "statement": "In most women menstruation ceases at about forty; in some it lasts until fifty, and women of that age have borne children, but none beyond it.", "quote": "the menstrual discharges ceases in most women about their fortieth year; but with those in whom it goes on longer it lasts even to the fiftieth year, and women of that age have been known to bear children. But beyond that age there is no case on record.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book VII, Part 5", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.844, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.88, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAn2dozmbN2DmO0P-o2nC317ksjzRJSMRrHpmNmITeA4E", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha07-15", "key": "38cbf0cd1fe4f34b", "label": "Men remain fertile to sixty and sometimes seventy", "statement": "Men in most cases remain sexually competent until sixty, and some until seventy; men have fathered children at seventy.", "quote": "Men in most cases continue to be sexually competent until they are sixty years old, and if that limit be overpassed then until seventy years; and men have been actually known to procreate children at seventy years of age.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book VII, Part 6", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.794, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.83, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RArtJkabrGNhnVflRu2PxmoP2f8wN6Xc6m7tBgxP0nFb4", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha07-16", "key": "d326dd5e185f2da1", "label": "Children often inherit their parents' deformities and acquired marks", "statement": "Deformed parents produce deformed children (lame from lame, blind from blind), and children often inherit their parents' peculiarities, including marks such as pimples or scars.", "quote": "From deformed parents come deformed children, lame from lame and blind from blind, and, speaking generally, children often inherit anything that is peculiar in their parents and are born with similar marks, such as pimples or scars.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book VII, Part 6", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.678, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.763, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAEC6aeKIaud8QY4JhZT4szyEV0pi0ujGA8ED5r9qk84U", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha07-17", "key": "415d59c21545f8af", "label": "Resemblance can skip a generation and reappear in grandchildren", "statement": "Children usually resemble their parents or ancestors, but resemblance can be passed on after several generations, appearing in a grandchild but not in the child.", "quote": "While children mostly resemble their parents or their ancestors, it sometimes happens that no such resemblance is to be traced. But parents may pass on resemblance after several generations", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book VII, Part 6", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.738, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.793, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAxWoLdcEoooS_KA_jRqvXwv-W0B23700O-MRw9RRBMvo", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha07-18", "key": "6299b6ace0d279d9", "label": "All animals develop in the same way, differing in where the navel attaches", "statement": "All animals, whether flying, swimming or walking, viviparous or oviparous, develop in the same way, except that in viviparous animals the navel is attached to the womb, in others to the egg, and in certain fishes to both.", "quote": "All animals whatsoever, whether they fly or swim or walk upon dry land, whether they bring forth their young alive or in the egg, develop in the same way: save only that some have the navel attached to the womb, namely the viviparous animals, and some have it attached to the egg, and some to both parts alike, as in a certain sort of fishes.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book VII, Part 7", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.564, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.717, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA5NkxKYm7poVJa8fLdBEqnO02kDFwc7DVzpDG72gxl7w", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha07-19", "key": "029aa89af92fe723", "label": "All animals are born head first in the natural course", "statement": "All animals are at first head-upward in the womb but turn downward near term, and in the natural course birth in all animals is head first.", "quote": "birth in the natural course of things takes place in all animals head foremost", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book VII, Part 8", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.767, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.827, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAb6S1hRu-btXU_EZNWyNTOeKjCaFrtaJ07kzADG2HnVk", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha07-20", "key": "df2b7fbfa54f57fe", "label": "The navel-string has four vessels in oxen, two in smaller animals, one in fowls", "statement": "The navel-string contains four blood vessels in large animals such as oxen, two in smaller animals, and only one in very small ones such as fowls.", "quote": "In the larger animals, such as the embryos of oxen, the vessels are four in number, and in smaller animals two; in the very little ones, such as fowls, one vessel only.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book VII, Part 8", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.76, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.82, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAH0kUcnKIeTWh3v4y-uaWLoXszI7TT9DGDqWXgYnfDDY", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha07-21", "key": "e952b70ea5c9ad31", "label": "Children cut their first teeth in the seventh month, front teeth first", "statement": "Children begin cutting teeth in the seventh month, the front teeth first, upper or lower; teeth come sooner the warmer the nurse's milk.", "quote": "children begin to cut their teeth in the seventh month; and the front teeth are the first to come through, sometimes the upper and sometimes the lower ones.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book VII, Part 10", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.764, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.84, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAd-Xk9LM4wtf6eXDawp2Pioao-fq-IoaHvabCA5NTOJg", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha07-22", "key": "b84477d475ec281a", "label": "Menstruation is suppressed while milk flows", "statement": "As a general rule menstruation does not occur while a woman is producing milk, because moisture is not directed in several directions at once.", "quote": "So long as there is a flow of milk the menstrual purgations do not take place, at least as a general rule, though the discharge has been known to occur during the period of suckling.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book VII, Part 11", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.834, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.873, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAoNaolTikbmKuprevHIcD8hmoH7F3DfXZ6ctnf8pUT5k", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha08-01", "key": "7673cbe74bda5a6f", "label": "Most animals show traces of the psychical qualities found in man", "statement": "Most animals show traces of psychical qualities such as gentleness, fierceness, courage, timidity and something like sagacity, which differ from man's either in degree or by analogy.", "quote": "In the great majority of animals there are traces of psychical qualities or attitudes, which qualities are more markedly differentiated in the case of human beings.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book VIII, Part 1", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.289, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.747, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA_0Wup8FpXpvZ1ZCyCBiMXY2ypEd-owjuajUVJTDubSo", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha08-02", "key": "285be340cc581603", "label": "Nature passes by degrees from lifeless things to animals with no sharp boundary", "statement": "Nature proceeds little by little from lifeless things through plants to animals, so that no exact boundary can be drawn and intermediate forms cannot be assigned to one side or the other.", "quote": "Nature proceeds little by little from things lifeless to animal life in such a way that it is impossible to determine the exact line of demarcation, nor on which side thereof an intermediate form should lie.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book VIII, Part 1", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.391, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.797, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAVIQ6XqPOWf8mrh8b1TXrIpCqxkFv6sEtXLbn2go3MHc", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha08-03", "key": "7a0b03b40e60fcfe", "label": "More intelligent animals with memory stay longer with their young", "statement": "Some animals simply breed at definite seasons, others also feed their young and then leave them, while the more intelligent animals with memory live with their offspring for longer and more socially.", "quote": "other animals are more intelligent and endowed with memory, and they live with their offspring for a longer period and on a more social footing.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book VIII, Part 1", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.574, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.703, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA6yk_caosxjj0aEj85SefN-U10RPVRXJtogAsmqNhe5E", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha08-04", "key": "73ca84a3ce9a1b71", "label": "Air-breathing aquatic animals drown unless they surface to breathe", "statement": "Some air-breathing animals that live in water, such as the sea-turtle, crocodile, hippopotamus, seal, freshwater tortoise and frog, choke or drown unless they breathe air from time to time, and they breed on or near land.", "quote": "now all these animals choke or drown if they do not from time to time breathe atmospheric air: they breed and rear their young on dry land, or near the land, but they pass their lives in water.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book VIII, Part 2", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.791, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.867, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAFpJlTFHMsjNfSNk1317c5dMPmWRSLMPaHzS6uTin-CI", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha08-05", "key": "7d5471508d08342d", "label": "The dolphin breathes air with lungs and suffocates when caught in nets", "statement": "The dolphin breathes air into lungs, suffocates quickly when caught in nets, can live a considerable time out of water, and sleeps with its nose above water in order to breathe.", "quote": "he also inhales air into his lungs; for, by the way, the creature is furnished with this organ and respires thereby, and accordingly, when caught in the nets, he is quickly suffocated for lack of air.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book VIII, Part 2", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.836, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.89, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAPhaV5BAnTxZduWRSIQJFtp8MDYAd5Ex6GR-IBl4nFD4", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha08-06", "key": "ac701d3475b08bca", "label": "Aquatic animals take in water to cool the blood, as land animals take in air", "statement": "Some aquatic animals take in water and discharge it for the same reason that air-breathers inhale air, to cool the blood; blooded animals that do this have gills, while those that take in water while catching prey have a blow-hole.", "quote": "some aquatic animals take in water and discharge it again, for the same reason that leads air-breathing animals to inhale air: in other words, with the object of cooling the blood.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book VIII, Part 2", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.566, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.73, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAUzDCCujR7-0jZLCZ-qLAlvVxE1eMGIcl80GeX8liBms", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha08-07", "key": "26fb791169defbd7", "label": "The cordylus (water-newt) has gills instead of lungs yet walks on land", "statement": "The cordylus or water-newt is the only known animal that takes in water through gills, having no lungs, yet is a four-footed animal that walks on land and gets its living there.", "quote": "this creature is furnished not with lungs but with gills, but for all that it is a quadruped and fitted for walking on dry land.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book VIII, Part 2", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.668, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.723, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA1v4ITJuYhHaaocxjj7GX9xLHjUzxhZYmQ3qfdC2IG1M", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha08-08", "key": "dcd2c8374cc2371a", "label": "A small change in a minute organ can change an animal's whole form", "statement": "A change in a minute organ can cause an immense change in an animal's overall form; castration, mutilating one small organ, turns a male towards the female form, and a slight change in size of an essential organ in the embryo decides whether it becomes male or female.", "quote": "The fact is that animals, if they be subjected to a modification in minute organs, are liable to immense modifications in their general configuration. This phenomenon may be observed in the case of gelded animals: only a minute organ of the animal is mutilated, and the creature passes from the male to the female form.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book VIII, Part 2", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.549, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.693, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAL2zIkR-P2_3P1Sm_hq8mMtPho8nSUepKWzMQWa5uiYs", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha08-09", "key": "db1f3ec4681961fe", "label": "An empty wax vessel lowered into the sea fills with fresh water within a day", "statement": "Sea water contains fresh water that can be strained from it: an empty thin vessel of moulded wax let down into the sea will within twenty-four hours contain fresh, drinkable water.", "quote": "Take a thin vessel of moulded wax, attach a cord to it, and let it down quite empty into the sea: in twenty-four hours it will be found to contain a quantity of water, and the water will be fresh and drinkable.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book VIII, Part 2", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.54, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.8, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAh53FHKyNRI4xE4pRKlcnQQ-8fKFWU_UKCRPYGA_Lmpk", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha08-10", "key": "d8db53ce2ec0b289", "label": "All fishes eat their own species except the mullet", "statement": "All fishes eat members of their own species, with the single exception of the mullet; the conger is especially given to it.", "quote": "All fishes devour their own species, with the single exception of the cestreus or mullet; and the conger is especially ravenous in this respect.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book VIII, Part 2", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.654, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.78, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAkNF41AG_fRYDSHNdNYM4SwC7wbTvS9M0rud4nXZfGKM", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha08-11", "key": "5453730eb0cb6f20", "label": "Fishes have the stomach next to the mouth and no gullet", "statement": "Fishes have their stomachs close to the mouth and have no gullet, which is why some cast up their stomachs while chasing prey.", "quote": "fishes have their stomachs close to the mouth, and are not furnished with a gullet.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book VIII, Part 2", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.766, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.83, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAU-g3hjb-bewHGOusAY_QpL2xrwRNygszMO45fxz5leY", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha08-12", "key": "0e89c3702eaa3037", "label": "The parrot-fish is the only fish that chews the cud", "statement": "Of all fishes the scarus (parrot-fish) is the only one known to chew the cud like a quadruped.", "quote": "Of all fishes the so-called scarus, or parrot, wrasse, is the only one known to chew the cud like a quadruped.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book VIII, Part 2", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.624, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.73, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAVKdJZUTXLDEy4eoMNqfkmDWqr5qwwmSG_h5c_cxyiXs", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha08-13", "key": "7a9072b8adde148f", "label": "Eels can live seven or eight years", "statement": "The eel lives in some cases for seven or eight years.", "quote": "The eel in some cases lives for seven or eight years.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book VIII, Part 2", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.84, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.86, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RALU92PHOWbzaNWkQoTiF383unjkJ91ZsyqS15yWnTqVE", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha08-14", "key": "0c33e23426383675", "label": "Birds with crooked talons are all carnivorous and cannot swallow grain", "statement": "Birds with crooked talons are carnivorous without exception and cannot swallow grain or bread even if it is put into their bills.", "quote": "Of birds, such as have crooked talons are carnivorous without exception, and cannot swallow corn or bread-food even if it be put into their bills in tit-bits", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book VIII, Part 3", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.751, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.787, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAya6mjKOUDfsAliBUDLrZ0tXxdrUlzjagSW-nVsUpvSM", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha08-15", "key": "b5177875d4463a0b", "label": "Birds of prey almost never drink", "statement": "Birds as a rule drink very little, and birds of prey never drink at all apart from a very few that drink very rarely, such as the kestrel and the kite.", "quote": "In fact birds of prey never drink at all, excepting a very few, and these drink very rarely", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book VIII, Part 3", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.584, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.69, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAmwxuOKuxEfTOcxUO2VthePLoJGr4RAhq61pSp0wqtcc", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha08-16", "key": "0008912bc59713ed", "label": "Oviparous animals have a spongy, bloodless lung and drink little", "statement": "Scaly (tessellated) animals are spare drinkers, as are all animals with a spongy lung, and such a lung, poorly supplied with blood, is found in all oviparous animals.", "quote": "Tessellated animals are spare drinkers, as are also all such animals as have a spongy lung, and such a lung, scantily supplied with blood, is found in all oviparous animals.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book VIII, Part 4", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.571, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.713, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAc1stP-bzUNzs-a0H9G4fxnGrRl0MyvwB9nwdCH2lSkc", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha08-17", "key": "af66c8c4a1562f0e", "label": "Carnivores eat grass only when sick, to purge themselves", "statement": "Fierce, jag-toothed viviparous quadrupeds are all carnivorous and never eat grass except when sick, as dogs eat grass to make themselves vomit.", "quote": "These carnivorous animals never eat grass except when they are sick, just as dogs bring on a vomit by eating grass and thereby purge themselves.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book VIII, Part 5", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.53, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.677, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAEC9odf3atODmC3URsZ-dYZXREpRmJjQ2xgX-GLYNyqI", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha08-18", "key": "cf341abd7f9bc084", "label": "A pig's carcass weighs five-sixths of its live weight", "statement": "A pig fattens faster for its size than any other animal, and after slaughter its flesh weighs five-sixths of its live weight, the hair, blood and the rest making up the other sixth.", "quote": "If a pig be weighed when living, you may calculate that after death its flesh will weigh five-sixths of that weight, and the hair, the blood, and the rest will weigh the other sixth.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book VIII, Part 6", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.764, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.797, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RALYNtvHdIYwBtUqqwhqblS8sfc4gd3SpkoDcYAs_L3Y8", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha08-19", "key": "ba326abdb2bc6f12", "label": "Camels live about thirty years and occasionally to a hundred", "statement": "Camels live for about thirty years; some live much longer, and some have been known to reach a hundred.", "quote": "Camels live for about thirty years; in some exceptional cases they live much longer, and instances have been known of their living to the age of a hundred.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book VIII, Part 9", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.825, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.843, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAMh-51jJAUtmu3j4oNsWXIfnWrv6eeQPEYy7QR2UXkvY", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha08-20", "key": "38156e77b47d2492", "label": "The bee is the only insect that always avoids rotten food", "statement": "The bee is the only insect that invariably avoids anything rotten and touches no food without a sweet juice.", "quote": "The bee is the only insect that invariably eschews whatever is rotten", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book VIII, Part 11", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.475, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.65, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAD66w4xZ10zQJstU5oe_YO_Xe3-NnJsMFOVXPyWlwTJo", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha08-21", "key": "1b6e4d4616af36ce", "label": "Cranes migrate from Scythia to the marshes at the source of the Nile", "statement": "Cranes migrate from the steppes of Scythia to the marshlands south of Egypt where the Nile rises.", "quote": "for these birds migrate from the steppes of Scythia to the marshlands south of Egypt where the Nile has its source.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book VIII, Part 12", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.822, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.86, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAx8lIlzIbYq9MBCcBa9mr8MWSj5FoeJu1t_8Ua1mwCyw", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha08-22", "key": "2e685ff1c2b1986d", "label": "Migrants are fatter leaving cold for warm lands than on the return", "statement": "All animals are fatter when migrating from cold to warm regions than when migrating from warm to cold; the quail is fatter when it leaves in autumn than when it arrives in spring.", "quote": "All creatures are fatter in migrating from cold to heat than in migrating from heat to cold; thus the quail is fatter when he emigrates in autumn than when he arrives in spring.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book VIII, Part 12", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.613, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.697, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA-5Zu1jgw9vRIpS6io6is-4AjW9JnPktrZQEAPH-wTTY", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha08-23", "key": "863624153bc04b6d", "label": "Birds with crooked talons are short-necked, flat-tongued and mimics", "statement": "As a general rule all birds with crooked talons are short-necked, flat-tongued and given to mimicry, as is the parrot.", "quote": "As a general rule all birds with crooked talons are short-necked, flat-tongued, and disposed to mimicry.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book VIII, Part 12", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.594, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.687, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RACjKHuTwK-gKh5TnfK-2ji5k90r8tdybnzv87rN8MGsg", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha08-24", "key": "07463812cc1735f6", "label": "The trichia leaves the Black Sea up the Danube into the Adriatic", "statement": "The trichia is caught entering but never leaving the Black Sea because it alone swims north into the Danube and, where the river divides, down into the Adriatic.", "quote": "The way of accounting for this phenomenon is that this fish, and this one only, swims northwards into the Danube, and then at the point of its bifurcation swims down southwards into the Adriatic.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book VIII, Part 13", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.597, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.7, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAaN2hGN8hTrqv7h8QsCv5b_TqRc-ymmiC_ICCynfSgvE", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha08-25", "key": "828b2c676b6fc8fd", "label": "Animals hide away against extreme heat as well as extreme cold", "statement": "Animals go into concealment (dormancy) as a refuge against extreme heat as well as extreme cold; shellfish all do so, snails in winter and the purple murex and scallop in the hottest season.", "quote": "animals go into concealment by way of refuge against extreme heat, as well as against extreme cold.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book VIII, Part 13", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.608, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.687, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RADO23xtO67B5Wp3f5q509UsY4sKuNG7Dr8Tt6AG1PrfY", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha08-26", "key": "19cd1a3f7dc6981c", "label": "Snakes and lizards hide for four months in winter and eat nothing", "statement": "Scaly animals such as the serpent, lizard, gecko and river crocodile go into hiding for four months in the depth of winter and eat nothing during that time.", "quote": "all of which go into hiding for four months in the depth of winter, and during that time eat nothing.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book VIII, Part 15", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.605, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.717, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAGfAYnMWOVlZDtyvO9nuzyXl72iHQFYmtpeRP4bSWweI", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha08-27", "key": "9ac05d88603132d2", "label": "Many birds hide in winter rather than migrate, including swallows", "statement": "Many birds do not migrate to warmer countries but hide where they are in winter; swallows have often been found in holes without feathers, and the kite, stork, turtle-dove, lark and others go into hiding.", "quote": "A great number of birds also go into hiding; they do not all migrate, as is generally supposed, to warmer countries.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book VIII, Part 16", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.814, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.873, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAKw3VPQu1QZ3P4sMNC1y_XryBe7tTxqBw0E7VMg4tAOI", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha08-28", "key": "d0a4db0b58301ec4", "label": "The she-bear gives birth during winter concealment and emerges in spring", "statement": "The she-bear gives birth while in winter concealment and stays hidden until she brings the cubs out in spring, about three months after the winter solstice; bears eat nothing while hidden.", "quote": "The female brings forth her young at this time, and remains in concealment until it is time to bring the cubs out; and she brings them out in spring, about three months after the winter solstice.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book VIII, Part 17", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.774, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.813, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAKgsGGoTb6AOsAn2udEMBj7qhOnGSMAZAgYnwqi7oTnE", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha08-29", "key": "7279ffd842f044ee", "label": "Crustaceans moult not once but repeatedly", "statement": "Crabs, crawfish and lobsters slough their shells, becoming soft all over, and they do so not once for all but over and over again.", "quote": "These animals also do not cast their skins once and for all, but over and over again.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book VIII, Part 17", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.826, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.87, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAKsnjLAOOQrZs-unEwmwDDTNd93GXMWoLxMKgKFmKklI", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha08-30", "key": "b0332ec958706c0d", "label": "Fishes have no pestilential diseases like those of man and livestock", "statement": "No pestilential (epidemic) disease is known to attack fishes as such diseases attack man, horses and oxen, although individual fishes do appear to fall sick.", "quote": "We know of no pestilential malady attacking fishes, such as those which attack man, and horses and oxen among the quadrupedal vivipara", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book VIII, Part 19", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.704, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.81, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RATnoHQ84Nuy29jp5wCb9bCaLhs6aAW3Xe4OBXdKCQDtc", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha08-31", "key": "0ffc4b92c54910e6", "label": "The purple murex dies within a day of tasting fresh water", "statement": "Shellfish generally benefit from rain, but the purple murex is an exception: placed near a river mouth, it dies within a day of tasting fresh water.", "quote": "if it be placed on a shore near to where a river discharges, it will die within a day after tasting the fresh water.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book VIII, Part 20", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.582, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.693, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAvzj9YEb8YoZ4P_6BhU1hcRm8mR8FpSVDkXTQgosiUOs", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha08-32", "key": "53c75ee0128bca6f", "label": "The pig is the only animal known to get measles", "statement": "The pig is the only animal known to suffer from 'measles' (pimples in the flesh, seen especially under the tongue), and pigs never get it while still sucklings.", "quote": "The pig is the only animal known to be subject to measles.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book VIII, Part 21", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.631, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.72, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAJ29WiCs7Q0UTu4je2Pe6e32t-hcErLgq2Aywgjresog", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha08-33", "key": "b35dfee9c5e0e6ef", "label": "Rabies passes to every animal bitten by a mad dog except man", "statement": "Rabies drives dogs mad and is fatal to them, and any animal bitten by a rabid dog catches it and dies, with the exception of man.", "quote": "ary animal whatever, excepting man, will take the disease if bitten by a dog so afflicted; the disease is fatal to the dog itself, and to any animal it may bite, man excepted.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book VIII, Part 22", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.838, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.873, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAPTj1qJVZHcZ7A7e_hOpEAYq03yroEC4OrFVbXAVXyMI", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha08-34", "key": "bb91570be30e30a9", "label": "The ass tolerates cold least and is absent from Scythia", "statement": "Of all animals of its kind the ass is least able to endure extreme cold, which is why it is not found on the shores of the Black Sea or in Scythia.", "quote": "Of all animals on its of its kind it is the least capable of enduring extreme cold, which circumstance will account for the fact that the animal is not found on the shores of the Euxine, nor in Scythia.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book VIII, Part 25", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.652, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.713, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAMcgGslEqjCGTYtlPQEYPQt1VneIekD6X2U0b-9QRSFA", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha08-35", "key": "4c6b41e98f63d5e7", "label": "All insects die when smeared with oil", "statement": "All insects without exception die if smeared with oil, and die faster if the head is smeared and they are laid in the sun.", "quote": "All insects, without exception, die if they be smeared over with oil; and they die all the more rapidly if you smear their head with the oil and lay them out in the sun.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book VIII, Part 27", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.549, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.69, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RADjigE3giheeg8GQQ5tMhmSWvJftn74r7dVQORlfyr_I", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha08-36", "key": "e21662cb9d938a4a", "label": "The leopard is absent from Europe while lions live in part of Greece", "statement": "Lions are more numerous in Libya and in the part of Europe between the Achelous and the Nessus rivers; the leopard is more abundant in Asia Minor and is not found in Europe at all.", "quote": "lions are more numerous in Libya, and in that district of Europe that lies between the Achelous and the Nessus; the leopard is more abundant in Asia Minor, and is not found in Europe at all.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book VIII, Part 28", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.728, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.777, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAijtOl8P0KQUrH_Z1OyYXyG83PMXoc4RKSW45788fb0Q", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha08-37", "key": "df8423012846bd2c", "label": "Different species breed together if similar in size and gestation length", "statement": "In Libya animals of different species meet at watering places and pair, and such pairs often breed if they are nearly the same size and have gestation periods of the same length.", "quote": "such pairs will often breed if they be nearly of the same size and have periods of gestation of the same length.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book VIII, Part 28", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.565, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.663, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAG3qVXUX68MbJdGn-xPGTq-0AYNcMEQ7QhdcVPe8AvAc", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha08-38", "key": "1fbaf712e66928a5", "label": "Wolves and dogs interbreed, and the Laconian hound is a fox–dog cross", "statement": "Animals of different kinds produce hybrids: in Cyrene the wolf and the bitch couple and breed, and the Laconian hound is a cross between the fox and the dog.", "quote": "Elsewhere also bastard-animals are born to heterogeneous pairs; thus in Cyrene the wolf and the bitch will couple and breed; and the Laconian hound is a cross between the fox and the dog.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book VIII, Part 28", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.84, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.877, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA16b8UqGT3JuQY2mc8TvGV7NWQyYHpz86_sJIOdampxE", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha08-39", "key": "a0885bd7bd9e845a", "label": "A scaly fish's age can be told from the size and hardness of its scales", "statement": "The age of a scaly fish can be told from the size and hardness of its scales.", "quote": "The age of a scaly fish may be told by the size and the hardness of its scales.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book VIII, Part 30", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.724, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.773, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAeKM0M_K9iVmHGC_PGvDCXcpLOGTKwrXuvaddNHNCFmA", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha09-01", "key": "76d00c30dbba3d48", "label": "Females are less spirited than males, except in the bear and leopard", "statement": "In all animals with separate sexes the female is less spirited (less courageous) than the male, except in the bear and the leopard, where the female is the more courageous.", "quote": "In all cases, excepting those of the bear and leopard, the female is less spirited than the male; in regard to the two exceptional cases, the superiority in courage rests with the female.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book IX, Part 1", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.37, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.587, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RANkGChvxqoGBog2QS9bQmpdteMOYKaijwfSdI3PpeS98", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha09-02", "key": "13a9f77871d90c97", "label": "Animals sharing a locality or food are enemies", "statement": "Animals that live in the same localities or feed on the same food are enemies, and when food runs short animals of the same kind fight one another.", "quote": "There is enmity between such animals as dwell in the same localities or subsist on the food. If the means of subsistence run short, creatures of like kind will fight together.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book IX, Part 1", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.572, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.667, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAGo5MMzGWTlN_11Vg6AmrUN7ExNwGpXhMMQ1LgIWXos8", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha09-03", "key": "847d0f06db9bcd8e", "label": "With unlimited food, wild animals would be tame to man and each other", "statement": "If there were no shortage of food, animals that are now wild or afraid of man would become tame towards man and peaceable towards one another, as fed animals in Egypt show.", "quote": "One may go so far as to say that if there were no lack or stint of food, then those animals that are now afraid of man or are wild by nature would be tame and familiar with him, and in like manner with one another.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book IX, Part 1", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.399, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.63, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAo98O8aglOlJITJtuQLn85DfnnEr_lqB4cQzkNtWAhrE", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha09-04", "key": "940b78358d9898fe", "label": "Stag antler points increase yearly until about six years old", "statement": "Stags grow no horns in their first year, unbranched spikes in their second, two-pointed antlers in the third and three-pointed in the fourth, increasing in complexity until about six years old, after which antlers no longer indicate age.", "quote": "In the third year the antlers are bifurcate; in the fourth year they grow trifurcate; and so they go on increasing in complexity until the creature is six years old: after this they grow their horns without any specific differentiation, so that you cannot by observation of them tell the animal's age.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book IX, Part 5", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.757, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.813, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA9tloNlyZv2_or7JRlHgLcNJCaBvo6EnixDzf0TqE-yM", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha09-05", "key": "5593b6ad1314d534", "label": "Hinds swallow the afterbirth immediately after giving birth", "statement": "After giving birth, the hind (female deer) at once swallows the afterbirth, catching it before it falls to the ground.", "quote": "The hinds after parturition at once swallow the afterbirth, and it is impossible to secure it, for the hind catches it before it falls to the ground", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book IX, Part 5", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.599, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.677, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAXb0GVo0M1sYq0M5JkyN3fkSE10hLu9pi-fc_Zk0VkXg", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha09-06", "key": "5ffb7ee278e467d0", "label": "Sick animals treat themselves, e.g. dogs eat grass to vomit", "statement": "Many quadrupeds treat their own ailments: dogs, when ill, eat a kind of grass that makes them vomit.", "quote": "Many other quadrupeds help themselves in clever ways. Wild goats in Crete are said, when wounded by arrows, to go in search of dittany, which is supposed to have the property of ejecting arrows in the body. Dogs, when they are ill, eat some kind of grass and produce vomiting.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book IX, Part 6", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.541, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.68, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAkL4eFPY2B-6iqZqEXj0MtMqBiDhKqtRrQsqT-3EZNCg", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha09-07", "key": "f7ed83ee8b9a37f4", "label": "The trochilus cleans the crocodile's teeth", "statement": "When the crocodile gapes, a small bird, the trochilus, enters its mouth and cleans its teeth, feeding itself thereby, and the crocodile does not harm it.", "quote": "When the crocodile yawns, the trochilus flies into his mouth and cleans his teeth. The trochilus gets his food thereby, and the crocodile gets ease and comfort; it makes no attempt to injure its little friend", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book IX, Part 6", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.586, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.757, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAjicN8IP0rF8W1QL5tNVWzqk_U679w566_bBasJgYUPE", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha09-08", "key": "323045958063e046", "label": "Pigeons pair for life", "statement": "Pigeons pair with the same mate until one of the pair dies, though occasionally a female mates with a bird other than her mate.", "quote": "In pairing the same male and the same female keep together; and the union is only broken by the death of one of the two parties.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book IX, Part 7", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.725, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.773, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAXbl6ebXZYh_URxwW7B0yEZUmrMm6FKkmZQ62O1fDHP8", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha09-09", "key": "05993d245ee4a98f", "label": "Heavy-bodied birds like quails and partridges build no nests", "statement": "Heavy-bodied birds such as quails and partridges build no nests but lay in a scraped hollow on level ground, since nest building would be of no use to birds that cannot fly well.", "quote": "Birds of a heavy build, such as quails, partridges, and the like, build no nests; indeed, where they are incapable of flight, it would be of no use if they could do so.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book IX, Part 8", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.711, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.78, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAIuJH0vhgGAWhkFDY8wma0mazVq5DfOwOjK2tRBXQAmM", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha09-10", "key": "13f5bb15f33ffc09", "label": "Partridge hens feign lameness to lure intruders from the brood", "statement": "When a man comes upon a partridge brood, the hen rolls in front of him pretending to be lame, drawing him away until the young have escaped, then returns and calls them back.", "quote": "When a man comes by chance upon a young brood, and tries to catch them, the hen-bird rolls in front of the hunter, pretending to be lame: the man every moment thinks he is on the point of catching her, and so she draws him on and on, until every one of her brood has had time to escape", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book IX, Part 8", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.651, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.737, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAVpuPedChePRRVRt1HPlf8KPqy0nbBEGJ5ZydHfXO4fo", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha09-11", "key": "62c34ead15cbe3e4", "label": "Web-footed birds all live near water", "statement": "All web-footed birds live near the sea, rivers or pools, because they resort to places suited to their structure.", "quote": "Web-footed birds without exception live near the sea or rivers or pools, as they naturally resort to places adapted to their structure.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book IX, Part 12", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.827, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.843, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAPQElk3z5pjM7m-rEdHjlSr8luFMf9F9FyNJemgQoKEM", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha09-12", "key": "be8ca6fe1c0eb438", "label": "Swans sing chiefly as they approach death", "statement": "Swans are musical and sing chiefly at the approach of death, flying out to sea at that time.", "quote": "They are musical, and sing chiefly at the approach of death; at this time they fly out to sea, and men, when sailing past the coast of Libya, have fallen in with many of them out at sea singing in mournful strains", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book IX, Part 12", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.463, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.653, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAB4Bv_Du0Ani1dH75VlLAbKkxIBMN2eP9AtYcN3ikpjQ", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha09-13", "key": "53e8c366ae7504c5", "label": "The cuckoo lays a single egg in another bird's nest and does not hatch it", "statement": "The cuckoo builds no nest, lays only one egg in the nest of another bird, and leaves the foster mother to hatch and rear it.", "quote": "it lays only one egg and does not hatch it itself, but the mother-bird in whose nest it has deposited it hatches and rears it", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book IX, Part 29", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.838, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.877, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAgXta1qpTh_ppD2xx7Pbh8utl5NkPvdHnaOpceoC_Htc", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha09-14", "key": "a2b6e72c835ef8a5", "label": "Cuckoos lay in others' nests because of their own cowardice", "statement": "The cuckoo places its young in another bird's nest because it is the most cowardly of birds and could not defend its young in an emergency.", "quote": "The cuckoo shows great sagacity in the disposal of its progeny; the fact is, the mother cuckoo is quite conscious of her own cowardice and of the fact that she could never help her young one in an emergency", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book IX, Part 29", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.36, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.677, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAsu9N7a28X6DGTSnfS1wpwL8b10frQciNFPppwe6iNIk", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha09-15", "key": "72d6212c3a8d7519", "label": "A pair of eagles needs a large territory and drives other birds away", "statement": "A pair of eagles needs an extensive area to maintain itself, so it expels its fledged young from the neighbourhood and does not allow other birds to settle nearby.", "quote": "The fact is that a pair of eagles demands an extensive space for its maintenance, and consequently cannot allow other birds to quarter themselves in close neighbourhood.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book IX, Part 32", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.687, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.743, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAENBZDT29R-wZd7zAKkZYnzwboeLM89OwO837MGEi4bQ", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha09-16", "key": "2417dff623909b6e", "label": "The sea-eagle makes its young stare at the sun and kills those that cannot", "statement": "Before its young are fledged the sea-eagle makes them stare at the sun, beats any that refuse, and kills one whose eyes water.", "quote": "the sea-eagle is very keen-sighted, and before its young are fledged tries to make them stare at the sun, and beats the one that refuses to do so, and twists him back in the sun's direction; and if one of them gets watery eyes in the process, it kills him, and rears the other.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book IX, Part 34", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.44, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.767, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAyHy-WdTunpVvx_FqbGyTwQZfF_BzUT_JUA9ZTW2oKQk", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha09-17", "key": "bb494bef1abc8ab0", "label": "The fishing-frog lures prey with filaments in front of its eyes", "statement": "The fishing-frog (angler) has long thin filaments with rounded tips in front of its eyes which it raises as bait while hidden in sand and mud, drawing small fish that touch them into its mouth.", "quote": "The fishing-frog has a set of filaments that project in front of its eyes; they are long and thin like hairs, and are round at the tips; they lie on either side, and are used as baits.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book IX, Part 37", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.808, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.85, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAdjPREbpOGcAawsWbUKTbcfB1fmNF5vFVwREdC_KY1Yg", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha09-18", "key": "a15a02c8e264f944", "label": "The torpedo stuns its prey with a shock from its body", "statement": "The torpedo (electric ray) catches its prey by numbing it with a shock residing in its body, and can numb humans too.", "quote": "The torpedo narcotizes the creatures that it wants to catch, overpowering them by the power of shock that is resident in its body, and feeds upon them", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book IX, Part 37", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.835, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.877, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAnggLkefZSEKkkrMCDCt5fCAR8pjSIHeynmy-5O9RLsA", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha09-19", "key": "911fd3d4c15f94ae", "label": "The male sheat-fish guards the spawn for forty to fifty days", "statement": "In the sheat-fish the female leaves after spawning while the male guards the spawn and fry, driving off small fish, for forty or fifty days until the young can escape on their own.", "quote": "contenting himself with keeping off all other little fishes that might steal the spawn or fry, and this he does for forty or fifty days, until the young are sufficiently grown to make away from the other fishes for themselves.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book IX, Part 37", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.711, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.75, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAuPdNPvMIQ_zO1te3R86HSqovA2NW-5BQdSTqy7raz4w", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha09-20", "key": "3318ecd153b98d56", "label": "All fish are carnivorous except a few, and carnivorous fish wander most", "statement": "All fish are carnivorous except a few such as the grey mullet, the saupe, the red mullet and the chalcis, and the carnivorous fish wander most.", "quote": "Carnivorous fish wander most; and all fish are carnivorous with the exception of a few, such as the mullet, the saupe, the red mullet, and the chalcis.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book IX, Part 37", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.766, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.803, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA99lfHqe2Cvz8o6q-wT-e-GyMNWzTgjvvPMOVd1D8E58", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha09-21", "key": "5d0628b0e8ef6a9a", "label": "Only the sepia uses its ink for concealment; octopus and squid ink from fear", "statement": "Among cephalopods the sepia (cuttlefish) alone discharges its ink for concealment as well as from fear, while the octopus and calamary (squid) discharge it only from fear.", "quote": "Of molluscs the sepia is the most cunning, and is the only species that employs its dark liquid for the sake of concealment as well as from fear: the octopus and calamary make the discharge solely from fear.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book IX, Part 37", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.544, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.657, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAoVJxyYoW_1oFDQdjYDVzrPLOak11Ws5_nS22WmYlm-w", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha09-22", "key": "d84454e9f188d572", "label": "The octopus changes colour to match nearby stones", "statement": "The octopus hunts by changing its colour to match the adjacent stones, and does so also when alarmed.", "quote": "It seeks its prey by so changing its colour as to render it like the colour of the stones adjacent to it; it does so also when alarmed.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book IX, Part 37", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.786, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.83, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAuVaPtTgjr34BSOOzf-axyQJDhE3EDP9QFE44RmRPXMs", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha09-23", "key": "f155af2f08382327", "label": "The octopus as a rule does not live beyond one year", "statement": "The octopus as a rule does not live a full year, and after spawning the female in particular becomes weak, stupid and wastes away.", "quote": "The octopus as a rule does not live the year out.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book IX, Part 37", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.815, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.83, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA5BkEacnXy23nj-IxenJvEFoXCiNODNc3rR4rCI5bDC4", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha09-24", "key": "1adf3d49bbd03ae9", "label": "The argonaut uses its web as a sail and arms as oars", "statement": "The nautilus (argonaut) rises to the surface and, when a breeze blows, uses a thin web between its arms as a sail and lets down some arms as rudder-oars.", "quote": "It uses this structure, when a breeze is blowing, for a sail, and lets down some of its feelers alongside as rudder-oars.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book IX, Part 37", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.598, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.703, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA_dGhT8uKzAVA-6vepCUZrGLYXkjhdvUJHlihCemFCs0", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha09-25", "key": "ab9d134ca23e4f33", "label": "Spiders spin from the surface of the body, not from an excretion", "statement": "Spiders can spin from birth, and their thread comes off the body like bark rather than from inside as a superfluity or excretion, contrary to Democritus.", "quote": "Spiders can spin webs from the time of their birth, not from their interior as a superfluity or excretion, as Democritus avers, but off their body as a kind of tree-bark", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book IX, Part 39", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.789, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.833, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAVq84oBuva-eHkJ_BjDM9b8MCbbblX8M_8hXDD731ym4", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha09-26", "key": "5fa57af3dd22cdf5", "label": "On each trip a bee visits flowers of only one kind", "statement": "On each foraging trip a bee goes from flower to flower of one kind only and does not visit another kind until it has returned to the hive.", "quote": "On each expedition the bee does not fly from a flower of one kind to a flower of another, but flies from one violet, say, to another violet, and never meddles with another flower until it has got back to the hive", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book IX, Part 40", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.79, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.82, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAysM1T9ffMUxAQCmUAwyE7adPvxkCM00eLsbp7C7I09A", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha09-27", "key": "006976f41a7c2974", "label": "Bees kill most of their kings to prevent the hive splitting", "statement": "Worker bees kill most of their kings, especially inferior ones, to prevent a multiplicity of kings from splitting the hive, and destroy royal cells when no swarm is intended.", "quote": "These bees also kill without mercy most of their kings, and especially kings of the inferior sort; and this they do for fear a multiplicity of kings should lead to a dismemberment of the hive.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book IX, Part 40", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.574, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.677, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAl7T8vejxSpTP8qTcCDwl7EkFdovrQYhj0JjrBlakJtQ", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha09-28", "key": "38a6e3785ff9d3d1", "label": "A bee that stings dies because it loses its gut with the sting", "statement": "A bee that stings dies because it cannot withdraw its sting without tearing out its intestines; once it loses its sting it must die.", "quote": "Bees that sting die from their inability to extract the sting without at the same time extracting their intestines.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book IX, Part 40", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.807, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.86, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAmUCErYkhP3wIdAOBv42jzcXs4C0i57z-Tdq_dCflnEE", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha09-29", "key": "20724ec779ae9499", "label": "Older bees work indoors, younger bees forage outside", "statement": "Older bees do the work inside the hive and are rough and hairy from staying indoors, while young bees do the carrying outside and are comparatively smooth.", "quote": "The elder bees do the indoor work, and are rough and hairy from staying indoors; the young bees do the outer carrying, and are comparatively smooth.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book IX, Part 40", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.816, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.86, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RARhvRUx36lT9srvgwN2JEilOwdtT2yUqovjam_kmnKVA", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha09-30", "key": "2fa9333ef6bb5a77", "label": "Bees carry a stone as ballast in high wind", "statement": "In a high wind bees carry a stone as ballast to steady their flight.", "quote": "In a high wind they carry a stone by way of ballast to steady them.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book IX, Part 40", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.511, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.763, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAX8Xi3i7eUs3Lk2c7X4OfHX__yUt_nTqwxiBO5AS3qI0", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha09-31", "key": "cbc49bb608bbee5e", "label": "Worker wasps all die in winter; only the mother-wasps overwinter", "statement": "Worker wasps do not survive into a second year but all die as winter comes on, while the larger mother-wasps survive the winter in holes underground.", "quote": "The workers do not live over into a second year, but all die when winter comes on; and this can be proved, for at the commencement of winter the workers become drowsy, and about the time of the winter solstice they are never seen at all.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book IX, Part 41", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.781, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.823, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAdhBhI8XXJ57PgQkWudCiLVOl-Jyau_d74oCKwWf4yLw", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha09-32", "key": "4f96c0f019f2ed8e", "label": "Lions attack humans when old and their teeth are diseased", "statement": "Lions invade cattle-folds and attack humans when old age and diseased teeth prevent them from catching their usual prey.", "quote": "They invade the cattle-folds and attack human beings when they are grown old and so by reason of old age and the diseased condition of their teeth are unable to pursue their wonted prey.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book IX, Part 44", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.561, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.68, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAWdsLVC0KkwlTGtDd-YiHj9zznvKQ3W2iMwaLLZP2uKo", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha09-33", "key": "65a1053929131bca", "label": "The elephant breathes through its trunk to cross water", "statement": "The elephant can make its way through water as long as the tip of its trunk is above the surface, because it breathes through its trunk.", "quote": "he can make his way through water, as long as the tip of his trunk can be above the surface, for he blows with his trunk and breathes through it.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book IX, Part 46", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.822, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.867, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAybqdchScpXVpz4J83PoG5jGtYe3ug1YxeJtthTZI9Z4", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha09-34", "key": "b7e84bf912b06600", "label": "Hens that beat a cock become cock-like, even growing spurs", "statement": "Hens that have beaten the cock in a fight crow like a cock, try to tread him, raise a crest and tail-feathers, and sometimes grow small spurs.", "quote": "Hens, for instance, when they have beaten the cock in a fight, will crow like the cock and endeavour to tread him; the crest rises up on their head and the tail-feathers on the rump, so that it becomes difficult to recognize that they are hens; in some cases there is a growth of small spurs.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book IX, Part 49", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.569, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.667, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAJbg0mJc6xYEKVpQu2CIP2clM7VYS82M8-WSdyRm8gCk", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha09-35", "key": "224a13352db9ebc7", "label": "Castrated cocks lose their crest colour, crowing and sexual drive", "statement": "A full-grown cock castrated by cauterizing the rump loses the colour of its crest, stops crowing and loses sexual desire; if castrated young, it never develops these male traits.", "quote": "If you burn this twice or thrice with hot irons, then, if the bird be full-grown, his crest grows sallow, he ceases to crow, and foregoes sexual passion; but if you cauterize the bird when young, none of these male attributes propensities will come to him as he grows up.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book IX, Part 50", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.718, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.76, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAXDXriD7i_5zv9mod8iW2-YVLiunuK78rLQP_fs1i4wU", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha09-36", "key": "89ee256666b1f845", "label": "Boys castrated before puberty keep a high voice; eunuchs never go bald", "statement": "Men castrated in boyhood never grow the later hair and keep a high-pitched voice, and a eunuch never goes bald.", "quote": "if you mutilate them in boyhood, the later-growing hair never comes, and the voice never changes but remains high-pitched", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book IX, Part 50", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.68, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.757, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAp9YVK6XVRHy5jJXd3r2HWQpsTeH-Zlbzvu9RtmZpgSc", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha09-37", "key": "f5dc32d242218e5b", "label": "Stags castrated before growing horns never grow them", "statement": "Stags castrated before they have horns never grow horns, and stags castrated when they have horns keep them unchanged in size and do not shed them.", "quote": "If stags be mutilated, when, by reason of their age, they have as yet no horns, they never grow horns at all; if they be mutilated when they have horns, the horns remain unchanged in size, and the animal does not lose them.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book IX, Part 50", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.669, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.76, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAXS4kgVwQ-HsPDZtfzu_ucnr3n3LqqNtDvTmv8VPV1-Q", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha09-38", "key": "00c8ad35344d1f3a", "label": "Animals lacking upper teeth are the ones that ruminate", "statement": "The animals that ruminate are those lacking upper (front) teeth, such as cattle, sheep and goats, though a few with teeth in both jaws also ruminate.", "quote": "It is the animals that lack the upper teeth that ruminate, such as kine, sheep, and goats.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book IX, Part 50", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.824, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.853, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAu7leAI7G52_iuKZz7sgtODYQRG_0F_kg3doSD7ycEd8", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha09-39", "key": "3cd719c9572a3d21", "label": "Many birds change plumage colour and song with the seasons", "statement": "Many birds change the colour of their plumage and their song with the season; for example, the blackbird turns yellow instead of black and its song changes.", "quote": "A considerable number of birds change according to season the colour of their plumage and their note; as, for instance, the owsel becomes yellow instead of black, and its note gets altered", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book IX, Part 50", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.752, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.803, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAUjeFAwYVXDyiv-9c-aKbHH1ItQsE3HjvcbmGvhUlIaI", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha09-40", "key": "3ec6cc5e241394f3", "label": "The redbreast and the redstart are one bird in two seasonal forms", "statement": "The robin (a winter bird) and the redstart (a summer bird) change into one another and differ only in plumage colour; likewise the beccafico and the blackcap.", "quote": "The erithacus (or redbreast) and the so-called redstart change into one another; the former is a winter bird, the latter a summer one, and the difference between them is practically limited to the coloration of their plumage.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book IX, Part 50", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.875, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.903, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAM65wSUi1Xu872_fPKtIts9BBhseQSciovVy9wx8-ZaE", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ha09-41", "key": "1789da4d524b97cd", "label": "Ground birds dust-bathe; waterside birds water-bathe", "statement": "Birds that do not fly but live on the ground take dust-baths, waterside birds and some straight-taloned birds take water-baths, and most crooked-taloned birds take neither.", "quote": "Birds that do not fly but keep on the ground take the dust-bath, as for instance the hen, the partridge, the francolin, the crested lark, the pheasant; some of the straight-taloned birds, and such as live on the banks of a river, in marshes, or by the sea, take a water-bath", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "The History of Animals", "chapter": "The History of Animals, Book IX, Part 50", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.654, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.73, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA_ObNzXxfq5Z7XP7OskeWNdgRPuIpBARlvONLBepcnzI", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa01-01", "key": "1a2532bb88303f12", "label": "The final cause comes before the motor cause in explaining nature", "statement": "Of the causes at work in the generation of natural things, the final cause (the end or purpose) is prior to the motor cause, in nature as in art.", "quote": "Plainly, however, that cause is the first which we call the final one. For this is the Reason, and the Reason forms the starting-point, alike in the works of art and in works of nature.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book I, Part 1", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.011, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.92, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAYI_obu-16vrOcqBpoJc6euft_nIykwiZRdddwr2_b40", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa01-02", "key": "8798240931eafd37", "label": "The vertebrae are not formed by accidental breaking of the foetal backbone", "statement": "The division of the backbone into vertebrae is not, as Empedocles held, the result of the backbone being broken by the contorted position of the foetus in the womb, nor are animal characters in general mere incidents of development.", "quote": "Empedocles, then, was in error when he said that many of the characters presented by animals were merely the results of incidental occurrences during their development; for instance, that the backbone was divided as it is into vertebrae, because it happened to be broken owing to the contorted position of the foetus in the womb.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book I, Part 1", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.738, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.797, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RApEaGNgw8IQhF9zcmxt1l0prxg1C7qWsiFc9cnrSJxuY", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa01-03", "key": "793580c6da157b7b", "label": "Like begets like: the parent's characters determine the offspring's", "statement": "Man is generated from man, and it is the possession of certain characters by the parent that determines the development of like characters in the offspring.", "quote": "For man is generated from man; and thus it is the possession of certain characters by the parent that determines the development of like characters in the child.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book I, Part 1", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.767, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.783, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAGSgdRFP4TzS5XMxxtRA6AeNx_Amyp8Cv0nIpuOPlXI0", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa01-04", "key": "921d7748c8767fa0", "label": "Only man has intellect, though other animals move themselves", "statement": "Other animals besides man have the power of locomotion, but none but man has intellect.", "quote": "I say not the intellectual part; for other animals than man have the power of locomotion, but in none but him is there intellect.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book I, Part 1", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.14, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.793, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA2ptuMHyPqfr_mMB20y4quz4-_2s4uQ0UdsNOSsOKBy0", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa01-05", "key": "04a9c4deb6bd518c", "label": "Respiration is driven by an alternation of heat and cooling", "statement": "Breathing exists for the alternate discharge and re-entry of heat, and the alternation of heating and cooling in the body necessarily produces the alternate intake and discharge of outer air.", "quote": "For the alternate discharge and re-entrance of heat and the inflow of air are necessary if we are to live. Here we have at once a necessity in the former of the two senses. But the alternation of heat and refrigeration produces of necessity an alternate admission and discharge of the outer air, and this is a necessity of the second kind.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book I, Part 1", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.472, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.747, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAVjs5pw-H6ZG4w1n-Ivy4TEY5jysSRhJLtIFnmen4TqI", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa01-06", "key": "889005315cfd0446", "label": "Some ants fly and others do not", "statement": "Among ants some fly and others do not, so Flying versus Walking cannot be used to divide animal kinds.", "quote": "For some groups, Ants for instance, fall under both divisions, some ants flying while others do not.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book I, Part 3", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.91, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.927, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAXnUXvb2jk5EvLvmgnCAFCVfnvIuafAPSEgwFhV6lsK8", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa01-07", "key": "35c546fc4f273658", "label": "Groups such as Wild and Tame cannot divide species, since tame kinds also occur wild", "statement": "In almost all kinds of animal of which some members are tame, other members are wild, so wildness and tameness are not specific differences.", "quote": "For in almost all species in which some members are tame, there are other members that are wild. Such, for example, is the case with Men, Horses, Oxen, Dogs in India, Pigs, Goats, Sheep", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book I, Part 3", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.719, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.763, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAOdVFPWWg4pRyfEH6LmbJmutY_M6e4kMF9QjIwMR20xA", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa01-08", "key": "bf7caf60b9079a4c", "label": "Natural groups are marked by many differentiae, not by dichotomy", "statement": "Animals should be classified into the natural groups that mankind instinctively recognizes, such as Birds and Fishes, each defined by many differentiae together, and not by successive two-way division on a single character.", "quote": "The method then that we must adopt is to attempt to recognize the natural groups, following the indications afforded by the instincts of mankind, which led them for instance to form the class of Birds and the class of Fishes, each of which groups combines a multitude of differentiae, and is not defined by a single one as in dichotomy.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book I, Part 3", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.337, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.72, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAVbq_b3Wh8TslGcOGWGLBTek7EaFZkNbXATKVURL9byI", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa01-09", "key": "1aed937d3da727dd", "label": "Within a class animals differ by degree; across classes their parts are only analogous", "statement": "Animals within one class differ only by degree (more and less of the same part), while different classes agree only in having analogous organs, as the bird's feather corresponds to the fish's scale.", "quote": "For instance, bird differs from bird by gradation, or by excess and defect; some birds have long feathers, others short ones, but all are feathered. Bird and Fish are more remote and only agree in having analogous organs; for what in the bird is feather, in the fish is scale.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book I, Part 4", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.605, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.683, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RArTWDo7junJpn2jxYmTSd4GpQruyfBN5mdunnrFe6A_8", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa01-10", "key": "11119af3d6cdf722", "label": "Groups lacking lungs or blood have analogous organs and fluids in their place", "statement": "Some groups of animals have lungs and others have instead an organ analogous to a lung; some have blood and others have instead a fluid analogous to blood with the same office.", "quote": "For instance, some groups have lungs, others have no lung, but an organ analogous to a lung in its place; some have blood, others have no blood, but a fluid analogous to blood, and with the same office.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book I, Part 5", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.628, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.717, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAkD-Ye3nggK6Hb3GOSFKadfdH90vdkts726zv1qePbM0", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa01-11", "key": "303ae65c1a02e2cd", "label": "The body exists for the soul and each part for its function", "statement": "As each instrument serves some action, the body is made for the soul and each part of the body for some subordinate function to which it is adapted.", "quote": "Thus the saw is made for sawing, for sawing is a function, and not sawing for the saw. Similarly, the body too must somehow or other be made for the soul, and each part of it for some subordinate function, to which it is adapted.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book I, Part 5", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.044, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.893, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA_dRZ9V4uu4Qbek9vr8zjrvtB0Xju6zStpe1oXTyEZmw", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa02-01", "key": "0f6f6951a682333b", "label": "Homogeneous tissues exist for the sake of the heterogeneous organs", "statement": "Animals are composed of homogeneous parts (such as bone and flesh) and heterogeneous parts (such as face and hand), and the homogeneous parts exist for the sake of the heterogeneous ones, which carry on the body's functions.", "quote": "Animals, then, are composed of homogeneous parts, and are also composed of heterogeneous parts. The former, however, exist for the sake of the latter. For the active functions and operations of the body are carried on by these; that is, by the heterogeneous parts, such as the eye, the nostril, the whole face, the fingers, the hand, and the whole arm.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book II, Part 1", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.205, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.813, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAvKa2rENRH2eF3LR9edBpZnXVkWe2DVSavj9knLUKcdI", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa02-02", "key": "8bcddce3eba33d70", "label": "The heart is the seat of sensation, motion and nutrition in blooded animals", "statement": "The sensory, motor and nutritive faculties are lodged in one central part, which in animals with blood is the heart and in bloodless animals the part that takes the place of a heart.", "quote": "For this reason it is the heart which in sanguineous animals constitutes this central part, and in bloodless animals it is that which takes the place of a heart.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book II, Part 1", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.713, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.827, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAC1vZ1VlNlbNHq3BWZ1NulcKPUg04SX-yUPGNP8AihRM", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa02-03", "key": "9a0fea3e2cd26a22", "label": "Thick hot blood gives strength; thin cool blood gives sensation and intelligence", "statement": "The thicker and hotter an animal's blood, the more it conduces to strength; the thinner and colder, the better suited it is to sensation and intelligence; those with hot, thin and clear blood are best for both courage and intelligence.", "quote": "As regards the results of such differences, the thicker and the hotter blood is, the more conducive is it to strength, while in proportion to its thinness and its coldness is its suitability for sensation and intelligence.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book II, Part 2", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.321, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.65, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA-CsiGt218KC2WB9Raf1GLUruiSDr2ueSBDUISaZFnKw", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa02-04", "key": "10c3026938ccfe83", "label": "Blood solidifies outside the body, yellow bile becomes more fluid", "statement": "Blood is hot and fluid in the living body but becomes cold and coagulates when separated from it, whereas yellow bile becomes more fluid when separated.", "quote": "Of the former blood is an example, of the latter bile; for while blood solidifies when thus separated, yellow bile under the same circumstances becomes more fluid.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book II, Part 3", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.66, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.767, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAuZ3PzurlKehdzHMSqWyvOFWEbT5rAh454jb8_OkSgRA", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa02-05", "key": "2923fcfea67ce041", "label": "Nearly all animals, and all that move about, have a stomach", "statement": "Animals, with scarcely an exception and conspicuously all those capable of locomotion, have a stomach-sac that serves them as an internal substitute for the earth from which plants draw food.", "quote": "But animals, with scarcely an exception, and conspicuously all such as are capable of locomotion, are provided with a stomachal sac, which is as it were an internal substitute for the earth.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book II, Part 3", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.683, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.75, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAX9I_aTEw_j2FtN0lWH_cWbs5pIJYxtW0eLiUggF-LJk", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa02-06", "key": "a15174a80e9ae52d", "label": "Blood is the final nutriment and its quantity follows food intake", "statement": "Blood is the final nutritive material of the body in animals that have it; it diminishes in quantity when no food is taken, increases when much is eaten, and is healthy or unhealthy according to the food.", "quote": "This explains why the blood diminishes in quantity when no food is taken, and increases when much is consumed, and also why it becomes healthy and unhealthy according as the food is of the one or the other character.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book II, Part 3", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.609, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.71, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAskPyVBr5v0q7w-SEZyqJc0xhR3rOgZ0XEitAuXNVUKQ", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa02-07", "key": "23bc1d57cf2702c7", "label": "Deer and roe blood has no fibres and never coagulates", "statement": "The blood of deer and of roe deer contains no fibres and for this reason never coagulates.", "quote": "There are none, for instance, in the blood of deer and of roes; and for this reason the blood of such animals as these never coagulates.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book II, Part 4", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.64, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.73, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAWlWh_rt4cAafcaKgV62A84ciQrfdVjxXqJY24x7nZKI", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa02-08", "key": "6627630de540cb2e", "label": "Bloodless animals are more timorous, freezing and discharging excretions when frightened", "statement": "Bloodless animals are, as a general rule, more timorous than animals with blood: when frightened they stay motionless, discharge their excretions and in some cases change colour.", "quote": "This also explains why bloodless animals are, as a general rule, more timorous than such as have blood, so that they remain motionless, when frightened, and discharge their excretions, and in some instances change colour.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book II, Part 4", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.477, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.69, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAqGbPtUHdWvuly6L5TsVygMUsqphroI-_r6o-XsaWCBw", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa02-09", "key": "c637f9ed27b02956", "label": "Bull's blood coagulates faster than any other animal's", "statement": "Bulls and boars have blood exceedingly rich in fibres, and the bull's blood coagulates more rapidly than that of any other animal.", "quote": "This explains why bulls and boars are so choleric and so passionate. For their blood is exceedingly rich in fibres, and the bull's at any rate coagulates more rapidly than that of any other animal.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book II, Part 4", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.535, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.713, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA5cpDQnnZwrbW_PxU_rekr3O6wJ5W7av7nh3wF6VC268", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa02-10", "key": "d667685644a6790a", "label": "Horned animals lacking upper front teeth have suet; others have lard", "statement": "Horned animals without front teeth in the upper jaw have fat in the form of suet, whereas hornless animals with front teeth in both jaws and toed feet have lard, which neither coagulates nor dries into a friable mass.", "quote": "Thus it is that in those horned animals that have no front teeth in the upper jaw the fat consists of suet.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book II, Part 5", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.619, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.723, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAcxTT6TOenG0I7quRrRJSD8r9US1PuvYCzBzTRbQxOo4", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa02-11", "key": "553a877de34bb0b8", "label": "Fat animals are less prolific", "statement": "Fat animals are less prolific than others, because the blood that should form semen is used up in making lard and suet.", "quote": "For the same reason fat animals are less prolific than others. For that part of the blood which should go to form semen and seed is used up in the production of lard and suet", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book II, Part 5", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.569, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.71, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAcaTkmLQJvDmphA8vpue36oAgRTby_I80XjXXdydZA-A", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa02-12", "key": "56da05f876bb3fed", "label": "The lion's bones have almost no marrow", "statement": "Animals with strong and solid bones, such as the lion, have hardly any marrow, the lion's being so insignificant that its bones look as though they had none.", "quote": "There are some animals that can hardly be said to have any marrow. These are those whose bones are strong and solid, as is the case with the lion. For in this animal the marrow is so utterly insignificant that the bones look as though they had none at all.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book II, Part 6", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.676, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.753, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAFNKqGCFiK50coN33poBkm5QXtNWFqE7QBAhjH4cXOTM", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa02-13", "key": "9eb6774f8fafe7bc", "label": "The brain is the coldest part of the body and bloodless in its substance", "statement": "Of all parts of the body none is as cold as the brain, which is cold to the touch and has no blood in its proper substance.", "quote": "The coldness of the brain is also manifest enough. For in the first place it is cold even to the touch; and, secondly, of all the fluid parts of the body it is the driest and the one that has the least blood; for in fact it has no blood at all in its proper substance.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book II, Part 7", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.68, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.783, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAlo8ToKleInn710t05-8kRJ1os_6KNFahWc4u7pwKgGs", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa02-14", "key": "802a5f5da937bca4", "label": "The brain exists to cool the heat of the heart", "statement": "Nature has made the brain, a compound of earth and water, as a counterpoise to the heat of the region of the heart, to moderate it.", "quote": "nature has contrived the brain as a counterpoise to the region of the heart with its contained heat, and has given it to animals to moderate the latter, combining in it the properties of earth and water.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book II, Part 7", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.313, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.7, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RArkrqIMItv_PcR1k40G6o619w6Bexan5dqS_xs1_HBF8", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa02-15", "key": "ab8a9932c331cb65", "label": "Every animal with blood has a brain; no bloodless animal has one", "statement": "Every animal with blood has a brain, whereas no bloodless animal has such an organ, except by analogy, as in the poulp (octopus).", "quote": "For this reason it is, that every sanguineous animal has a brain; whereas no bloodless creature has such an organ, unless indeed it be, as the Poulp, by analogy.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book II, Part 7", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.714, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.777, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA0CAGrSMvoIHoDRISnhrdqHmZeu9RhTZS27os002ODYM", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa02-16", "key": "063f3412a8a1a518", "label": "The brain causes sleep by chilling the blood rising after food", "statement": "The brain, or its analogue, is the cause of sleep: by chilling the blood that streams upward after food it produces heaviness in the head and drives the heat downward with the blood.", "quote": "It is the brain again-or, in animals that have no brain, the part analogous to it-which is the cause of sleep. For either by chilling the blood that streams upwards after food, or by some other similar influences, it produces heaviness in the region in which it lies", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book II, Part 7", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.425, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.713, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAr_6rzW9I9A0XQGwKjwPwxvPfTQkB7NdHKJJPUEeQQmQ", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa02-17", "key": "a3701f69e999f3f8", "label": "Man has the largest brain for his size, and men larger than women", "statement": "Of all animals, man has the largest brain in proportion to his size, and the brain is larger in men than in women.", "quote": "Of all animals, man has the largest brain in proportion to his size; and it is larger in men than in women.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book II, Part 7", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.829, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.867, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAdqTulwgd42BVtA_S4hWImLjRxrPIXf9qCDmfbhqzlHE", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa02-18", "key": "220b08cd6cb67769", "label": "Only in man does the bregma solidify last", "statement": "In man the cranial bone called the bregma is the last to become solidified, because evaporation continues through it under the influence of heat; man is the only animal with blood in which this happens.", "quote": "it is again owing to this superabundance that the cranial bone, which some call the Bregma, is the last to become solidified; so long does evaporation continue to occur through it under the influence of heat. Man is the only sanguineous animal in which this takes place.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book II, Part 7", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.533, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.683, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAs6eY5chMh5PDdoQcjCmQA_JIJ9eJTdr9g3ao-Y46kIA", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa02-19", "key": "cae5b8453d706b17", "label": "Man has more skull sutures than any animal, males more than females", "statement": "Man has more sutures in his skull than any other animal, and the male more than the female, because the larger brain requires more ventilation.", "quote": "Man, again, has more sutures in his skull than any other animal, and the male more than the female.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book II, Part 7", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.615, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.703, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAubMswCkDhTbtLaGqx6cKBCureQ3YxWxCZbwd_aIxqK4", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa02-20", "key": "a4c03efbf21ed970", "label": "Crustaceans and testaceans have their hard supporting part outside", "statement": "In all crustaceans and testaceans the fleshy substance is within and the hard earthy matter is outside, and the shell both holds the soft parts together and keeps in their scanty natural heat.", "quote": "For in all these animals the fleshy substance is within, and the earthy matter, which holds the soft parts together and keeps them from injury, is on the outside. For the shell not only enables the soft parts to hold together, but also, as the animal is bloodless and so has but little natural warmth, surrounds it", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book II, Part 8", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.68, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.763, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAWgGdj0LVFsJEJMeekBVYIFCWD3fXl6xulGoR1l-hv5Q", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa02-21", "key": "e0b9d1f632a9727e", "label": "Cuttlefish and squid have an internal shell; the octopus has none", "statement": "Cuttlefishes have an internal hard part (the os sepiae) and calamaries (squids) the gladius, but poulps (octopuses) have no such part because their body-sac is short.", "quote": "For instance, in the Cuttle-fishes there is what is known as the os sepiae, and in the Calamaries there is the so-called gladius. In the Poulps, on the other hand, there is no such internal part", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book II, Part 8", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.86, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.897, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAbAHu7X-lVF5Hh0jjlgXoBK8XslNlKdP5GH4QiumXuOo", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa02-22", "key": "2ebc13319e18efff", "label": "The belly wall is boneless in all animals", "statement": "The walls of the belly are in all animals devoid of bones, so as not to hinder its expansion after a meal or the growth of the foetus in females.", "quote": "The walls of this are in all animals devoid of bones; in order that there may be no hindrance to the expansion which necessarily occurs in this part after a meal, nor, in females, any interference with the growth of the foetus, which is lodged here.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book II, Part 9", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.743, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.797, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAAXd-06LHwKd_5qRKPw-TfwAGHSxGFUTq_gOvCsBEWyc", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa02-23", "key": "bdcfb0a686d9182c", "label": "Males' bones are harder than females', carnivores' harder than herbivores'", "statement": "The bones of males are harder than those of females, and the bones of carnivores that get their food by fighting are harder than those of herbivores.", "quote": "Thus it is that the bones of males are harder than those of females; and the bones of flesh-eaters, that get their food by fighting, are harder than those of Herbivora.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book II, Part 9", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.558, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.69, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAtx9hYdXOdGQ8WX9Rp0A4xSSxjZQACxZo74RB_wvJJwk", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa02-24", "key": "32550eedf39edb53", "label": "The lion's bones are so hard they give off sparks when struck", "statement": "The lion's bones are so hard that when struck they give off sparks, as though they were stones.", "quote": "Of this the Lion is an example; for so hard are its bones, that, when struck, they give off sparks, as though they were stones.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book II, Part 9", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.452, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.717, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAL-l92s-FZf2cqGuUtZc2QF7eO9dmi_lo5uJGurWTo1U", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa02-25", "key": "83ac2b4176b8ae56", "label": "The dolphin, being viviparous, has bones rather than fish-spines", "statement": "The dolphin, being viviparous, has bones and not fish-spines.", "quote": "It may be mentioned also that the Dolphin, in as much as it is viviparous, is provided with bones and not with fish-spines.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book II, Part 9", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.891, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.917, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RACdFNu-cKMrVr7fi5b3DU4CMFRPzyxokYuxjRKLzMhhc", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa02-26", "key": "2f747fdb00ca6f3e", "label": "Selachians have cartilage instead of fish-spine, for undulating movement", "statement": "In selachians (cartilaginous fishes) the fish-spines are replaced by cartilage, because their undulating movement requires a pliable rather than brittle supporting framework.", "quote": "Lastly, in the Selachia, as they are called, the fish-spines are replaced by cartilage. For it is necessary that the movements of these animals shall be of an undulating character; and this again requires the framework that supports the body to be made of a pliable and not of a brittle substance.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book II, Part 9", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.733, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.79, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RADqb0xfydpvtsXYjrL3N7dk6slUk7ipvN66oF9b_A3CE", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa02-27", "key": "bdca347e4347876c", "label": "Neither cartilage nor bone grows again once cut off", "statement": "Cartilage and bone differ only in degree, and neither cartilage nor bone grows again once cut off.", "quote": "Cartilage and bone are indeed fundamentally the same thing, the differences between them being merely matters of degree. Thus neither cartilage nor bone, when once cut off, grows again.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book II, Part 9", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.672, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.757, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAzAUiMAsjpOh5FDKAOk_cfqoWsfnTT82u_mNgfT9sUTU", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa02-28", "key": "e40cab499cef1d93", "label": "The brain is insensible and not the cause of sensation", "statement": "The brain cannot be the cause of any sensation, being itself as without feeling as any of the excretions; the sensory centre is the region of the heart.", "quote": "and, as to the other half of their statement, the brain cannot be the cause of any of the sensations, seeing that it is itself as utterly without feeling as any one of the excretions.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book II, Part 10", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.702, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.81, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAFdTR2xhzpd1wjspWPuSOtv3-aUPTG1qaz0ljMt5z2e0", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa02-29", "key": "6c4228c166568128", "label": "Birds and scaly oviparous quadrupeds have no external ears", "statement": "Birds have no ears but only the auditory passages, because their skin is hard and they have feathers instead of hair; the same is true of oviparous quadrupeds clad in scaly plates.", "quote": "In birds, on the other hand, there are no ears, but only the auditory passages. This is because their skin is hard and because they have feathers instead of hairs, so that they have not got the proper material for the formation of ears.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book II, Part 12", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.787, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.83, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAZyGzh-kukdPepH9AIOm7vFvQvEyaBljwUrgqu2YLW-k", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa02-30", "key": "47a8186a4c90ae46", "label": "The seal has no external ears, only auditory passages", "statement": "The seal, alone among viviparous quadrupeds, has no ears but only the auditory passages, being a quadruped of stunted formation.", "quote": "There is also one of the viviparous quadrupeds, namely the seal, that has no ears but only the auditory passages. The explanation of this is that the seal, though a quadruped, is a quadruped of stunted formation.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book II, Part 12", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.762, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.81, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAIXzE0N0IWHiQWLLkVShUWPf-zg_qjjUl7rrLdjr51gU", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa02-31", "key": "8e3ddb89bb5cfb8c", "label": "Some animals close the eye with the lower lid; birds blink with a membrane", "statement": "Viviparous animals have two eyelids and use both to close and to blink; oviparous quadrupeds and heavy-bodied birds close the eye with the lower lid only, while birds blink with a membrane issuing from the corner of the eye.", "quote": "whereas the oviparous quadrupeds, and the heavy-bodied birds as well as some others, use only the lower lid to close the eye; while birds blink by means of a membrane that issues from the canthus.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book II, Part 13", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.692, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.767, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAd0HnbQhKyKw4E-9n6eBpk-tahjwfvouUvtuOynLzJQU", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa02-32", "key": "a304a003f60541c2", "label": "Birds of prey are sharp-sighted, ground fowl are not", "statement": "Birds with talons, which search for prey by eye from aloft and soar higher than other birds, are sharp-sighted, while common fowls and similar ground-living birds have no such keenness of vision.", "quote": "This too explains why birds with talons, that have to search for prey by eye from aloft, and therefore soar to greater heights than other birds, are sharpsighted; while common fowls and the like, that live on the ground and are not made for flight, have no such keenness of vision.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book II, Part 13", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.652, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.743, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAuQaDr19FJSEnusKXp_44h1kpMZ_p8HCMuYnqRWb1ECs", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa02-33", "key": "bf27725ce12bac75", "label": "Fishes, insects and crustaceans have no eyelids", "statement": "Fishes, insects and hard-skinned crustaceans have no eyelids; insects and still more crustaceans compensate for their hard eyes by having movable eyes.", "quote": "Fishes and Insects and the hard-skinned Crustacea present certain differences in their eyes, but so far resemble each other as that none of them have eyelids.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book II, Part 13", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.706, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.763, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAQNTbliSWh_FwBSl2CfuWoWwRKNudMsmS7VVtQD3Y-T8", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa02-34", "key": "03d84b6a2bec341e", "label": "All hairy animals have eyelashes; birds and scaly animals lack them, except the ostrich", "statement": "All animals with hair on the body have eyelashes, while birds and animals with scaly plates, being hairless, have none; the Libyan ostrich is an exception, having eyelashes though a bird.", "quote": "All animals that have hairs on the body have lashes on the eyelids; but birds and animals with scale-like plates, being hairless, have none. The Libyan ostrich, indeed, forms an exception; for, though a bird, it is furnished with eyelashes.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book II, Part 14", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.704, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.763, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAjYiHF9nXCQT4WUbIZuM2yVFRBIMg4jE-t26VjlrZGVg", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa02-35", "key": "efeeea0433b5a242", "label": "Only man has lashes on both eyelids; no quadruped has a lower eyelash", "statement": "Of hairy animals, man alone has lashes on both eyelids; no quadruped has a lower eyelash, though some have a few scattered hairs under the lower lid.", "quote": "Of hairy animals, man alone has lashes on both lids.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book II, Part 14", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.68, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.75, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAGMrueMuXh0KcfA71Z-gVwefXqLYULfQjOC1vlZqQDMo", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa02-36", "key": "13a08a32af81d3f7", "label": "The elephant uses its nostril as a hand", "statement": "The elephant's proboscis is a nostril which it uses as a hand, conveying food and drink to its mouth and tearing up trees by coiling it round their stems.", "quote": "For the elephant uses its nostril as a hand; this being the instrument with which it conveys food, fluid and solid alike, to its mouth. With it, too, it tears up trees, coiling it round their stems.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book II, Part 16", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.839, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.903, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA9PHevVxyFGRPSc_mu7_98TlCWQ-DWQuoAPhg5bsfLkc", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa02-37", "key": "03b6000ecc7ded36", "label": "Elephants breathe through the raised trunk when crossing water", "statement": "Elephants, being both land and swamp animals, have a lengthened nostril which, when they traverse water, they lift above the surface and breathe through, like a diver's breathing instrument.", "quote": "so also have elephants been furnished by nature with their lengthened nostril; and, whenever they have to traverse the water, they lift this up above the surface and breathe through it.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book II, Part 16", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.816, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.873, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RABNrvP_i9GJaMFmq6aXLTm13OTh8QksjJLqRi0ELJqPE", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa02-38", "key": "4faaa12e894fe9c0", "label": "Birds that pronounce letters best have the broadest tongues", "statement": "Among birds, those most capable of pronouncing letters have the broadest tongues, whereas viviparous quadrupeds, whose tongue is hard, thick and not free, have very limited vocal articulation.", "quote": "What has been said explains why, among birds, those that are most capable of pronouncing letters are such as have the broadest tongues; and why the viviparous and sanguineous quadrupeds, where the tongue is hard and thick and not free in its motions, have a very limited vocal articulation.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book II, Part 17", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.486, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.687, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAJZYisWDTuwepJfO8lb69JBM6vIUSUOtXJK3OhzvQ3xU", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa02-39", "key": "851ae6c69008a9fa", "label": "All birds communicate with their tongues, some seeming to teach one another", "statement": "All birds use their tongues to communicate with each other, some more than others, so that in some cases it seems as though actual instruction passes from one bird to another.", "quote": "All birds use their tongues to communicate with each other. But some do this in a greater degree than the rest; so that in some cases it even seems as though actual instruction were imparted from one to another by its agency.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book II, Part 17", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.501, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.673, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA_YTncJfH3fnG8e3jtkqsQHJoW9s7gNvD3FUnBTpYKFA", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa02-40", "key": "16bac267738fd77d", "label": "Serpents and lizards have long forked tongues suited to taste", "statement": "Land-dwelling oviparous animals with blood mostly have a tongue tied down and hard, but in serpents and lizards it is long and forked, suiting it to the perception of savours.", "quote": "As to those oviparous and sanguineous animals that live not in the air but on the earth, their tongue in most cases is tied down and hard, and is therefore useless for vocal purposes; in the serpents, however, and in the lizards it is long and forked, so as to be suited for the perception of savours.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book II, Part 17", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.693, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.783, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAB4hwIcRR7BFaQikbOzvDwPGngnpc4ShE7_sGllRgtvI", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa02-41", "key": "3c4a843e298e43f7", "label": "The crocodile moves its upper jaw and its tongue adheres to the lower", "statement": "The crocodile's tongue is adherent to the lower jaw, which is immobile; in the crocodile it is the upper jaw that moves, the reverse of other animals.", "quote": "For the crocodile's tongue is adherent to the lower jaw. For its upper and lower jaws are, as it were, inverted, it being the upper jaw which in other animals is the immovable one.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book II, Part 17", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.793, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.84, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAWrJenKD7j_dYGvT-5YUvaSUzCx-ghydX_6tGUVdnYP8", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa02-42", "key": "dad33dbbccafd8ea", "label": "Purple snails bore through shells with their tongue", "statement": "In the purpurae (purple snails) the tongue-like part is so strong that it bores holes through the shells of other shellfish, such as the spiral snails used as bait to catch them.", "quote": "In the Purpurae, for instance, so strong is this part that it enables them to bore holes through the hard covering of shell-fish, of the spiral snails, for example, that are used as bait to catch them.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book II, Part 17", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.763, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.84, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAYknL8LvBh6OjnrpZQnHPOmb3kRydoS4FUjFlqyxD1uo", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa03-01", "key": "86b23e7086108536", "label": "Sharp interlocking teeth and tusks never occur together", "statement": "No animal that has sharp, interlocking (saw-like) teeth also has tusks; tusks go to animals that strike in fighting and saw-teeth to those that bite.", "quote": "No animal that has sharp interfitting teeth is at the same time furnished with tusks. For nature never makes anything superfluous or in vain.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book III, Part 1", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.664, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.747, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAL08Sm557B5l5bX5gIXhneUmtmjUEn4JEk5NNdBTaU2g", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa03-02", "key": "183266bcd66e21c0", "label": "Nature gives each weapon only, or most fully, to animals that can use it", "statement": "Nature allots each offensive or defensive weapon (sting, spur, horn, tusk) only, or in a more developed form, to the animals that can use it, and in its most perfect form to those that can use it best.", "quote": "Nature allots each weapon, offensive and defensive alike, to those animals alone that can use it; or, if not to them alone, to them in a more marked degree; and she allots it in its most perfect state to those that can use it best", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book III, Part 1", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.368, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.71, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAIYCa-Q1QOMjRcc808jOp9xCthLwl_2I-ViwEfPUCpBo", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa03-03", "key": "98888f95308d39a8", "label": "Weapons such as horns and spurs are confined to or larger in males", "statement": "Because males are stronger and more spirited than females, weapons such as horns, tusks and spurs are found only in males in some species and are more fully developed in males in others (e.g. stags have horns and hinds none; hens often lack the spurs of cocks).", "quote": "Thus as males are stronger and more choleric than females, it is in males that such parts as those just mentioned are found, either exclusively, as in some species, or more fully developed, as in others.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book III, Part 1", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.726, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.8, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAgDcs7n0gMKFzK0AL0pxhxk-gBQXvJynjrQdeP9kLwHw", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa03-04", "key": "df862c8700e5a5f7", "label": "All fishes have saw-like teeth except the parrot-fish (Scarus)", "statement": "All fishes have sharp, serrated (saw-like) teeth, with the single exception of the Scarus (parrot-fish).", "quote": "All fishes have teeth of the serrated form, with the single exception of the fish known as the Scarus.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book III, Part 1", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.704, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.777, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAnyIGCe7A02kIbU5b8zDLfyZZykz6j9pagdAZ-naFYzc", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa03-05", "key": "3b877bab86f4bf01", "label": "Hook-clawed birds have hooked beaks and eat no vegetable food", "statement": "Birds with crooked talons (birds of prey) invariably have a hooked beak, because they are carnivorous and eat no vegetable food at all.", "quote": "Thus in those birds that are called Crooked-clawed it is invariably hooked, inasmuch as these birds are carnivorous, and eat no kind of vegetable food whatsoever.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book III, Part 1", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.812, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.853, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAC1bQMFfHkIjw5xdt06y_Xq0Y-nj3B6toAjq28wVRcVk", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa03-06", "key": "14862a5e3f00ce04", "label": "True horns occur only in viviparous animals", "statement": "True horns exist only in viviparous animals; what are called horns in some egg-laying animals are horns only by metaphor and are never used for fighting.", "quote": "They exist in none but viviparous animals; though in some ovipara certain parts are metaphorically spoken of as horns, in virtue of a certain resemblance.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book III, Part 2", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.656, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.71, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RATXoaUlZkGJuho8awZaKpj_oy3-qOWtkMZ8xguvZGBkg", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa03-07", "key": "984328b3af42a093", "label": "Deer alone have solid horns and alone shed them", "statement": "Deer are the only animals whose horns are solid throughout, and the only animals that shed their horns.", "quote": "Deer are the only animals in which the horns are solid throughout, and are also the only animals that cast them.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book III, Part 2", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.802, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.85, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAKczSTWqyLK7Oxuwgx9vn1Dldl8-lNHe6lSpP85jPYF8", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa03-08", "key": "be1faeb619fe466a", "label": "No horned animal has front teeth in the upper jaw", "statement": "No horned animal has front teeth in both jaws; the upper front teeth are lacking, because the material taken from the teeth is added to the horns.", "quote": "Thus it is that no animal that has horns has also front teeth in both jaws, those in the upper jaw being deficient. For nature by subtracting from the teeth adds to the horns", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book III, Part 2", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.769, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.81, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAbXfaQsjdnsZQvQMiuUJZDyfmP01c8zBir1As9d-lGKI", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa03-09", "key": "d94afc709e8b360e", "label": "Animals without a lung have no neck", "statement": "An animal that has no lung has no neck, the neck existing for the windpipe; fishes are an example.", "quote": "Therefore it is that, when there is no lung, there is also no neck. Of this condition the Fishes are an example.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book III, Part 3", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.649, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.727, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAR1yhlbNB1r0KoC-u33qhyFx4ijuYWaZ3oxCAh2w6iak", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa03-10", "key": "112608ef59044c7b", "label": "Only hairy, lunged animals have an epiglottis", "statement": "An epiglottis is found only in animals with blood that have a lung and a hairy skin; animals covered with scaly plates or feathers have none, the larynx itself closing instead.", "quote": "This part is not found in all sanguineous animals, but only in such of them as have a lung; nor in all of these, but only in such as at the same time have their skin covered with hairs, and not either with scaly plates or with feathers.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book III, Part 3", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.74, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.787, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAQf6niyFp5HLi-GM12wQO9hepcw7pdlGt7ZnupkDSyfA", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa03-11", "key": "2a4d3d86a677f1b9", "label": "Only animals with blood have viscera", "statement": "Viscera (heart, lung, liver, spleen, kidneys) are found only in animals with blood; no bloodless animal has any viscera at all.", "quote": "These are peculiar to sanguineous animals, some of which have all of them, others only a part, while no bloodless animals have any at all.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book III, Part 4", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.626, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.71, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAwbnhmJvrLh_Gh45L5aE72xjnnQ-5ZEWjMqQzfJlNs58", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa03-12", "key": "f9a90df1c0bebd82", "label": "The heart is the first part formed and at once contains blood", "statement": "In animals with blood the heart is the first of all the parts to be formed in the embryo, and it contains blood as soon as it is formed.", "quote": "For the heart is the first of all the parts to be formed; and no sooner is it formed than it contains blood.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book III, Part 4", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.712, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.78, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAODbHC5RC57KSlyh31rXx8fKxAgRMDXuvS-xVYBM860Y", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa03-13", "key": "f9ca77c244275b6f", "label": "The heart is the source of all sensation, pain and pleasure", "statement": "The motions of pain, pleasure and all sensation have their source in the heart and end there; the heart, not the head, is the primary seat of sensation.", "quote": "Moreover, the motions of pain and pleasure, and generally of all sensation, plainly have their source in the heart, and find in it their ultimate termination.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book III, Part 4", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.569, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.833, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAAoQtdjr3XmS7i-p96YCAODhVwZXmAFZjhVezqmvFRy4", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa03-14", "key": "a614bf593f2fc3ee", "label": "Only in man does the heart lie to the left of centre", "statement": "In every animal except man the heart lies in the middle of the chest; in man it inclines a little to the left, to counterbalance the coldness of that side.", "quote": "In all animals but man the heart is placed in the centre of the pectoral region; but in man it inclines a little towards the left, so that it may counterbalance the chilliness of that side.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book III, Part 4", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.71, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.767, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAfAQw_3ch4Szc-evueTCthVT4O6WQRnX0l0tDDzU-WiQ", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa03-15", "key": "5df167d4ef9be604", "label": "Only the horse and a kind of ox have a bone in the heart", "statement": "No animal has a bone in its heart except the horse and a certain kind of ox, where the large heart needs a bony support.", "quote": "In no animals does the heart contain a bone, certainly in none of those that we have ourselves inspected, with the exception of the horse and a certain kind of ox.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book III, Part 4", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.685, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.76, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RANGpk9QIwNvd77DdG04kt6dMacmqe1zjuoDtWWE9fwgE", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa03-16", "key": "0a943142e63d1418", "label": "Large animals' hearts have three cavities, smaller ones two", "statement": "In animals of great size the heart has three cavities, in smaller animals two, and in every animal at least one.", "quote": "In animals of great size the heart has three cavities; in smaller animals it has two; and in all has at least one", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book III, Part 4", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.643, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.723, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAtHp9zhZxvGia1rCH5D3oABu2bwy9PygWseakTPPwnSI", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa03-17", "key": "c3ee4a24d7aa6d23", "label": "Animals with a large heart are timid, with a small heart courageous", "statement": "An animal with a large heart is timid and one with a smaller, moderate heart is more courageous; the hare, deer, mouse, hyena, ass, leopard and marten have large hearts.", "quote": "So also when the heart is of large size the animal is timorous, while it is more courageous if the organ be smaller and of moderate bulk.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book III, Part 4", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.442, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.663, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAZZO0f1sJj7ogR2eAqh2bw5c0kb9W5ZtyNUH8Yvntn0o", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa03-18", "key": "828a608122e3cd7d", "label": "Blood is the material from which the whole body is built", "statement": "Blood is the material from which every part of the body is made, which is why nature has laid down vessels like irrigation channels throughout the whole body.", "quote": "Now just after the same fashion has nature laid down channels for the conveyance of the blood throughout the whole body, because this blood is the material out of which the whole fabric is made.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book III, Part 5", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.525, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.69, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA6BCCEqgc34JRhrMiOYo2LvWbBYSwEvWqkqyfrq96Bdg", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa03-19", "key": "81af6daed8f06407", "label": "Breathing serves to cool; fishes are cooled by water and have gills, not a lung", "statement": "Animals with blood must be cooled from outside, by air or by water; fishes are cooled by water and therefore never have a lung but have gills in its place.", "quote": "The external cooling agent must be either air or water. In fishes the agent is water. Fishes therefore never have a lung, but have gills in its place", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book III, Part 6", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.745, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.803, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RABSENrT821tDwcfeaLJR-L5H8z5UyNZgQwM1qsXLaI6Y", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa03-20", "key": "4d6cc00eff05385f", "label": "Viviparous animals have large blood-rich lungs, oviparous ones small dry lungs", "statement": "In viviparous animals the lung is large and full of blood because of their natural heat, while in egg-laying animals (oviparous quadrupeds and birds) it is small, dry and spongy but can expand greatly when inflated.", "quote": "In the vivipara it is large and rich in blood, because of their natural heat; while in the ovipara it is small and dry but capable of expanding to a vast extent when inflated.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book III, Part 6", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.616, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.71, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAnzRXA25wk-CY0rnnDo6YvClzH058OAcOlXGEtIclVLA", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa03-21", "key": "dfd9b089223c4192", "label": "Heart and liver, and only these, are found in every animal with blood", "statement": "Every animal with blood has a heart and a liver, and these are the only two viscera invariably present in all of them.", "quote": "All sanguineous animals, then, need these two parts; and this explains why these two viscera, and these two alone, are invariably found in them all.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book III, Part 7", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.762, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.81, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAFqsqW_XIb2_5di1MXV_6sOw_Y6qod1uELhLsYrxszCE", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa03-22", "key": "ecb94ca26ce8a318", "label": "Feathered and scaly animals lack a bladder, tortoises excepted", "statement": "Animals covered with feathers, scales or scaly plates have no urinary bladder, the tortoises being the only exception.", "quote": "all these animals, owing to the small amount of fluid which they imbibe, and owing also to such residue as there may be being converted into feathers and the like, are invariably without a bladder. The Tortoises, which are comprised among animals with scaly plates, form the only exception", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book III, Part 8", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.734, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.78, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAHO7Pq-VumGJ9Ph38B6wguzL_OUhS1kKwheG3lsc8TvA", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa03-23", "key": "f4014622d648768a", "label": "Feathered and scaly animals have no kidneys, tortoises excepted", "statement": "Kidneys are lacking in all animals clad with feathers, scales or scaly plates, the sea and land tortoises being the only exception; some birds have only flattened kidney-like bodies.", "quote": "For these also are wanting in all animals that are clad with feathers or with scales or with scale-like plates; the sea and land tortoises forming the only exception.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book III, Part 9", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.814, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.87, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA9gHRUE0rvWdFfMBaXwuhoQwiYWfCn57j3JKAe0FCYzQ", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa03-24", "key": "54baf9b371698abb", "label": "The right kidney always lies higher than the left", "statement": "In all animals that have kidneys, the right kidney is placed higher than the left.", "quote": "In all animals that have kidneys, that on the right is placed higher than that on the left.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book III, Part 9", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.72, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.777, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAGRVjNuC4lFsaxEY9uIXcZqYCDaArs2hRIlfPnPVOKT8", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa03-25", "key": "298adb21e557135d", "label": "Man is the only animal that laughs", "statement": "Man is the only animal that laughs, and therefore the only animal that is affected by tickling.", "quote": "That man alone is affected by tickling is due firstly to the delicacy of his skin, and secondly to his being the only animal that laughs.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book III, Part 10", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.494, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.68, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAYp7bxqIXrbpdkd_2mtKA1zyQCksBulRNm-o2Va1skVI", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa03-26", "key": "c687b368f63c7220", "label": "Viviparous animals with front teeth in both jaws have a single stomach", "statement": "The stomach is single in all viviparous animals with blood that have front teeth in both jaws, such as man, dog, lion, horse, mule, ass and pig.", "quote": "Thus the stomach is single in all such sanguineous and viviparous animals as have teeth in front of both jaws.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book III, Part 14", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.783, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.823, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAXtzis1XCpALnVfmVW4Zw8H2cho1N28Bt6o_VeQ65790", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa03-27", "key": "f9ab8ffcfa5b2a68", "label": "Horned animals have several stomachs because they lack upper front teeth", "statement": "Horned animals (sheep, ox, goat, deer and the like) have several stomachs, because they lack front teeth in the upper jaw and the stomachs make up for the imperfect chewing.", "quote": "A similar multiplicity of stomachs exists also in the horned animals; the reason being that horn-bearing animals have no front teeth in the upper jaw.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book III, Part 14", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.725, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.803, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAz9glOdlnDsFShhkiVg8UdJoA2wkXXP2PJR3u7w7DfNI", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa03-28", "key": "9ef421947a4ff0bd", "label": "The parrot-fish alone among fishes ruminates", "statement": "The Scarus (parrot-fish) apparently ruminates, though no other fish does.", "quote": "And this is probably the reason why this fish apparently ruminates, though no other fishes do so.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book III, Part 14", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.562, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.663, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAqdt1Z7YwLqeQMwzd3BUnIzPtf6CZ32f2-WFxCjQyMtI", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa03-29", "key": "d9cefa7121c84320", "label": "Rennet occurs in all multi-stomached animals and, among others, in the hare", "statement": "Rennet is found in all animals with a multiple stomach and, among single-stomached animals, in the hare.", "quote": "What is known as rennet is found in all animals that have a multiple stomach, and in the hare among animals whose stomach is single.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book III, Part 15", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.643, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.72, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAN0SSWDRcS6funynKox4QDVKRf7ZDYF50NfjT4gYuQNk", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa04-01", "key": "f7cc99dffcff0f92", "label": "Vipers and selachians produce eggs internally and bear live young", "statement": "Vipers among serpents, like the selachians (cartilaginous fishes) among fishes, first produce eggs internally and then bring forth live young.", "quote": "For both these and vipers are externally viviparous, but previously produce ova internally.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book IV, Part 1", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.827, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.863, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAuUwsgkW_3iHB06p8shdOtUQ8dz89q4s4_MbTN4hkaXE", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa04-02", "key": "68a4380236248fd9", "label": "All fishes have a gall-bladder, mostly attached to the intestine", "statement": "All fishes have a gall-bladder, and in most of them it is attached to the intestine rather than to the liver.", "quote": "For all fishes have a gall-bladder; and in most of them it is attached to the intestine", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book IV, Part 2", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.672, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.747, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAYInHvDLumyAP38g4zB0ddqJsrPTvl_pIvdWbcYCZpn4", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa04-03", "key": "18b4d5410b3eb9b9", "label": "Horse, mule, ass, deer and roe have no gall-bladder", "statement": "Some animals have no gall-bladder at all, among them the horse, mule, ass, deer and roe; the camel has only small biliary vessels, and the seal and dolphin have none.", "quote": "For in some animals there is absolutely no gall-bladder at all--in the horse, for instance, the mule, the ass, the deer, and the roe", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book IV, Part 2", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.814, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.85, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RATgSlHJOfed74zD9E3YqnxGf1G1pUYZEn9luLKg52ILU", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa04-04", "key": "3724f56b635bcf0b", "label": "Gall-bladder size in sheep and goats varies by locality", "statement": "Sheep and goats usually have a gall-bladder, but in some localities (Naxos) it is enormously large and in others (a district of Chalcis in Euboea) it is altogether absent.", "quote": "For these animals usually have a gall-bladder; but, while in some localities it is so enormously big as to appear a monstrosity, as is the case in Naxos, in others it is altogether wanting", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book IV, Part 2", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.495, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.76, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAw7mpK2GON-tZAA567N2S1twpoxrakwu7POb_CcmyIjk", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa04-05", "key": "0e7967623aae4ecb", "label": "Animals without a gall-bladder are long-lived", "statement": "Animals without a gall-bladder, such as deer, solid-hoofed animals, the camel and the dolphin, are long-lived.", "quote": "For such have no gall-bladder and live long. But besides these there are other animals that have no gall-bladder, though those old writers had not noticed the fact, such as the camel and the dolphin; and these also are, as it happens, long-lived.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book IV, Part 2", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.653, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.743, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAqtlngBlPQN893oehdkP2MSwOg6ZuxIQr5j0fYpyPN04", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa04-06", "key": "51abfde334b5c91d", "label": "All cephalopods have ink, the cuttlefish most", "statement": "All cephalopods have ink, and the cuttlefish (Sepia) has more of it than any other.", "quote": "All Cephalopoda alike have this characteristic ink, but chief of all the Sepia, where it is more abundant than in the rest.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book IV, Part 5", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.649, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.757, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAwFrTzJtOlsoQrLVex_I20YUmW8rEOT75RFDHxMn-JC4", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa04-07", "key": "20f7111381f06c80", "label": "Crayfish and some crabs have a second set of teeth in the stomach", "statement": "In the Carabi (spiny lobsters and the like) and some crabs the stomach has a second set of teeth, because the front teeth are not enough to chew the food properly.", "quote": "and then a stomach, which in the Carabi and some of the Crabs is furnished with a second set of teeth, the anterior teeth being insufficient for adequate mastication.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book IV, Part 5", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.693, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.78, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAKGEzWAy7leLnJi7qsklL8DyDb_2_SCOVlVctafrZ2AU", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa04-08", "key": "93187560138d4eb2", "label": "Sea-urchin 'eggs' grow largest at full moon", "statement": "The so-called eggs of sea-urchins become larger than usual at the time of the full moon, because the nights are then warmer from the moonlight, not because the urchins eat more.", "quote": "yet they acquire a greater size than usual at the time of full moon; not, as some think, because sea-urchins eat more at that season, but because the nights are then warmer, owing to the moonlight.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book IV, Part 5", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.481, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.717, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAtNhPHnFUbMGMH6JarR3aT4tpt-630wsAXE8e5s2l_yg", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa04-09", "key": "60c20ab4031f67d2", "label": "Every sea-urchin has five 'eggs', five teeth and five stomachs", "statement": "The number of so-called eggs is the same in all sea-urchins and is odd: five, matching their five teeth and five stomach compartments.", "quote": "The number of the ova is the same in all sea-urchins, and is an odd one. For there are five ova, just as there are also five teeth and five stomachs", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book IV, Part 5", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.778, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.823, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAA5c9kyXhcN9t6evD_aIQmh14B18mjgzZqUqyvey_Pgc", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa04-10", "key": "57357e4149985960", "label": "Nature passes from lifeless things to animals by unbroken gradation", "statement": "Nature passes from lifeless things to animals in an unbroken sequence, with living things that are not animals between them, so that neighbouring groups scarcely differ.", "quote": "For nature passes from lifeless objects to animals in such unbroken sequence, interposing between them beings which live and yet are not animals, that scarcely any difference seems to exist between two neighbouring groups owing to their close proximity.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book IV, Part 5", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.236, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.807, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA8nNdbas9R6Xsc97HUOM6rQaCf1Lyd3vrkEVC2R9wPfU", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa04-11", "key": "a1d07dc7194c71ad", "label": "Cicadas live on moisture deposited from the air", "statement": "Cicadas find enough to live on in the moisture deposited from the air, insects in general being small eaters because of their cold nature.", "quote": "In no insects is this so conspicuous as in these Cicadae. For they find enough to live on in the moisture which is deposited from the air.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book IV, Part 5", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.652, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.757, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAIdYvIrUlqlhadi9ICZtPQAUHiZYLp1Dgfu3sPAyLo0E", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa04-12", "key": "7aaa5b8f65267937", "label": "Very small flying insects have only two wings", "statement": "Flying insects that are very small have only two wings, as flies do, while larger ones such as bees have four.", "quote": "When, however, such insects are of very small bulk, their feathers are reduced to two, as is the case with flies.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book IV, Part 6", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.693, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.78, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RARH5kp833u43l2773qIWxFK1r6ZGll2M7KKZDi9TynAk", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa04-13", "key": "12db82c219849848", "label": "In crabs and spiny lobsters the right claw is always the larger", "statement": "In the Carabi (spiny lobsters and crayfish) and in crabs the right claw is invariably the larger and stronger; only in the lobster is it a matter of chance which claw is larger.", "quote": "In the Carabi and in the Crabs the right claw is invariably the larger and the stronger.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book IV, Part 8", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.646, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.737, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA8CT-c7xtzD5LUg6jueTH5YFOkX-vdkNTSXoQikiO1GA", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa04-14", "key": "bb26f3aa91092b0b", "label": "All cephalopods have eight feet, short in cuttlefish and squid, long in octopus", "statement": "All cephalopods have eight feet, which are short in cuttlefish and squid and longer in the octopus.", "quote": "Again, though the number of feet is the same in all the Cephalopoda, namely eight, their length varies in different kinds, being short in the Sepias and the Calamaries, but greater in the Poulps.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book IV, Part 9", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.808, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.863, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAVhYigW7YRhOIQJ7HVdWm_EfAkep7sHdu4ahEtT1PtrY", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa04-15", "key": "f2fc20aa23635708", "label": "Wolves and lions have a neck made of a single bone", "statement": "In all other animals the neck is flexible and has several vertebrae, but in wolves and lions it consists of a single bone.", "quote": "In all other animals this neck is flexible and contains several vertebrae; but in wolves and lions it contains only a single bone.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book IV, Part 10", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.889, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.903, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA-4L5PeBn_T1uyW7cU7AGuly5lzoK9E-LGKGlsomZDMA", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa04-16", "key": "aba9ba078d67c7e2", "label": "Foals are nearly as tall as grown horses, with relatively long legs", "statement": "In solid- and cloven-hoofed quadrupeds the lower parts are largest in youth, so that foals are scarcely shorter than full-grown horses and can touch their heads with their hind legs, which adults cannot.", "quote": "Thus it is that colts are scarcely, if at all, below full-grown horses in height; and that while still young they can touch their heads with the hind legs, though this is no longer possible when they are older.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book IV, Part 10", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.627, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.733, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA44WAzBINkj8-G2dpHxmTZ9U1WsCWlyGz0ClQ453ENkQ", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa04-17", "key": "2a18352a4209cc5f", "label": "Man has hands because he is intelligent, not intelligent because he has hands", "statement": "Man does not owe his superior intelligence to his hands, as Anaxagoras held; he has hands because he is the most intelligent animal, nature giving each organ to the animal that can use it.", "quote": "we must conclude that man does not owe his superior intelligence to his hands, but his hands to his superior intelligence.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book IV, Part 10", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.168, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.87, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAv5VPnt98KYsEYfBv_rNvNX764jUBrPmNei8bbP9XwFQ", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa04-18", "key": "3036bb71f1d13498", "label": "Wolves, lions, dogs and leopards have five front toes and four hind", "statement": "Some polydactylous quadrupeds, such as wolves, lions, dogs and leopards, have five digits on each forefoot but only four on each hind foot.", "quote": "It is this hand-like office of the anterior limbs which explains why in some of the polydactylous quadrupeds, such as wolves, lions, dogs, and leopards, there are actually five digits on each forefoot, though there are only four on each hind one.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book IV, Part 10", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.862, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.903, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RACP6rus2Nfiudk5EFfpNQitypkRlCEen5V6JAyLfQr5g", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa04-19", "key": "efdc717783db48d5", "label": "Mammae: two at the thighs in animals with few young, many on the belly in litter-bearers", "statement": "Animals that bear few young at a time, whether horned or solid-hoofed, have two mammae in the region of the thighs, while litter-bearing or polydactylous animals have numerous teats along the belly or two in the middle of the abdomen.", "quote": "Thus in such animals as produce but few at a birth, whether horned quadrupeds or those with solid hoofs, the mammae are placed in the region of the thighs, and are two in number, while in such as produce litters, or such as are polydactylous, the dugs are either numerous and placed laterally on the belly, as in swine and dogs", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book IV, Part 10", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.68, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.77, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAIIBSWgj70kPYUiAYCKSrDZjJi0EvSHvje7yxfGXt5mY", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa04-20", "key": "57fc419d241e9678", "label": "All female quadrupeds urinate backwards; only a few males do", "statement": "All female quadrupeds urinate backwards, while among males only a few do so, such as the lynx, lion, camel and hare; no solid-hoofed quadruped urinates backwards.", "quote": "All female quadrupeds void their urine backwards, because the position of the parts which this implies is useful to them in the act of copulation. This is the case with only some few males, such as the lynx, the lion, the camel, and the hare.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book IV, Part 10", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.507, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.687, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAgz4JOXfbqJgasRQomZpqtwIWo57Gx0RXgigSNfQP3PA", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa04-21", "key": "07042a31a80a3142", "label": "Man alone lacks a tail and alone has buttocks", "statement": "Man has no tail but has buttocks, which no quadruped has; the nourishment that would go to a tail goes to the buttocks and fleshy legs that upright posture requires.", "quote": "But man is tail-less. He has, however, buttocks, which exist in none of the quadrupeds.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book IV, Part 10", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.669, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.78, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAl6wZJg3K0qJMCgde0BrKksAEQBHxS3o8vyPPhAbLSqA", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa04-22", "key": "96e73629f59d0035", "label": "Huckle-bones occur mostly in cloven-hoofed animals, never in many-toed ones", "statement": "No polydactylous quadruped has a huckle-bone (astragalus), solid-hoofed animals as a rule lack one, and most animals that have one are cloven-hoofed.", "quote": "As to the polydactylous quadrupeds, none of them have huckle-bones. For if they had they would not be polydactylous, but the divisions of the foot would only extend to that amount of its breadth which was covered by the huckle-bone. Thus it is that most of the animals that have huckle-bones are cloven-hoofed.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book IV, Part 10", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.804, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.83, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAbB8OeNWlGvTM3uw3OZUY2b6rxTo9nCeSF9c7Xzu7QjA", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa04-23", "key": "488908a91d8d5715", "label": "The river crocodile alone among these animals has no tongue", "statement": "All oviparous quadrupeds and serpents have a tongue in the mouth except the river crocodile, which has only a space where a tongue would be.", "quote": "and in all, with the single exception of the river crocodile, there is a tongue inside the mouth.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book IV, Part 11", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.867, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.887, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA1eQ856GVh75fIaep6ugsQ0_OKrwVZJnlM-Af9JU1gSI", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa04-24", "key": "2350f87a9c0e2c91", "label": "Oviparous quadrupeds have no upper eyelid and close the eye with the lower", "statement": "Oviparous quadrupeds have no upper eyelid and close the eye with the lower lid, as birds do.", "quote": "These animals have no upper eyelid, but close the eye with the lower lid In this they resemble birds", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book IV, Part 11", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.8, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.827, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAjcw4Yb1_hGQ9ZVmEEN0dicMUd76ZS2T5Ipd1yuZL9vc", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa04-25", "key": "3f33614100ea9aed", "label": "The crocodile moves its upper jaw rather than its lower", "statement": "In all other animals it is the lower jaw that moves, but in the river crocodile it is the upper jaw.", "quote": "While in all other animals it is the lower jaw that is movable, in the river crocodile it is exceptionally the upper.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book IV, Part 11", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.808, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.843, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAhb2mAI7o_kglxyflrx_EhFDcmxvU2179TCJgkf0p1uk", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa04-26", "key": "bf2a7833c2680e8c", "label": "No animal that is not internally viviparous has milk or mammae", "statement": "No animal that is not internally viviparous has milk or mammae, so birds, fishes, oviparous quadrupeds and serpents have none; in them the nourishment corresponding to milk is formed in the egg.", "quote": "This absence of milk is not peculiar to these animals, but is common to all such as are not internally viviparous.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book IV, Part 11", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.81, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.857, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAifPro4CZjjjUnAgdUjIh1mmO6uTxaP3zyGfO_ZDjjfo", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa04-27", "key": "2cbadf354789a5ad", "label": "Long-legged birds have long necks, except web-footed birds", "statement": "In birds the length of the neck as a rule follows that of the legs, long-legged birds having long necks and short-legged birds short ones, with web-footed birds as the exception.", "quote": "For long-legged birds have a long neck, short-legged birds a short one, to which rule, however, the web-footed birds form an exception.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book IV, Part 12", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.763, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.82, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAC09is5JdKZv0ag5Hdqu_sZl7a0TAdWjcecXiDjWuA_s", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa04-28", "key": "2c0f10371dcc42b4", "label": "Spurs and talons never co-occur in the same bird", "statement": "No bird has both spurs and talons; spurs belong to heavy ground birds and talons to birds of prey.", "quote": "Spurs and talons never co-exist in the same bird. For nature never makes anything superfluous", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book IV, Part 12", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.736, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.79, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RATQS4alKwiBJ6wPe96trKIKpLXOosViyEyMyBOp8q-WQ", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa04-29", "key": "e11c3f53548ede03", "label": "All birds have four toes", "statement": "All birds, web-footed or not, have four toes on each foot, three in front and one behind (the Libyan ostrich set aside).", "quote": "In all birds alike, whether web-footed or not, the number of toes in each foot is four.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book IV, Part 12", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.839, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.873, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAo0RGsYPud_Kzh9n9Ppi4P0hFkJ2z2Ol4ttKjTJNe8XA", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa04-30", "key": "6950a2b680100c33", "label": "Only the wryneck has two toes in front and two behind", "statement": "The wryneck is the only bird whose toes are arranged two in front and two behind; all other birds have three in front and one behind.", "quote": "The arrangement of the toes is such as has been described in all birds with the exception of the wryneck. Here only two of the toes are in front, the other two behind", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book IV, Part 12", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.849, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.877, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAxOYhcb4-iw8wk5cmrrxNCx-ynZ54-7CbWIrkGnEGVig", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa04-31", "key": "fd5b9e0c7c5da1d5", "label": "Fishes have at most four fins", "statement": "Fishes that are not broad and flat have four fins, two above and two below, and no fish ever has more than four.", "quote": "Fishes, unless, like the Batos and the Trygon, they are broad and flat, have four fins, two on the upper and two on the under side of the body; and no fish ever has more than these.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book IV, Part 13", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.852, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.873, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAQ6Ee84KRFZk93TBnS0M76cPbS9nup2q1VM3xcKhWgkM", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa04-32", "key": "21488c52eb9ab84c", "label": "Selachians lack gill covers because their skeleton is cartilage", "statement": "In most fishes the gills are covered by opercula, but selachians (cartilaginous fishes) have none, because their skeleton is cartilaginous.", "quote": "These gills are in most fishes covered by opercula, but in the Selachia, owing to the skeleton being cartilaginous, there are no such coverings.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book IV, Part 13", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.787, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.843, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAiw0wK-pJzdzJIQT1A5TfNXzOyxSBXHrqKGzLIRepGcM", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa04-33", "key": "bb31a468ef45d0e5", "label": "Selachians and the dolphin have an underslung mouth and turn on the back to feed", "statement": "In the dolphin and the selachians the mouth is on the underside, so they turn onto their backs to take their food.", "quote": "while in others, as the dolphin and the Selachia, it is placed on the under surface; so that these fishes turn on the back in order to take their food.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book IV, Part 13", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.687, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.783, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RATCIY4WxURiri7hOdF8hab3klMOCZ-Pwl917AWwQkwz8", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa04-34", "key": "28bf793d81e94d71", "label": "No fish and no footless animal has testicles", "statement": "No fish has testicles, either external or internal, and neither does any footless animal, including the serpents.", "quote": "No fish has testicles either externally or internally; as indeed have no apodous animals, among which of course are included the serpents.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book IV, Part 13", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.786, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.84, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAYXqOrCdaLAsL3Z7Nm2b-G8qm2atodE1DjLaOJ7z2FiU", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-pa04-35", "key": "f7cbe45886a2918a", "label": "The cetacean blow-hole serves to discharge sea-water taken in by the mouth", "statement": "Dolphins, whales and other cetaceans have no gills but have a lung, and their blow-hole serves to discharge the sea-water taken into the mouth while feeding.", "quote": "But dolphins and whales and all such Cetacea are without gills; and, having a lung, are provided with a blow-hole; for this serves them to discharge the sea-water which has been taken into the mouth.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Parts of Animals", "chapter": "On the Parts of Animals, Book IV, Part 13", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.81, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.84, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAhNy8xFXb1G7iS2baJJYTdLn2eB9fJS98TvfDA9WZq_g", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga01-01", "key": "679cfe41784ec7cb", "label": "Nature avoids the infinite and always seeks an end", "statement": "Nature avoids the infinite, because the infinite is unending and imperfect, and Nature always seeks an end; so spontaneously generated creatures cannot breed an endless series of new kinds.", "quote": "But Nature flies from the infinite, for the infinite is unending or imperfect, and Nature ever seeks an end.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book I, Part 1", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.04, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.89, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAfjp3xRUFRqJHCZknddvUOZNPMTbA-VBhha45Gvpcjpc", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga01-02", "key": "b8a61737324b29c7", "label": "Stationary testaceans and attached animals have no sexes", "statement": "Animals that do not move about, such as testaceans (shelled molluscs and the like) and animals that live clinging to something, have no sexes, any more than plants do.", "quote": "But all those creatures which do not move, as the testacea and animals that live by clinging to something else, inasmuch as their nature resembles that of plants, have no sex any more than plants have", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book I, Part 1", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.686, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.777, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAIw-G8bTpwJ1iwLzF9lIahfHYLOiSzEwFr4QE31fLNwk", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga01-03", "key": "ee620723252307ef", "label": "The male supplies the efficient cause of generation, the female the material", "statement": "The male and female are the first principles of generation: the male supplies the efficient (moving) cause and the female supplies the material.", "quote": "the male and female principles may be put down first and foremost as origins of generation, the former as containing the efficient cause of generation, the latter the material of it.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book I, Part 2", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.242, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.82, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAF8e3pikJkHvCBeoEzVdjBwSZn57nqFxEEX95yf4B6pg", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga01-04", "key": "76248be97cbf6446", "label": "Castration changes nearly the whole form of a male toward the female", "statement": "When a male animal is castrated, although only the generative part is disabled, nearly its whole form changes so that it seems female or close to it.", "quote": "This is plain in the case of castrated animals, for, though only the generative part is disabled, yet pretty well the whole form of the animal changes in consequence so much that it seems to be female or not far short of it", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book I, Part 2", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.634, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.733, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAvWe12niEMxMMMC9hF4EWBF_3MA-oKEaFaXHeN1SitV0", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga01-05", "key": "b3248b9b051923dc", "label": "Fishes and serpents have no testes, only two spermatic ducts", "statement": "Fishes and serpents have no testes at all, only two spermatic ducts.", "quote": "some of them have not testes at all, as the classes of fish and of serpents, but only two spermatic ducts.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book I, Part 3", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.78, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.823, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAyTZ-b6_zH3bKspKleUESUzm53Npli6J9IjDK5Y_2mhQ", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga01-06", "key": "7c48f99fa12d5c82", "label": "Birds and oviparous quadrupeds have internal testes near the loin", "statement": "All birds and all oviparous quadrupeds (lizards, tortoises and other scaly reptiles) have their testes inside the body near the loin, by the kidneys.", "quote": "this applies (among animals breathing air and having a lung) to all birds and oviparous quadrupeds. For all these have their testes internal near the loin", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book I, Part 3", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.804, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.83, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA_AVbQL2NuTcq_hnJIIsX-do1W5wde37WuYtsEkAV6KQ", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga01-07", "key": "2203a294fdf9d5b4", "label": "The uterus is always double", "statement": "The uterus is always double, just as the testes of the male are always two.", "quote": "The uterus is always double, just as the testes are always two in the male.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book I, Part 3", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.593, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.697, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAlCOmfaJGJJ7U4VcDcIDg9xgaHh9fxQLOHhobQeZUCEw", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga01-08", "key": "0de7aa94c1604d68", "label": "Animals with only ducts or internal testes copulate more quickly", "statement": "Animals that have no testes but only ducts, or that have internal testes, are all quicker in accomplishing copulation than animals with external testes.", "quote": "so those which have not testes but only ducts, or which have them indeed but internally, are all quicker in accomplishing copulation.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book I, Part 4", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.502, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.717, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA6OuzL0pCJGMUNjtQrUz-NW1KUPA0ohFm1bsolYCZzeo", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga01-09", "key": "011882ef8341a061", "label": "Seasonally breeding birds' testes swell in the breeding season and shrink after", "statement": "Birds' testes are much enlarged at the time of copulation, and in birds that pair at one season of the year they become so small afterwards as to be almost indiscernible.", "quote": "for their testes are much enlarged at the time of copulation, and all those which pair at one season of the year have them so small when this is past that they are almost indiscernible", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book I, Part 4", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.76, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.813, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAr9U-G0tGRvB3oWstkepPk3GvLkJJD61QlQrSu7BXgC4", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga01-10", "key": "d508e969eaf2f801", "label": "Hedgehogs copulate standing upright because of their spines", "statement": "Hedgehogs do not mount the female from behind like other quadrupeds but copulate standing upright, because of their spines.", "quote": "for the hedgehog does not, like the other quadrupeds, mount upon the back of the female, but they conjugate standing upright because of their spines.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book I, Part 5", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.624, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.723, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAz0GbWp7v95gOK6rKcn93aw3AciEy1nblaeMYFobDSlk", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga01-11", "key": "57e84955e963f383", "label": "Cartilaginous fishes and vipers bear live young from eggs formed inside", "statement": "Cartilaginous fishes and vipers first produce eggs internally and then bring forth their young alive.", "quote": "But the cartilaginous fish and the vipers produce their young alive externally, but first produce eggs internally.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book I, Part 10", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.828, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.85, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAQH2ZGg9Zq6YwlJFeZJEZ0sVlamiLzhGSI0G-SILIc30", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga01-12", "key": "ce05093bdcd2ae07", "label": "Ovoviviparous animals keep their eggs inside because they are cold", "statement": "Cartilaginous fishes and vipers do not lay their eggs outside because they are of a cold nature, which leaves the egg-shell soft and unprotected.", "quote": "It is because they are of a cold nature, not hot as some assert, that they do not lay their eggs externally.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book I, Part 10", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.56, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.7, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAMZSvpQTKFVpc0ut06LaWbD0SmyKlPg-D6X0by28Ejcc", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga01-13", "key": "ac347cd222e7f756", "label": "Elephant and hedgehog have internal testes because their skin is unsuitable", "statement": "The testes are internal in the elephant and the hedgehog, because their skin is not suited to form a separate protective covering (scrotum) for them.", "quote": "For the same reason they are internal in the elephant and hedgehog, for the skin of these, too, is not well suited to keep the protective part separate.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book I, Part 12", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.613, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.71, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RABpRWlF4oOTEE_TkpnQDOM2OzgQYmuxIfgBye3aJtBSI", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga01-14", "key": "5b711af1324a28be", "label": "Cephalopods copulate mouth to mouth with arms entwined", "statement": "Cephalopods copulate by entwining at the mouth, pushing against one another and enfolding their arms.", "quote": "The cephalopoda entwine together at the mouth, pushing against one another and enfolding their arms.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book I, Part 15", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.708, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.777, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAuTtsPARF7ekgrZ_jW0ToQeoeZgqkZNUyfNrBKL8Ycb0", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga01-15", "key": "1acdf05d68dc94de", "label": "The octopus arm inserted in the female's funnel is not a generative organ", "statement": "The arm that the male octopus inserts into the female's funnel serves only for attachment and is not an organ useful for generation, being outside the male's seminal passage.", "quote": "is only for the sake of attachment, and it is not an organ useful for generation, for it is outside the passage in the male and indeed outside the body of the male altogether.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book I, Part 15", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.81, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.843, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA8XDcy_EFXEtCk_KdGE_m2boQ2B-LbwV9iQlyCS6ZQ90", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga01-16", "key": "a4decee8f17ccef0", "label": "Fleas, flies and cantharides arise from putrefying matter", "statement": "Some insects, such as fleas, flies and cantharides, do not come from parents but from putrefying matter, and although they unite and generate, they produce only a scolex (larva), not a creature of their own kind.", "quote": "these insects do not come into being from animals but from putrefying matter, liquid or solid; such are fleas, flies, and cantharides.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book I, Part 16", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.794, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.86, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAOtpJIOn5hHFY7sPDmjA9YgJ3VYC235zLAQywIDsTT-I", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga01-17", "key": "06605334a0a2c8cd", "label": "In most mating insects the female is larger than the male", "statement": "In most insects that copulate, the female is larger than the male.", "quote": "In most of those which unite the female is larger than the male.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book I, Part 16", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.661, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.743, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAEOgFCjcArUUVPNDtH5gqqrS0umJUNy_zTCV44eN4isk", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga01-18", "key": "74c6fca3ab749448", "label": "In most insects the female inserts a part into the male", "statement": "In most insects the male does not insert any part into the female; instead the female inserts a part of herself from below upwards into the male.", "quote": "In most cases the male does not insert any part into the female, but the female from below upwards into the male", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book I, Part 16", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.58, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.727, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAlbowSZ4e1VlyapvmctUkhR_A4xUCivDDtrFCpfDSq-U", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga01-19", "key": "31a0e636d00921e0", "label": "Resemblances to ancestors can skip generations", "statement": "Children may resemble remote ancestors from whom nothing has come to them, since resemblances recur after an interval of generations.", "quote": "Further, children are like their more remote ancestors from whom nothing has come, for the resemblances recur at an interval of many generations", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book I, Part 18", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.691, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.74, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAy5RKsP_4JoAywcS6Z_Qsv_QOEU2DTeTdJx1ASH-nWcc", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga01-20", "key": "31ff7a1615b8ca6c", "label": "Mutilated parents do not always have mutilated young", "statement": "The young of mutilated parents are not always mutilated, just as young are not always like their parents.", "quote": "And the young of mutilated parents are not always mutilated, just as they are not always like their parents", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book I, Part 18", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.728, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.777, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAMZlAQhAlKMWkCosr_vayspCCSd4EtomfjlYQhkAeXnA", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga01-21", "key": "f61362fec8f3e547", "label": "Semen does not come from all parts of the body", "statement": "Semen is not drawn from every part of the parent's body, contrary to those who explain inheritance that way.", "quote": "Into this we must next inquire, since it is plain that the semen is not secreted from all the parts.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book I, Part 18", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.656, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.777, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAbWHG3Bgqj7tW30eKURD1UNPOtbE2UtfmuZXZaa0Xf60", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga01-22", "key": "7aad80c3eb0e6c5d", "label": "Large animals have few young, small animals many", "statement": "Large animals have few young and small animals have many.", "quote": "A further proof that it is not a waste-product, but rather a secretion, is the fact that the large animals have few young, the small many.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book I, Part 18", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.816, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.87, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAn3_iYBW68QU3mNCZwlYwh3Gwk-yFrIgT2l0LUNoK4bM", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga01-23", "key": "d7303acc46bfae73", "label": "Humans gain half their adult height in about the first five years", "statement": "In human beings the body gains in about the first five years half the height that it gains in all the rest of life.", "quote": "for in about five years, in the case of human beings at any rate, the body seems to gain half the height that is gained in all the rest of life.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book I, Part 18", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.897, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.897, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAU6KYcqfe2LPjb6sNsLUR0Bbupw_0-7zAmB-E5t44YqY", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga01-24", "key": "616004f5d9b3e51c", "label": "Fat people are less fertile because the secretion turns to fat", "statement": "Fat people, women as well as men, are less fertile than others, because in the well-nourished the secretion being concocted turns to fat instead of semen.", "quote": "And fat people, women as well as men, appear to be less fertile than others from the fact that the secretion when in process of concoction turns to fat with those who are too well-nourished.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book I, Part 18", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.628, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.733, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RARL2YrnUeRXemb6BwzrkAEuLvyIe_p8-JpSz8ifXPqj4", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga01-25", "key": "4addeecefff5de26", "label": "Semen is a secretion of useful nutriment in its last stage", "statement": "Semen is a secretion (residue) of useful nutriment in its final stage, not a waste-product of the body.", "quote": "From what has been said, it is clear that semen is a secretion of useful nutriment, and that in its last stage, whether it is produced by all or no.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book I, Part 18", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.446, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.71, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAVOeaIPCRddWVPVB-bZHuP2WpBcK6z7TLx35fTsI7YhA", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga01-26", "key": "08bbd64b22abdec6", "label": "Semen and menstruation begin at the same age", "statement": "Semen begins to appear in males at the same time of life as the menstrual flow begins in females, together with the change of voice and the development of the breasts.", "quote": "For the semen begins to appear in males and to be emitted at the same time of life that the catamenia begin to flow in females", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book I, Part 19", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.757, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.79, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAIqCFxrc1UMl_rSXqTEfZG3C2Sb8P753EJVYsnwp_7iQ", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga01-27", "key": "fabde0758987e8f7", "label": "Among viviparous animals females are smaller because of menstruation", "statement": "Among the viviparous animals females are smaller than males, because the secretion that would build the body is discharged as menstrual fluid, and this is the only class that menstruates.", "quote": "the same cause accounts for the fact that the bulk of the body is smaller in females than in males among the vivipara, since this is the only class in which the catamenia are discharged from the body.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book I, Part 19", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.704, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.793, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RArOlN7tR5zs84ICrM8yC4jN3lJl7dsE75VdB-Zkra3VU", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga01-28", "key": "98093b744bf55389", "label": "The female is a kind of impotent male, unable to concoct semen", "statement": "The female is, as it were, an impotent male: she is female through an incapacity to concoct the final nutriment into semen.", "quote": "the woman is as it were an impotent male, for it is through a certain incapacity that the female is female, being incapable of concocting the nutriment in its last stage into semen", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book I, Part 20", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.156, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.883, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAll6YS13i3JY68aHcdz-G7451i_Y5ICoCRgsc4bDXpPM", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga01-29", "key": "86e1664d11c92917", "label": "All directly viviparous animals menstruate, though less than women", "statement": "All animals that are viviparous without first producing eggs (man and the viviparous quadrupeds) have a menstrual discharge, unless defective like the mule, though the discharge is not as abundant as in women.", "quote": "all these have the catamenia, unless they are defective in development as the mule, only the efflux is not abundant as in women.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book I, Part 20", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.735, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.803, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA2gXLMGUDSwCXOodtCUu5wToBQN8_bxqEMC2rgtGvV9o", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga01-30", "key": "4974a06908347fcb", "label": "Menstruation usually begins when the breasts have risen two fingers' breadth", "statement": "Menstruation generally begins in girls when the breasts have risen two fingers' breadth.", "quote": "for it is when they have risen two fingers’ breadth that the catamenia generally begin.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book I, Part 20", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.603, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.723, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA9QnRhcsI-lOasotH7Q0iqTVUWoUf_96ZkCtrqVmBJKo", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga01-31", "key": "2bc434c4d1abe325", "label": "Nothing material from the male need enter the embryo; he imparts motion and form", "statement": "Nothing material from the male needs to become part of the embryo; what comes from him acts only by imparting motion and form, as the medical art cures a patient.", "quote": "It is plain then that it is not necessary that anything at all should come away from the male, and if anything does come away it does not follow that this gives rise to the embryo as being in the embryo, but only as that which imparts the motion and as the form", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book I, Part 21", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.604, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.897, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAkT7wENT3k-054NFFgmap73W-FbGHYNz2TPnfl1kbxek", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga01-32", "key": "abb5ce0f5b5bcf08", "label": "A hen producing wind-eggs can be made fertile by treading while the egg is yellow", "statement": "If a hen producing wind-eggs is trodden by a cock before the egg has begun to whiten, while it is still all yolk, the eggs become fertile instead of wind-eggs.", "quote": "For if a hen-bird is in process of producing wind-eggs and is then trodden by the cock before the egg has begun to whiten and while it is all still yellow, then they become fertile instead of being wind-eggs.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book I, Part 21", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.557, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.697, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAgzVpkfkAQKZz8TVi5QLcabRaJpPcArc62XWSPWhVjdc", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga01-33", "key": "793508773961877a", "label": "A hen trodden by a second cock while the egg is yellow bears chicks like the second", "statement": "If a hen is trodden by a second cock while her eggs are still yolk, the whole brood of chicks turns out like the second cock.", "quote": "And if while it is still yellow she be trodden by another cock, the whole brood of chicks turn out like the second cock.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book I, Part 21", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.601, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.723, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAvFWkW4OydRPbimEKp2mJf2xvg13MmhBCaiYdga1T4nU", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga01-34", "key": "529ef4ff121d90c4", "label": "In oviparous fishes only the eggs reached by the milt are fertilized", "statement": "In oviparous fishes the male sprinkles milt over the eggs after they are laid, and only the eggs the milt reaches are fertilized.", "quote": "When the female has laid her eggs, the male spinkles the milt over them, and those eggs are fertilized which it reaches, but not the others", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book I, Part 21", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.825, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.857, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAehIcqAFrfWOwjQDump8XZHq_sVSnZLEppy4WxDiL-RU", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga01-35", "key": "992930ec7ff00b85", "label": "In all animals that move about the sexes are separate", "statement": "In all animals that can move about, the sexes are separate, one individual male and another female of the same species, whereas in plants they are combined.", "quote": "In all animals which can move about, the sexes are separated, one individual being male and one female, though both are the same in species, as with man and horse.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book I, Part 23", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.793, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.853, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAHsdxjqFYYj3B2bGlJBFlstG4jU6enq5WVaCNtIReCaw", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga02-01", "key": "db1f0fee22264abc", "label": "Generation makes kinds eternal as species, not as individuals", "statement": "Animals generate because a living thing cannot be eternal as an individual but can be eternal as a species, which is why there is always a race of men, animals and plants.", "quote": "Now it is impossible for it to be eternal as an individual (though of course the real essence of things is in the individual)— were it such it would be eternal — but it is possible for it as a species.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book II", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.122, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.867, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAvOaq6466z7xSv9Vv26nXLqCIVVJXLsjLlQCyK3VkJ0k", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga02-02", "key": "d2af5add8f93cb60", "label": "Animals with blood are larger than bloodless ones, and mobile larger than fixed", "statement": "Taken generally, animals with blood are larger than bloodless animals, and animals that move about are larger than those that stay fixed.", "quote": "Therefore, taking a general view, we may say that sanguinea are of greater size than bloodless animals, and those which move about than those which remain fixed.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book II", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.721, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.77, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAMDgJ-7Mb4cigdkz10VSMNUCh_e1XXKdekxA9V1KS88Y", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga02-03", "key": "6107dd03b816abf6", "label": "Eggs of fishes, crustaceans and cephalopods grow after being laid", "statement": "The eggs of birds and oviparous reptiles are complete when laid and do not grow, whereas the eggs of fishes, crustaceans and cephalopods are imperfect and increase in size after being laid.", "quote": "The eggs of others are imperfect; such are those of fishes, crustaceans, and cephalopods, for their eggs increase after being produced.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book II", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.682, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.76, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAuxEnrI0GPQxMFONpxVhSwjA8pWn5ShVlsMQGzjS35S0", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga02-04", "key": "506b97ecc3cbb2b7", "label": "All viviparous animals have blood", "statement": "All viviparous animals have blood, and animals with blood are either viviparous or oviparous unless altogether infertile.", "quote": "All the vivipara are sanguineous, and the sanguinea are either viviparous or oviparous, except those which are altogether infertile.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book II", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.731, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.78, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAjyWZ1u8NkDy3jX50CYBJ9KpMYQ4lNh71gP-9HkpeLuI", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga02-05", "key": "eea7687d04a9641d", "label": "Only air-breathing animals are internally viviparous", "statement": "No animal is internally viviparous unless it takes in and breathes out air.", "quote": "for nothing is internally viviparous unless it receive and breathe out air.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book II", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.803, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.843, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAtIx-jWJ3lL0EiERvcW6y7sci7WFn7hg9MiKe50RlDgA", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga02-06", "key": "1ecb031fa6d1395b", "label": "Animals with lungs are hotter than animals without", "statement": "Animals with a lung are generally hotter than those without, and among them those whose lung is soft and full of blood are hottest.", "quote": "for generally those animals which have a lung are hotter than those which have not", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book II", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.527, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.683, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAL7G_qCWwgHuks9lStoHMoVq5CWYfAlvbrB4lxyEVRvk", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga02-07", "key": "f35c2a352455ed2a", "label": "Heat and dryness explain why birds and reptiles lay complete eggs", "statement": "Birds and scaly reptiles lay a complete egg because they are hot, but only an egg rather than live young because they are dry; the reproductive mode follows from an animal's heat and moisture.", "quote": "For birds and scaly reptiles because of their heat produce a perfect egg, but because of their dryness it is only an egg", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book II", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.403, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.69, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RApKDHuvSl-Baufa08KKsIzwKZem4OL6adYVGFkNh4oSM", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga02-08", "key": "38ef793fcdc4bba1", "label": "All insects produce a scolex and all insects are bloodless", "statement": "All insects produce a scolex (larva), all insects are bloodless, and so every animal that produces a scolex is bloodless.", "quote": "All insects produce a scolex. Now all the insects are bloodless, wherefore all creatures that produce a scolex from themselves are so.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book II", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.589, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.707, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RArnwBTgdBBnrd0kampw43gnXc3bcMY7jiiRVmzA2lTeA", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga02-09", "key": "8246d2d943f7b201", "label": "Nature orders generation in a graded series by heat and perfection", "statement": "Nature orders generation in a regular gradation: the hottest and most perfect animals bear live young internally, then come those viviparous after internal eggs, then those laying perfect eggs, then those laying imperfect eggs, and coldest of all those producing a scolex.", "quote": "We must observe how rightly Nature orders generation in regular gradation. The more perfect and hotter animals produce their young perfect in respect of quality", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book II", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.224, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.77, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RASbqDswyB8cqm5abGHlrAOrroy0m5C7IJttjI5JHn0to", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga02-10", "key": "1370cecaa3bd0c19", "label": "Embryonic parts form in succession, not all together", "statement": "The parts of an embryo do not all exist from the start; some are visible in the embryo while others are not yet formed, so they come into being in succession.", "quote": "That the former is not the fact is plain even to the senses, for some of the parts are clearly visible as already existing in the embryo while others are not", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book II", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.788, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.847, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAm_bnP3hJ96pRk9kPHXlnZYk7rtbo7dxApa7yZQ1hfSA", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga02-11", "key": "ff9a101102b750a3", "label": "The lung appears later than the heart in development though larger", "statement": "In development the lung appears later than the heart, even though it is larger, so late appearance is not due to small size.", "quote": "for the lung is of greater size than the heart, and yet appears later than the heart in the original development.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book II", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.733, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.78, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAjUxLaWaxk3gPsgrVtfQSJfQLofLGfi646_WUJ50jwXU", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga02-12", "key": "c57997ff8f0c2cd1", "label": "Semen is thick and white when emitted and becomes watery on cooling", "statement": "Semen is thick and white when it issues from the body but on cooling becomes liquid and colourless like water, and in frost it liquefies rather than freezing.", "quote": "For whereas when it issues from the animal it is thick and white, yet on cooling it becomes liquid as water, and its colour is that of water.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book II", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.651, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.76, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAStLdRL_cQncPMgk7SFwip0hIoUO0qiNVWWl0Yf9hHo4", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga02-13", "key": "fa2816cd1c8e7d8c", "label": "Semen is always white, including that of Ethiopians", "statement": "Semen is invariably white, so Herodotus was wrong that the semen of Ethiopians is black.", "quote": "for it is also an invariable rule that it is white, and Herodotus does not report the truth when he says that the semen of the Aethiopians is black", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book II", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.699, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.777, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAdhmHmTsJ92Lmsj-9TEEPpIs5ANm4_EYgZmhO9J_XB5k", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga02-14", "key": "b6a00adb3813de7f", "label": "General animal characters develop before those of the species", "statement": "An embryo does not become an animal and a particular kind of animal at the same time; the characters peculiar to the species develop last.", "quote": "For e.g. an animal does not become at the same time an animal and a man or a horse or any other particular animal. For the end is developed last, and the peculiar character of the species is the end of the generation in each individual.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book II", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.589, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.687, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAUisOrWyFCJbYfUMn-R5Y_KboSWQbVOQ1BKQXP1cR1Ig", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga02-15", "key": "725d20d8da2a9dbb", "label": "Reason alone enters from outside and is divine", "statement": "Of the kinds of soul, reason alone enters the embryo from outside and alone is divine, since its activity has no connection with any bodily activity.", "quote": "It remains, then, for the reason alone so to enter and alone to be divine, for no bodily activity has any connexion with the activity of reason.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book II", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.023, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.91, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAB5MojTQtUi4CKtYzwIQeeArG_R9653__h_teTi8wTOY", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga02-16", "key": "dc7e2730a80c5986", "label": "Some cartilaginous fishes complete development by connection to the uterus", "statement": "In some cartilaginous fishes, once the nutriment of the egg is used up, the embryo completes its development by connection with the uterus, so the egg is not released from the uterus.", "quote": "in other cases, when the nutriment from the egg is consumed, development is completed by connection with the uterus, and therefore the egg is not set free from the uterus.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book II", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.799, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.84, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAxMMqXRIQsF-FFaxEQowBWHDMnsP_dboE9so6S1zF0Uk", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga02-17", "key": "c1ea034d469a67be", "label": "Menstruation tends to come during the waning of the moon", "statement": "The menstrual period in women is not exactly fixed but tends to come during the waning of the moon, because bodies are colder when the environment is colder.", "quote": "The period is not accurately defined in women, but tends to return during the waning of the moon.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book II", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.64, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.723, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAalQqhPsITnDwTltD1PSDwvAgURdmm2Ze4nEsD_CIXVk", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga02-18", "key": "aef86a994b11e542", "label": "Hybrids come to resemble the female line over successive generations", "statement": "When different kinds are crossed, the first cross resembles both parents, but over successive generations the offspring come to resemble the female in form.", "quote": "the first cross has a common resemblance to both parents, as the hybrid between fox and dog, partridge and domestic fowl, but as time goes on and one generation springs from another, the final result resembles the female in form", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book II", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.482, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.67, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAPlyzQq6YgFSFzVFMlB-1w4BiY5iDxcGjzyuWefczmDM", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga02-19", "key": "165caca8e4faa44a", "label": "The heart is the first part to be distinctly formed in all animals with blood", "statement": "In all animals with blood the heart is the first part to appear distinctly formed in the embryo, being the origin of the blood-vessels and of the other parts.", "quote": "Therefore it is that the heart appears first distinctly marked off in all the sanguinea", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book II", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.717, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.77, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAVFLX3-I1ciROwOVE0adPMLp4nL8Sy1OPr3ANnlc9vfE", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga02-20", "key": "b41b90f1bceb11a9", "label": "No male of the erythrinus has ever been seen", "statement": "No male of the fish called erythrinus has ever been seen, only females and specimens full of roe, which suggests it may generate without a male.", "quote": "No male of the so-called erythrinus has ever yet been seen, but females, and specimens full of roe, have been seen.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book II", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.607, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.633, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAYzGnlgV3qGzL0oNh-HEnNSbcQCFEDcuIg_ZzKF7InZU", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga02-21", "key": "1c175a3e08faa77b", "label": "Eels and some mullets are neither male nor female", "statement": "Some fishes are neither male nor female, such as eels and a kind of mullet found in stagnant waters.", "quote": "Again, some members of the class of fishes are neither male nor female, as eels and a kind of mullets found in stagnant waters.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book II", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.783, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.84, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAQZ1Ph8Ebl09CwUyINNZeXSHwY7M2nva4AEGt0SmXM5c", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga02-22", "key": "71df8dc32a724075", "label": "Nature makes nothing in vain, so the male is needed for full generation", "statement": "Where the sexes are separate the female cannot generate perfectly alone, for otherwise the male would exist in vain, and Nature makes nothing in vain.", "quote": "But whenever the sexes are separate the female cannot generate perfectly by herself alone, for then the male would exist in vain, and Nature makes nothing in vain.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book II", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.251, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.803, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAYZhq4rANfjEkRCcjAY-4nS2X8zWUoQrBRBFYmm3F20Y", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga02-23", "key": "2dca6ca68e452728", "label": "Internal parts form before external parts in the embryo", "statement": "In the embryo the internal parts come into being before the external, and the larger become visible before the smaller.", "quote": "After this, as said already, the internal parts come into being before the external.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book II", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.702, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.76, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RANV8PzpkX8_N2pruZd3I-srseh0l6eeg01IbGxtZoQMc", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga02-24", "key": "1f030e839706b0a3", "label": "Polydactylous quadrupeds bear blind young whose eyelids open after birth", "statement": "All polydactylous (many-toed) quadrupeds, such as the dog, lion, wolf, fox and jackal, bear their young blind, and the eyelids do not separate until after birth.", "quote": "Moreover, all polydactylous quadrupeds, as dog, lion, wolf, fox, jackal, produce their young blind, and the eyelids do not separate till after birth.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book II", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.733, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.78, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA0nmlKf3pgrX--wyJ61YLWwDRY8338yGkIf4GrUeeRDM", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga02-25", "key": "2ec02fc9cd2bea82", "label": "In the early embryo the head and eyes are largest and the legs small", "statement": "In the embryo at an early stage the parts about the head, especially the eyes, appear largest and the parts below the navel, such as the legs, are small, because the lower parts exist for the sake of the upper.", "quote": "This is why the parts about the head, and particularly the eyes, appear largest in the embryo at an early stage, while the parts below the umbilicus, as the legs, are small", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book II", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.638, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.73, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAwpPjsBH0PIU1Cepf2G3H9apt6vnIcpIznOeO_daSZo8", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga02-26", "key": "47c0ccac70155f1a", "label": "Eyes appear very large early but are the last parts to be completed", "statement": "The eyes of all animals, whether walking, swimming or flying, appear very large from the beginning of development but are the last parts to be completely formed, collapsing in the interval.", "quote": "Though from the beginning they appear very large in all creatures, whether they walk or swim or fly, yet they are the last of the parts to be formed completely, for in the intervening time they collapse.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book II", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.668, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.717, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAU_nYCUCdw3U8QGi8mGWZ-XaSo19D_AuriTy1ZG-E3cA", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga02-27", "key": "3d8c56b4821f5c3d", "label": "The bregma is the last bone to form and is still soft after birth", "statement": "The bregma (the top of the skull) is the last bone to be formed and is still soft in children after birth, more so in man than in other animals because man's brain is the most fluid and largest.", "quote": "For this reason the ‘bregma’ is the last of the bones to be formed; even after birth this bone is still soft in children.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book II", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.686, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.737, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAUZ5z7iqaTTlQl4tNI_U1i0xWRcbUIjDCruqvcYValiY", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga02-28", "key": "ea0552e4e6d533a2", "label": "Bones set the limit of an animal's size", "statement": "Bones grow only up to a certain point, and they set the limit of size in animals; if bones could always grow, every animal with bone or its analogue would grow as long as it lived.", "quote": "if these had been always able to grow, all animals that have bone or its analogue would grow as long as they lived, for these set the limit of size to animals.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book II", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.544, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.667, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA0fhT_ha_IVg0NG_r3Ot12F_ydQoGRgec7m7sNpodyB8", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga02-29", "key": "d3d2ec22cc4e6e17", "label": "Hair goes on growing after death", "statement": "Hair continues to grow after death, though it does not begin growing then.", "quote": "Hair actually goes on growing after death; it does not, however, begin growing then.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book II", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.672, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.8, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAdZwQFr6wd_rlhX2AJkyyN25npXOansXB4ZztpwMyfVo", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga02-30", "key": "763fe30271e1368e", "label": "Of all bones only the teeth grow throughout life", "statement": "Of all the bones, the teeth alone go on growing throughout life, as shown by teeth that grow out of line until they no longer meet.", "quote": "Of all the bones they alone go on growing through life, as is plain with the teeth which grow out of the straight line so as no longer to touch each other.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book II", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.66, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.74, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAjD1mPgIL_iwdSMoBA_ryAW7As4S3Cdnb4ebVd__N_nQ", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga02-31", "key": "207ca9fa18c1171d", "label": "Other animals are born with teeth but man is born without", "statement": "Other animals are born with teeth or their analogue, because they are more perfect at birth than man, whereas man is normally born without teeth.", "quote": "Other animals are born in possession of teeth or their analogue (unless in cases contrary to Nature), because when they are set free from the parent they are more perfect than man; but man (also unless in cases contrary to Nature) is born without them.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book II", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.759, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.817, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAoibI-P0nc_Q_c5jgz_EvlUigHkhEIcUCC-X1RZMVYrg", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga02-32", "key": "08990bdc2e26a9e6", "label": "Man is the most naked animal and has the smallest nails for his size", "statement": "Man is the most naked of all animals and has the smallest nails in proportion to his size, because he has the least earthy residue.", "quote": "man is the most naked in body of all animals and has the smallest nails in proportion to his size", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book II", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.556, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.663, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RADFTSNSkYIQKEq4FTXFuUIfRKJALtRHIu5mamGad4mz8", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga02-33", "key": "e2f1416d308f5ba7", "label": "Umbilical cord vessel number rises with animal size", "statement": "The umbilical cord consists of blood-vessels in a sheath: more numerous in larger animals such as cattle, one in the smallest animals, and two in those of intermediate size.", "quote": "The cord consists of blood-vessels in a sheath, more numerous in the larger animals as cattle and the like, one in the smallest, two in those of intermediate size.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book II", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.661, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.733, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA9nGtyxoJd8-trNZlIhvsFeQz1_mIHASCy5UhhR24EN8", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga02-34", "key": "2c4b439f7cc8d72a", "label": "Animals lacking upper front teeth have cotyledons in the uterus", "statement": "All animals without front teeth in the upper jaw, and those with front teeth in both jaws whose uterus has many close blood-vessels rather than one great one, have cotyledons in the uterus; most with front teeth in both jaws and no horns lack them.", "quote": "All animals with no front teeth in the upper jaw, and all those which have them in both jaws and whose uterus has not one great blood-vessel running through it but many close together insteadall these have in the uterus the so-called cotyledons", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book II", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.62, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.723, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAZtzkjY6VAtittiAugtcl6DksOCHeNWVY4HOIveFKzTk", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga02-35", "key": "23a77bf3c55eb534", "label": "Cotyledons shrink and disappear as the embryo matures", "statement": "As the embryo grows and approaches completion, the cotyledons in the uterus become smaller and finally disappear when it is fully formed.", "quote": "As the embryo grows and approaches perfection the cotyledons become smaller and finally disappear when it is perfected.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book II", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.641, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.71, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RABaJpr3uu9fQjCY8RH9O5SxdIEpb2bTIUZ-Vt2kcKbF0", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga02-36", "key": "2433ef26874f266d", "label": "Of all hybrids only mules are sterile", "statement": "Animals born of crosses between different kinds can all mate and produce young of both sexes, except mules, which alone are sterile.", "quote": "Of the animals that arise from such union all except mules are found to copulate again with each other and to be able to produce young of both sexes, but mules alone are sterile", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book II", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.68, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.75, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAwAZO2YSPFNdcQlZgeeDjHIKLhR0AcNJz8tLljxzWy1c", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga02-37", "key": "bfcfb35768dfe2e8", "label": "General theories not based on the special principles of a subject are empty", "statement": "All theories not based on the special principles of the subject in question are empty: in natural science one must reason from the facts peculiar to the kinds concerned, as geometry reasons from geometrical principles.", "quote": "For all theories not based on the special principles involved are empty; they only appear to be connected with the facts without being so really.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book II", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.006, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.94, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAKf7Uab8IcbXv7_PDLn14wAi29TSo-qRTXNgM_3pqkZM", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga02-38", "key": "6af96428543fa28e", "label": "The ass cannot bear cold and is not found in cold regions", "statement": "The ass is of a cold nature and cannot bear cold, so it is not produced in wintry regions such as Scythia and the land of the Celts beyond Iberia.", "quote": "Again the ass is an animal of cold nature, and so is not wont to be produced in wintry regions because it cannot bear cold, as in Scythia and the neighbouring country and among the Celts beyond Iberia", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book II", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.716, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.777, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAiMxZbVVy_OnjyQ_OC5S7DV2FNNUAZobZxV9FWqsU6gM", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga02-39", "key": "4c3e7941782f2362", "label": "The gestation period of both horse and ass is one year", "statement": "The period of gestation in both the horse and the ass is one year, so the mother gives birth in the same season as she was impregnated.", "quote": "for the mothers bear at the same season as that in which they are impregnated, the period of gestation in both horse and ass being one year.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book II", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.89, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.9, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAhsR49gr8YbCwXi-f0oND9c7PV9HxYa9TaxwkZ0tngsk", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga02-40", "key": "0c2b0edb2dc6cd26", "label": "The mule is sterile because the ass's cold seed chills the horse's", "statement": "Mules are sterile because the horse already tends to sterility and becomes wholly so when its generative secretion is chilled by mixing with the cold secretion of the ass.", "quote": "The horse is much the same; it tends naturally towards sterility, and to make it entirely so it is only necessary that its generative secretion should become colder; now this is what happens to it when mixed with the corresponding secretion of the ass.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book II", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.291, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.713, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAxWHLtc97GIae_bCC6mm8PU8RUwgAvAmOeYtsEK4M2CQ", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga02-41", "key": "99867d3aadd5b513", "label": "A female mule can conceive but cannot carry the foal to birth", "statement": "A female mule can sometimes conceive, but she cannot nourish the embryo to birth because she has no menstrual secretion.", "quote": "Hence it is sometimes possible for the female to conceive, as has been known to happen before now, but it is impossible for her to complete the process of nourishing the embryo and bringing it to birth.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book II", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.647, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.77, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAP71pe8msJvl3Oi24GLnkYP-VFuqPGNw0rq29RyPVc2Q", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga03-01", "key": "ec1202fb5570b037", "label": "Selachians are internally oviparous but bring forth live young", "statement": "The cartilaginous fishes form an egg inside the uterus but give birth to live young; their egg is soft-shelled and of one colour.", "quote": "The cartilaginous fishes, as has been often said already, are oviparous internally but produce the young alive, the egg changing previously from one part of the uterus to another; and their egg is soft-shelled and of one colour.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book III", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.808, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.867, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAKRIf9DSytPbIgnOtxU5DHJUMbYjfkt4LN151ZuGv2t0", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga03-02", "key": "d04cfa2c916c595b", "label": "Wind-eggs occur in heavy, prolific birds, not in birds of prey", "statement": "Unfertilised 'wind-eggs' are produced by birds that are not strong fliers or predators and that produce many young, not by birds of prey.", "quote": "Some embryos are formed in birds spontaneously, which are called wind-eggs and ‘zephyria’ by some; these occur in birds which are not given to flight nor rapine but which produce many young", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book III", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.571, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.663, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAKrr8KNSTvS1h4MH7fGjxYO5VBWDFLopmg7eaQNRqFks", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga03-03", "key": "c83502578ae3baed", "label": "Birds of prey lay few eggs because residual matter goes to wings", "statement": "Because both wings and semen are made from the same residual matter, birds whose residue goes into wings and feathers (birds of prey) mate little and lay few eggs.", "quote": "Since then both the wings and the semen are made from residual matter, nature cannot afford to spend much upon both. And for this same reason the birds of prey are neither given to treading much nor to laying many eggs", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book III", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.527, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.69, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAg66euhuqKWj5DqQtiN9j_Rc1ZzFyaDwmb6ZToVH3aJU", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga03-04", "key": "178b82db9be42edb", "label": "The cuckoo lays few eggs and lays them in other birds' nests", "statement": "The cuckoo, though not a bird of prey, lays few eggs, and it lays them in the nests of other birds; Aristotle attributes this to its cold, cowardly nature.", "quote": "The cuckoo, though not a bird of prey, lays few eggs, because it is of a cold nature, as is shown by the cowardice of the bird, whereas a generative animal should be hot and moist. That it is cowardly is plain, for it is pursued by all the birds and lays eggs in the nests of others.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book III", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.762, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.823, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA_3ZYDyCMT8SuJIzHTKSwa8WwFnnNALEYPUFsiunXLsY", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga03-05", "key": "cfc21347252092a0", "label": "The lioness bears five or six cubs, then fewer each year, then none", "statement": "A lioness produces five or six cubs at her first birth, four the next year, then three, and so down to one and finally none, as her generative secretion is used up with age.", "quote": "A similar condition is the cause of the later sterility of the lioness, for at the first birth she produces five or six, then in the next year four, and again three cubs, then the next number down to one, then none at all", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book III", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.655, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.74, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAdHXXFeY4CLqWRXaUTR53wG2Rz78uk1Bnv4_b-4ERaDc", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga03-06", "key": "49d6ad3fcd790c77", "label": "Wind-eggs arise without any prior impregnation", "statement": "Unfertilised wind-eggs are not relics of a previous mating: they arise in hens and geese that have never been impregnated.", "quote": "Hence some are wont to speak of wind-eggs as not coming into being independently but as mere relics from a previous impregnation. But this is a false view, for sufficient observations have been made of their arising without impregnation in chickens and goslings.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book III", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.776, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.83, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAn4Rcc9f1s6MQWstG9-Uz2-RBweURowoaAK0z_Q-AK8Q", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga03-07", "key": "3bccb5629b0bac0b", "label": "Fish lay incomplete eggs because they are too numerous to finish inside", "statement": "Birds lay their eggs complete, whereas externally spawning fish lay incomplete eggs that finish growing outside the mother, because fish produce too many eggs for all to be completed inside her.", "quote": "Among creatures that lay eggs externally birds produce their egg perfect, fish imperfect, but the eggs of the latter complete their growth outside as has been said before. The reason is that the fish kind is very fertile; now it is impossible for many eggs to reach completion within the mother and therefore they lay them outside.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book III", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.644, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.72, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAsMilxM4yyfKY44XD7LQuher5HX3apQ8GL21HQcfBDew", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga03-08", "key": "6ca2604fd5c8c4d2", "label": "Bird eggs are two-coloured, all fish eggs one-coloured", "statement": "The eggs of birds are two-coloured (white and yolk), while the eggs of all fishes are of one colour.", "quote": "While the eggs of birds are two-coloured, those of all fish are one-coloured.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book III", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.694, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.747, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA6CvIQBS9v2OMgG8rqEa8i7b6fTdN_QdDFdwH7YKQjfo", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga03-09", "key": "7b92378fe27b10a1", "label": "Water birds' eggs have larger, paler yolks than land birds' eggs", "statement": "Lake (water) birds, being moister and colder than land birds, lay eggs whose yolk is larger and less yellow.", "quote": "This is what we find in lake birds, for they are of a moister nature and are colder than the land birds, so that the so-called ‘lecithus’ or yolk in the eggs of such birds is large and less yellow because the white is less separated off from it.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book III", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.584, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.69, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA0YcW2FOUdb_VBqO5TK9z5lCfnNvWjaIHQx3g_rV06g8", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga03-10", "key": "8d37563246e7dbb0", "label": "A hen's egg is laid with the sharp end last", "statement": "The sharp end of a bird's egg, where it was attached to the uterus, comes out of the hen after the blunt end.", "quote": "And this is why the sharp end of the egg comes out of the hen later than the blunt end; for the part attached to the uterus comes out later, and the egg is attached at the point where is the said principle, and the principle is in the sharp end.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book III", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.731, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.783, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAhgVmvzWLLn0rJddhpplTW8iydQxDTfuKz1c2iJ24KgI", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga03-11", "key": "d76b49452ba9a3a3", "label": "The eggshell is soft when laid and hardens by cooling", "statement": "A bird's eggshell is still soft when the egg is laid and hardens immediately afterwards by cooling as its moisture evaporates.", "quote": "it is not observed that the shell is at first only a soft membrane, and that it is only after the egg is perfected that it becomes hard and brittle; this is so nicely adjusted that it is still soft when it comes out (for otherwise it would cause pain in laying), but no sooner has it come out than it is fixed hard by cooling", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book III", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.667, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.74, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RApMqVE8duv9qEi12UUVBhhTVla2nLIOtVH2e7f3doolQ", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga03-12", "key": "b2bce40521342992", "label": "Live-bearing selachians keep the young attached to the uterus by an umbilicus", "statement": "In some cartilaginous fishes the egg stays attached to the uterus, and when the young fish is complete it is still connected to the uterus by an umbilical cord after the yolk is used up, as in the smooth dogfish.", "quote": "in some of the cartilaginous fish the egg is not detached from the uterus, but is still connected with it as it comes downwards with a view to the production of the young alive; in these the young fish when perfected is still connected by the umbilicus to the uterus when the egg has been consumed.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book III", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.752, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.807, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAPOW9_fpcmL5J_5cK5LctTYhle9GBmVSycYx3_2XSxcY", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga03-13", "key": "8465fe277ddb9aac", "label": "Fish are prolific because most of their eggs are destroyed", "statement": "Most fish eggs that are laid are destroyed before hatching, and fish produce great numbers of eggs to make up for this loss.", "quote": "even as it is most of those laid are destroyed before hatching. Hence the class of fish is prolific, for Nature makes up for the destruction by numbers.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book III", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.629, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.71, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAKiYemrBOBFdeRtgxclTUdn5tXg2PBMDoRFgxW_Le2eg", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga03-14", "key": "ce37a8d375954541", "label": "All fish have separate sexes except the erythrinus and the channa", "statement": "In all fishes some individuals have milt organs and others a uterus, except two kinds, the erythrinus and the channa, which have no separate males.", "quote": "But, as it is, some of them have organs for milt and others have a uterus, and this distinction obtains in all except two, the erythrinus and the channa, some of them having the milt organs, others a uterus.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book III", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.756, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.817, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAVeW_LAHAXc5sbUdIspQuq9nvdza8GBxBFCFhBSiiNHM", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga03-15", "key": "b59a418a9f7c5341", "label": "Female fish do not conceive by swallowing milt", "statement": "Fish are not conceived by the female swallowing the male's milt, because the passage from the mouth leads to the intestine, not the uterus.", "quote": "as if fish were conceived by the mother’s swallowing the milt,— not considering that this is impossible. For the passage which enters by way of the mouth runs to the intestines, not to the uterus", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book III", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.811, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.84, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA6UrhFerGPaZMeQQwwjGWcB-1cQMqSvyYZ7Dq9_QSGpg", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga03-16", "key": "daf097993b001536", "label": "The hyena has only one kind of genitals, not both sexes", "statement": "The hyena does not have both male and female genitals; each animal has one, but both sexes have a mark under the tail resembling the female genitals.", "quote": "This is untrue, for the hyena has been seen to have only one pudendum, there being no lack of opportunity for observation in some districts, but hyenas have under the tail a line like the pudendum of the female.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book III", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.722, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.797, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RANaRvE1W0PVUH4MTsDB2XhPjNMqPSjkJLcSA_8yrek2g", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga03-17", "key": "3d631a372d20dd78", "label": "Eggs fertilised by one cock take on the nature of a later cock", "statement": "Eggs already impregnated by one cock change to the nature of a second cock that treads the hen later, provided this happens before the white separates from the yolk.", "quote": "In birds the wind-eggs become fertile, and those previously impregnated by one kind of cock change their nature to that of the later cock.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book III", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.544, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.71, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA6qnh-X-zfxzZgGvzn1Nhs8xpv4c0JO687hRV7mcKq2Q", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga03-18", "key": "1742a6c2670d11c6", "label": "Insect larvae become motionless, egg-like stages before the adult emerges", "statement": "Insect larvae, after reaching full size, become a sort of egg: their outer husk hardens and they are motionless, as in bees, wasps and caterpillars.", "quote": "All these products that are of the nature of a scolex, after progressing and acquiring their full size, become a sort of egg, for the husk about them hardens and they are motionless during this period. This is plain in the scolex of bees and wasps and in caterpillars.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book III", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.779, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.85, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAB9yatMdptmL7PsQL4JBIb3Cc4h8t2Fwr1UgeSpPhKgA", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga03-19", "key": "df68bc7cf95eb6f4", "label": "Some insects arise spontaneously in wool and water", "statement": "Some insects come into being without copulation, spontaneously, in wool and similar materials and in water.", "quote": "Similar to this is also what happens with all other insects which come into being without copulation in wool and other such materials and in water.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book III", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.694, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.767, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAH9uqj4EmOAdqAhRkxQLONSIljYad9hmmnOG2LgKp38I", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga03-20", "key": "9d5081bda3de721d", "label": "Worker bees generate drones without copulation", "statement": "Worker bees produce drones without copulation, being female in generative power but containing both sexes as plants do.", "quote": "It remains then, as appears to be the case in certain fishes, that the bees should generate the drones without copulation, being indeed female in respect of generative power, but containing in themselves both sexes as plants do.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book III", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.74, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.793, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA0P8uLLb82TGn5YL5FXInszKhyFVmxxp67wBQ4qdGw94", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga03-21", "key": "85ebbe94635255dc", "label": "Bee kings generate both kings and workers", "statement": "The 'kings' (leaders) of a hive generate both their own kind and the worker bees.", "quote": "since those occupied with the tendance of these creatures deny this, it remains that the kings must generate both their own kind and the bees.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book III", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.782, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.82, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA1H1y1EbJNJNbXB_z_scM-UmJqesEf3vK4ly3G-TeadY", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga03-22", "key": "1d00511d3b9aa1b9", "label": "Fine seasons bring many drones, rainy seasons many workers", "statement": "In fine weather bees collect much honey and produce many drones, while in rainy seasons they produce a large brood of ordinary worker bees.", "quote": "Another fact is also natural, that in fine seasons much honey is collected and many drones are produced but in rainy reasons a large brood of ordinary bees.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book III", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.56, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.667, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAUUuFq8wMof0mZqNvXEoIiY2zWyqzMpGq0aH02thEIzY", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga03-23", "key": "7c619307354c8474", "label": "Observation must take precedence over theory", "statement": "Where the facts are sufficiently known, credit should be given to observation rather than to theories, and to theories only if they agree with the observed facts.", "quote": "the facts, however, have not yet been sufficiently grasped; if ever they are, then credit must be given rather to observation than to theories, and to theories only if what they affirm agrees with the observed facts.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book III", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.009, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.943, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA-XAIOI4HskpbahCFfY4ts-kD2-LkhbqZubalytOkanw", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga03-24", "key": "0de26d40279a029c", "label": "Few testaceans live on land, many in the sea", "statement": "Few or no kinds of testaceans (shelled molluscs and the like) live on land, snails being the exception, whereas in the sea there are many of every form.", "quote": "Because their nature answers to that of plants, therefore few or no kinds of testacea come into being on land, e.g. the snails and any others, few as they are, that resemble them; but in the sea and similar waters there are many of all kinds of forms.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book III", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.816, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.833, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAm4zPl4ynWOiUt15E_fHkntCo4bSf4rnBAz0MaUwQB1E", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga03-25", "key": "3540006c3263e019", "label": "Bloodless aquatic animals are rare in fresh water, common in estuaries", "statement": "Bloodless animals such as testaceans, cephalopods and crustaceans are not found in lakes or in the fresher brackish waters, except exceptionally, but arise in estuaries and at river mouths.", "quote": "Wherefore animals having no blood and not of a hot nature are not produced in lakes nor in the fresher among brackish waters, but only exceptionally, but it is in estuaries and at the mouths of rivers that they come into being, as testacea and cephalopoda and crustacea", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book III", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.759, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.79, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAAd_2Xb3MiLdTp3ShsaHaZP6OxQ3oJKobQnafK1DA5Rg", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga03-26", "key": "dac477b3a7e0cd60", "label": "Eels and some river fishes arise from scolex-like 'entrails of earth'", "statement": "Some blooded animals, including a kind of mullet, some other river fishes and the eels, arise without parents in scolex form; eels come into being in the so-called 'entrails of earth'.", "quote": "even some sanguinea, as a kind of mullet and some other river fishes and also the eel kind. For all of these, though they have but little blood by nature, are nevertheless sanguinea, and have a heart with blood in it as the origin of the parts; and the so-called ‘entrails of earth’, in which comes into being the body of the eel, have the nature of a scolex.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book III", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.68, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.82, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA4tzdtN_5xHhcSFsbKW6yV7SgCyKwz78y6_0h87jktck", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga03-27", "key": "61c9e303817d1687", "label": "All testaceans arise spontaneously from putrefying mud", "statement": "All testaceans are formed spontaneously, for example on the sides of boats when frothy mud putrefies.", "quote": "That all the testacea are formed spontaneously is clear from such facts as these. They come into being on the side of boats when the frothy mud putrefies.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book III", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.656, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.757, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAmgqk5G5dBY0rfsMSG-tsqm2vDalx_8NLSeNhsgINzoc", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga04-01", "key": "7d5aff7c31a6f3f0", "label": "Male and female twins often lie in the same part of the uterus", "statement": "Male and female twins are often found together in the same part of the uterus, in all viviparous animals, land animals and fish alike.", "quote": "Moreover male and female twins are often found together in the same part of the uterus; this we have observed sufficiently by dissection in all the vivipara, both land animals and fish.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book IV", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.575, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.67, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAAlqg1vlIdOJeeDjD6BdxVkb8rtuhiwQ5owtMEYznnPA", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga04-02", "key": "516225769de5855e", "label": "Fish and serpents have no testes yet produce both sexes", "statement": "Fishes and serpents have no testes, yet they produce both male and female offspring, so the testes do not determine sex.", "quote": "a proof of this is that many animals in which the distinction of sex exists, and which produce both male and female offspring, nevertheless have no testes, as the footless animals; I mean the classes of fish and of serpents.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book IV", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.728, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.783, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RANXClIO5oL03mfCVSrCQ3ec9NYgYMlI9f35bSUFWBKHY", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga04-03", "key": "75ad1415eb16928f", "label": "The male is what can concoct blood into form-bearing semen", "statement": "The male is defined as the sex able to concoct blood into semen that carries the principle of form; the female receives semen but cannot form or emit it.", "quote": "For the male is that which can concoct the blood into semen and which can form and secrete and discharge a semen carrying with it the principle of form", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book IV", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.059, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.9, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAf2PXEnh-lIuYGOVvUrReFzoW8kBrfsznH1VTUWaRI8s", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga04-04", "key": "c4fbe542d4a057a1", "label": "Males are hotter than females", "statement": "Since concoction works by heat and the male concocts semen, the males of animals must be hotter than the females.", "quote": "And (2) all concoction works by means of heat. Therefore the males of animals must needs be hotter than the females.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book IV", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.44, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.63, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RABs8Nbl3gdQC85LdI9wM70PgfPyr3J_Uu2oDOey1JC0g", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga04-05", "key": "710f83dc5d060a58", "label": "An embryo becomes female when the male principle fails for lack of heat", "statement": "An embryo becomes female when the male principle, through lack of heat, fails to master and concoct the material, which then changes into its opposite.", "quote": "For when the first principle does not bear sway and cannot concoct the nourishment through lack of heat nor bring it into its proper form, but is defeated in this respect, then must needs the material which it works on change into its opposite. Now the female is opposite to the male", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book IV", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.393, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.707, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA20AzpLT7BOizbTL-QCYOo9NM7m9ZEvpNdQ_bQ-vHoJ4", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga04-06", "key": "a5c7ef6faa6637f4", "label": "Young and ageing parents produce more females", "statement": "Parents who are young or approaching old age produce more female offspring than those in their prime.", "quote": "For more females are produced by the young and by those verging on old age than by those in the prime of life; in the former the vital heat is not yet perfect, in the latter it is failing.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book IV", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.673, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.723, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAksVuZyuH7gHuhQYu0Zv7nVIXB6kG5YRV6TQEgoQjUbo", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga04-07", "key": "d8ae72fda0f65663", "label": "More males are conceived under north winds than south winds", "statement": "More males are born when copulation takes place while north winds blow than while south winds blow.", "quote": "Again, more males are born if copulation takes place when north than when south winds are blowing.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book IV", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.438, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.643, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RADJa4aQRD6p7mCze8Z9M3E0YDNSiBqpYAeriIrJoz29s", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga04-08", "key": "28b61c99afd5e2f3", "label": "Menstruation naturally occurs when the moon is waning", "statement": "Menstruation naturally occurs more when the month (moon) is waning, that time being colder and moister.", "quote": "Also the fact that the catamenia occur in the course of nature rather when the month is waning is due to the same causes.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book IV", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.675, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.74, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAemXJ9kJ6Eqqt-ja7bFJBHAFfkx_chmeD2M9bcY-51Dc", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga04-09", "key": "7aacb9ad5b27fee2", "label": "Offspring resemble parents more than remoter ancestors", "statement": "Children resemble their parents more than their remoter ancestors, and those ancestors more than any chance individual.", "quote": "(2) They resemble their parents more than remoter ancestors, and resemble those ancestors more than any chance individual.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book IV", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.706, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.77, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAMu6vaQUfe0T9V_fBkU0PaEqt-AzXJ_0lFHQ-u-ZlEg4", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga04-10", "key": "29546a0606957acb", "label": "Unmastered paternal movements revert to those of the grandfather", "statement": "When the movement from the father in the semen is weakened ('resolved'), it changes into that of his father and then his grandfather, and likewise in the maternal line, so that children may resemble grandparents and remoter ancestors.", "quote": "for instance, if the movement of the male parent be resolved, it changes by a very slight difference into that of his father, and in the next instance into that of his grandfather; and in this way not only in the male but also in the female line the movement of the female parent changes into that of her mother", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book IV", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.306, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.68, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAAkjRAkx3dOXOlAaD-6-omX0J-W6jYIdS7VtkaGdmvZk", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga04-11", "key": "7fa94aac21bd5f49", "label": "Monstrosities are commonest in animals bearing many young, above all fowl", "statement": "Monstrosities are very rare in animals that bear one young, more frequent in those bearing many, and most frequent in birds, above all the domestic fowl.", "quote": "Hence also such monstrosities appear very rarely in animals producing only one young one, more frequently in those producing many, most of all in birds and among birds in the common fowl.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book IV", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.541, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.667, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA1Qi_U5L8mgi4T4J827Rc_pZdehpYAjzev_apSz4rTcc", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga04-12", "key": "57cb063aa65109cb", "label": "Double-yolked eggs with fused yolks yield four-legged, four-winged chicks", "statement": "In double-yolked eggs, if the yolks are separated by a membrane two normal chicks result, but if the yolks are continuous the chick is monstrous, with one body and head but four legs and four wings.", "quote": "when the yolks are continuous, with no division between them, the chickens produced are monstrous, having one body and head but four legs and four wings", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book IV", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.573, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.687, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAe90Gz_i2kZgifcw7oDCzbqElsJ0461zESBwdumZ59VE", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga04-13", "key": "bc3965815bda0eb9", "label": "Hermaphrodite genitals occur in humans and especially in goats", "statement": "Animals are sometimes born with both male and female genitals; this occurs in humans and especially in goats.", "quote": "Again, they may have the generative parts doubled, the one being male, the other female; this is known in men and especially in goats.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book IV", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.731, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.77, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAdOlIWdyaCSKiXkit8xx9rNm6epmHL4jYZxy1GLsFWWs", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga04-14", "key": "e8e87c454007eb34", "label": "No animal is born without a heart or wholly without a liver", "statement": "No animal has ever been born without a heart or entirely without a liver, though animals are born without a spleen, with two spleens or with one kidney.", "quote": "No animal, indeed, has ever been born without a heart, but they are born without a spleen or with two spleens or with one kidney; there is no case again of total absence of the liver, but there are cases of its being incomplete.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book IV", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.704, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.767, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAzGi_CRgEPTmsCUddtA8AJKw30gDA9CeMJ1CgL6HzTOY", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga04-15", "key": "c98af1ef3ee36f80", "label": "Large animals bear few young, small animals many", "statement": "Among walking, flying and swimming animals alike, large animals produce few young and small animals many, because in large animals the nutriment goes to increasing the body.", "quote": "And not only in animals that walk but also in those that fly or swim the large ones produce few, the small many, for the same reason.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book IV", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.809, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.867, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RASDnEmqvroSu5u19c7qBGW-4CLhCwUrobuAu_yFQGMMg", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga04-16", "key": "580679858376ee36", "label": "Human gestation alone is irregular, seven to ten months", "statement": "Man alone among animals has an irregular gestation period: children are born from seven to ten months, and eight-month children survive, though less often than the rest.", "quote": "On account of this it results that in man alone among animals the period of gestation is irregular; whereas the period is fixed in the rest, there are several periods in man, for children are born at seven months and at ten months and at the times between, for even those of eight months do live though less often than the rest.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book IV", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.764, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.78, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA3spXxSY5ENbcxZmo-133Q8slyCO1rNyTFqTr_guDLKo", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga04-17", "key": "759d815bcd1abcd2", "label": "Women and mares alone accept the male during pregnancy", "statement": "Women and mares are the only animals that admit the male during gestation.", "quote": "therefore women and mares are the only animals which admit the male during gestation", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book IV", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.577, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.653, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAq8dO7de57_PoXUkgKdrLTCyi0zSYWKjXGXjIW02Mqh4", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga04-18", "key": "f3c2597344a67fe3", "label": "Hares superfetate", "statement": "Superfetation (conceiving a second litter while already pregnant) occurs naturally in hares, because they are small, bear many young and are rich in semen.", "quote": "For superfoetation occurs in these animals, since they are not large and they bear many young (for they have many toes and the many-toed animals bear many), and they are spermatic.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book IV", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.681, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.73, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAyX-N6WKi29D4bXAvsATXvfGQt3GfsqkAZIy4NoqlqLk", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga04-19", "key": "02acc806f4498dd9", "label": "Hoofed animals bear young complete, most many-toed animals incomplete", "statement": "Among viviparous animals, solid-hoofed and cloven-footed animals bear their young fully formed, while most many-toed animals bear them imperfect (many born blind).", "quote": "Some of the vivipara produce their young imperfect, others perfect; the one-hoofed and cloven-footed perfect, most of the many-toed imperfect.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book IV", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.69, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.743, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAhJM-gMfXJTnRwq46e6eezyBrb6mBjDFzraMY8aNLZgk", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga04-20", "key": "60b8187d64d7e2e1", "label": "Young swallows' eyes regrow after being put out", "statement": "If the eyes of nestling swallows are put out, they recover their sight, because the birds are still developing and the eyes grow afresh.", "quote": "Hence if the eyes of swallows while still young be put out they recover their sight again, for the birds are still developing, not yet developed, when the injury is inflicted, so that the eyes grow and sprout afresh.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book IV", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.551, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.743, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAWRiIkn-SDEfVhF8SPwyEI0qYlG1Ri_QlPtDcRBMJAZw", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga04-21", "key": "7371c8b677c6a8d5", "label": "In humans males are more often born defective than females", "statement": "In man, males are more often born defective than females, but this is not so in other animals.", "quote": "In man males are more often born defective than females, but in the other animals this is not the case.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book IV", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.702, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.753, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAhFF0wMkdmI3wZMfEeOaPff5VAZcP6v5pxrXejpT1Dys", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga04-22", "key": "e9d7663e0a7e1bd0", "label": "Females develop slower in the womb but mature and age faster after birth", "statement": "In man the female develops more slowly than the male in the womb, but after birth reaches puberty, prime and old age sooner than the male.", "quote": "For while within the mother the female takes longer in developing, but after birth everything is perfected more quickly in females than in males; I mean, for instance, puberty, the prime of life, and old age.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book IV", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.784, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.793, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAt4FT0Ndaj28pzEj2Q4BFD27fwIciQnpK7b_JKckxBZo", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga04-23", "key": "c389dd3a5c8e61ca", "label": "Nursing women neither menstruate nor conceive", "statement": "While women are suckling, menstruation naturally does not occur and they do not conceive; if they do conceive, the milk dries up, because milk and menses are the same secretion.", "quote": "While women are suckling children the catamenia do not occur according to Nature, nor do they conceive; if they do conceive, the milk dries up.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book IV", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.803, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.83, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RArZMx3vcCZwhGYFBIV3asdOKnVB78jPd_B8KRRWtEnKg", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga04-24", "key": "d50e7d7f4a8c40fa", "label": "All animals are naturally born head first", "statement": "The natural birth of all animals is head first, because the parts above the umbilical cord are larger and heavier.", "quote": "The natural birth of all animals is head-foremost, because the parts above the umbilical cord are larger than those below.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book IV", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.673, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.723, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RADote1ckNfUnGQmY56_uNCLtno8mvOk6ErsuN11jwuc8", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga04-25", "key": "628ec9204be74636", "label": "Man lives longer than any animal except the elephant", "statement": "Man lives longer than any animal for which there is credible evidence, except the elephant.", "quote": "Man lives a longer time than any animal of which we have any credible experience except the elephant", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book IV", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.882, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.903, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RANbgxO2ZW-ZTFUe5FQmDq6wRDVg6HhYJX-gaGyCX0M6A", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga04-26", "key": "be3628c6090c6392", "label": "Gestation length is caused by the size of the offspring, not by lifespan", "statement": "Gestation length roughly corresponds to lifespan only incidentally; its real cause is the size of the offspring, since large masses take long to perfect.", "quote": "but the cause of the time of gestation is the size of the offspring. For it is not easy for large masses to arrive at their perfection in a small time", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book IV", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.711, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.72, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA8YgBOcNZoTYFrYELx5nbqaYMyBn3yDjhpwTZSqlb6S8", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga04-27", "key": "d87a09bf23f80b82", "label": "Horses gestate a year, humans ten months, elephants two years", "statement": "Horses and their kin carry their young for a year, man at most ten months, and elephants for two years.", "quote": "That is why horses and animals akin to them, though living a shorter time than man, yet carry their young longer; for the time in the former is a year, but in the latter ten months at the outside. For the same reason also the time is long in elephants; they carry their young two years on account of their excessive size.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book IV", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.907, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.913, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAogFfeiIAFVdmt9Iv63P3fZLuQNOastO6IXLL4AAySnQ", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga05-01", "key": "45e8130da0cf36a8", "label": "Eye colour has no final cause unless characteristic of the kind", "statement": "Features not characteristic of a whole kind, such as an individual's eye colour, do not exist for a final cause but arise of necessity from the material and the efficient cause.", "quote": "The eye for instance exists for a final cause, but it is not blue for a final cause unless this condition be characteristic of the kind of animal.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book V", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.054, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.897, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAVwLL6vTth8JEHExIDrZsLOnDkuWxfEuug9ggPMCNwo8", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga05-02", "key": "3c428ec45ff49c63", "label": "Embryos sleep most of the time but wake briefly in the womb", "statement": "Embryos sleep most of the time, though they are found to wake briefly even in the womb, which is why newborns spend most of their time asleep.", "quote": "But nevertheless they are found to wake even in the womb (this is clear in dissections and in the ovipara), and then they immediately fall into a sleep again. This is why after birth also they spend most of their time in sleep.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book V", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.553, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.643, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAegyRzXRxUzEcr5Co_s0H4-g3TvlSVoY13UiTP6ZazNU", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga05-03", "key": "cd25616aa4264fe1", "label": "Infants laugh only in sleep, not awake", "statement": "Infants do not laugh when awake, but while asleep they both laugh and cry.", "quote": "When awake infants do not laugh, but while asleep they both laugh and cry.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book V", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.659, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.717, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAwEUJG6ea3F1FZirZp-lttJw1oqsGNlKuNioye1l6WhI", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga05-04", "key": "1afeb8d05a9fadd4", "label": "All newborn children have bluish eyes that later change colour", "statement": "The eyes of all children are bluish at birth and later change to their permanent colour, which is not seen in other animals.", "quote": "The eyes of all children are bluish immediately after birth; later on they change to the colour which is to be theirs permanently. But in the case of other animals this is not visible.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book V", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.671, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.73, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA4Z4xCCBrXJ2Tz6RNERr8YbJROaPC-JnkSFE-XNhDySw", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga05-05", "key": "7395b857ceeaddf2", "label": "Only horses and humans have eyes of different colours", "statement": "Of animals other than man, the horse has the greatest variety of eye colour and some horses have two differently coloured eyes; this is seen in no other animal, but sometimes in man.", "quote": "Of the other animals the horse has the greatest variety of colour in the eye, for some of them are actually heteroglaucous; this phenomenon is not to be seen in any of the other animals, but man is sometimes heteroglaucous.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book V", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.727, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.777, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAGHiKBCIyauZP_NMLwVExdDU9q3WUHqhgFBQS7eNsk-M", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga05-06", "key": "5b030a86b9ed6c36", "label": "Blue eyes see poorly by day, dark eyes poorly by night", "statement": "Blue eyes are not keen-sighted by day and dark eyes are not keen-sighted by night.", "quote": "We must suppose the same cause also to be responsible for the fact that blue eyes are not keen-sighted by day nor dark eyes by night.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book V", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.636, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.673, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAfjNDD60FXkqfdEqP8z93AGNAcnFuoY8MrQ_mpDVAsqo", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga05-07", "key": "a2b4b0edb2824c15", "label": "Cataract attacks blue eyes more, night-blindness dark eyes", "statement": "Cataract affects blue-eyed people more, while nyctalopia affects dark-eyed people more.", "quote": "Cataract attacks the blue-eyed more, but what is called ‘nyctalopia’ the dark-eyed.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book V", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.675, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.71, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAyvG-ptXNFwlfRKmTjEdBci1bKEN_9hOZWAO85fyi8UE", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga05-08", "key": "bc82fe64074f893b", "label": "Animals with deep-set eyes see far, those with prominent eyes do not", "statement": "Animals with prominent eyes do not see well at a distance, whereas those whose eyes lie deep in the head can see distant things.", "quote": "A proof of this is that animals with prominent eyes do not see well at a distance, whereas those which have their eyes lying deep in the head can see things at a distance", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book V", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.561, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.65, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAgPBg4ykjAt70OIc5rWBihQ0ha4Xj9ObcUxIFlQWDhH0", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga05-09", "key": "e9b08e811a7927cc", "label": "The seal has no external ears, only hearing passages", "statement": "The seal, though a viviparous quadruped, has no external ears but only passages for hearing, because it lives in the water.", "quote": "The workmanship of Nature is admirable also in the seal, for though a viviparous quadruped it has no ears but only passages for hearing. This is because its life is passed in the water", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book V", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.876, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.897, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RATfBowWrivGUfmh7cada_ElQ7KClgdvHnZyKlHHHdlyY", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga05-10", "key": "17dbe3430960cfbd", "label": "Only humans visibly go grey with age, and to a lesser degree horses", "statement": "Humans go grey on the head as they age, but this is not visible in practically any other animal except, to some extent, the horse.", "quote": "Human beings also go grey on the head as they grow old, but this is not visible in practically any other animal, though more so in the horse than others.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book V", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.629, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.693, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RADGkUIqAH1iAvyY8W0QcAvEvxFkD4908Cv4dh_rLYOTo", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga05-11", "key": "00ff8a8f902db4e1", "label": "Men go bald in front and grey first at the temples", "statement": "Men go bald on the front of the head but turn grey first on the temples; no one goes bald first on the temples or the back of the head.", "quote": "Men go bald on the front of the head, but turn grey first on the temples; no one goes bald first on these or on the back of the head.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book V", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.737, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.777, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAZq7i7Wi3vmiZWSGPly7xAN4MLFMi9fcnQd-fCDkoZu8", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga05-12", "key": "acdc6e5f090d4826", "label": "Peoples of moist cold lands are straight-haired, of hot dry lands curly", "statement": "Peoples living in moist air, such as the Scythians and Thracians, are straight-haired, while Ethiopians and others in hot countries are curly-haired because their brains and the surrounding air are dry.", "quote": "For this reason the Scythians on the Black Sea and the Thracians are straight-haired, for both they themselves and the environing air are moist, whereas the Aethiopians and men in hot countries are curly-haired, for their brains and the surrounding air are dry.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book V", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.54, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.67, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAVXNPRWan_JxNYDBKK7qH5x6RdqyKDEtDMWEaCUPhEpg", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga05-13", "key": "554f7644968abe1b", "label": "Deep-water sea-urchins have large, hard spines because of cold", "statement": "Sea-urchins that live in deep, cold water (sixty fathoms or more) have large, hard spines though their bodies are small.", "quote": "For these, too, though small themselves, have large and hard spines because the sea in which they live is cold on account of its depth (for they are found in sixty fathoms and even more).", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book V", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.576, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.687, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAeWc_xeDgmT4nly4TtXkiz8tJ0zjxuDGgyCMArSZeQu4", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga05-14", "key": "93ce6ff9923988d2", "label": "Women and eunuchs do not go bald", "statement": "Women do not go bald, since like children they produce no seminal secretion, and eunuchs do not go bald because they change into the female condition.", "quote": "Women do not go bald because their nature is like that of children, both alike being incapable of producing seminal secretion. Eunuchs do not become bald, because they change into the female condition.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book V", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.724, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.767, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA63nDHi2fSO4BWNmcQnwJtHeWGkToF7SWYtqzlMYqvzI", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga05-15", "key": "2511090ee7a39eb3", "label": "Hair covered by hats goes grey sooner", "statement": "Greying is a kind of decay, so hair protected by hats or other coverings, being sheltered from the winds, goes grey sooner.", "quote": "hair protected by hats or other coverings goes grey sooner (for the winds prevent decay and the protection keeps off the winds)", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book V", "kind": "prediction", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.431, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.703, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAhc97E_GdXxH_4k3pqVWUKInmGjajCzCcUjPSDvs9pPY", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga05-16", "key": "c325325bc76468f3", "label": "White individuals occur in normally uniform-coloured species", "statement": "Even in uniformly coloured kinds, white individuals occasionally arise when development is perverted, as has been seen in partridges, ravens, sparrows and bears.", "quote": "but still they do so change, for before now white individuals have been observed among partridges, ravens, sparrows, and bears.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book V", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.793, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.833, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RARAzOA1e5u7q2tXOSzkNeSrTx84SYnBYy9Rf4XRACyqc", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga05-17", "key": "5c05d5af1d771693", "label": "Hot drinking water whitens hair, cold water darkens it", "statement": "Colour change in animals whose kind is many-coloured is due to the water they drink: hot waters make the hair white and cold waters make it dark.", "quote": "This is owing to the water which they drink, for hot waters make the hair white, cold makes it dark, an effect found also in plants.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book V", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.34, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.717, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAp08OMcK9lJFoAiQNdH7rL7qEaJC04slRyHzURtF_dIc", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga05-18", "key": "a2a712c0c624cd3d", "label": "The belly is whiter in animals that are not uniformly coloured", "statement": "In all animals that are not uniformly coloured, the underside of the belly is whiter.", "quote": "Hence also in all animals not uniformly coloured all the part under the belly is whiter.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book V", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.675, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.73, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAq_4dJBoIXi0nX9YBAt70tb5FclQWM2w0iddoGwr9EpY", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga05-19", "key": "32050d847f92aa5a", "label": "Females have higher voices than males, except in cattle", "statement": "In animals generally the female's voice is higher than the male's, most plainly in man, but in cattle the cow's voice is deeper than the bull's.", "quote": "in the other kinds of animals the voice of the female is higher than that of the male (this being especially plain in man, for Nature has given this faculty to him in the highest degree because he alone of animals makes use of speech and the voice is the material of speech), but in cattle the opposite obtains, for the voice of cows is deeper than that of bulls.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book V", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.713, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.757, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAyXy6aso28a464RCsL1zjinjOOZH5wjXOeVYx39TtLrg", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga05-20", "key": "12c2cd967e2fb14e", "label": "A bone is found in the heart of some bulls", "statement": "A bone is found in the heart of some bulls.", "quote": "That the heart of bulls is of such a nature is shown by the fact that a bone is actually found in some of them", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book V", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.714, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.783, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAhB-t3hBWMae4os6NQKYW_2EVPS0yfzKHXf3ZpIZus9g", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga05-21", "key": "a4913bb65f8fb3fe", "label": "Castrated animals take on a female voice and character", "statement": "All animals, when castrated, change to the female character and utter a voice like that of females.", "quote": "All animals when castrated change to the female character, and utter a voice like that of the females because the sinewy strength in the principle of the voice is relaxed.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book V", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.514, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.647, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAM2A1gruHGJ--ehMjXfLwzhBCQhgV3FJKs7mPbOaVbfo", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga05-22", "key": "0ebcfcde0624f10e", "label": "The pig does not shed its teeth; lions shed only their canines", "statement": "The pig does not shed its teeth, and some carnivores, such as lions, shed no teeth except the canines.", "quote": "Yet the pig also suckles but does not shed its teeth, and, further, all the animals with carnivorous dentition suckle, but some of them do not shed any teeth except the canines, e.g. lions.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book V", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.817, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.847, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RATxIiYtEMH5gRd-X4C4WodqVmXBXM9nOerw2aO2untrE", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga05-23", "key": "9c2baef337784d76", "label": "Nature never fails nor does anything in vain", "statement": "Nature never fails nor does anything in vain, so far as is possible in each case.", "quote": "Now we assume, basing our assumption upon what we see, that Nature never fails nor does anything in vain so far as is possible in each case.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book V", "kind": "conceptual", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.022, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.927, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAwgpTkyWXI4rr3nVDxtEwMlts5G-HYdDCo2AwFJukAFA", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga05-24", "key": "b1e1d073b4338a8b", "label": "Young fed hotter milk cut their teeth sooner", "statement": "Suckling itself does not form the teeth, but the heat of the milk speeds them: young that receive hotter milk grow their teeth more quickly.", "quote": "A proof of this is that even in suckling animals those young which enjoy hotter milk grow their teeth quicker, heat being conducive to growth.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book V", "kind": "mechanism", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.435, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.693, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAqPhB2VjU0oqnAtDzFQe9LY681Mnxt4tiK4MEFZL15RY", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "aristotle-ga05-25", "key": "eb72ca729a25a21a", "label": "The last human grinders erupt around age twenty", "statement": "The grinding teeth keep growing for a long time, the last of them cutting the gum at about twenty years of age and sometimes in old age.", "quote": "A proof of this is that even the flat teeth grow for a long time, the last of them cutting the gum at about twenty years of age; indeed in some cases the last teeth have been grown in quite old age.", "thinker": "Aristotle", "year": -350, "work": "On the Generation of Animals", "chapter": "On the Generation of Animals, Book V", "kind": "empirical-generalization", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": false, "theorem": false, "notation": null, "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": 0.815, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": 0.837, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAu_8fG8ipkgFmSaxu_uZ8PnCreRa4bbcmT8EcW_OuGQQ", "registry": "test", "draft": false }, { "id": "fisher-ftns", "key": "efdb82be6c954937", "label": "Fisher's fundamental theorem of natural selection (partial-change form)", "statement": "The rate of increase in mean fitness of a population due to natural selection equals its additive genetic variance in fitness at that time.", "quote": null, "thinker": "Ronald A. Fisher", "year": 1930, "work": "The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection", "chapter": "The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection (1930)", "kind": "model-theorem", "status": "proved", "proof": "literature", "verification": "literature", "math": true, "theorem": true, "notation": "\\Delta_{NS}\\bar{w} = V_A(w)/\\bar{w} (discrete generations); \\left.\\frac{d\\bar{m}}{dt}\\right|_{NS} = V_A(m) for Malthusian fitness m", "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": { "tags": [ "several", "contingent" ], "readings": [ { "name": "partial-change", "statement": "The partial rate of change in mean fitness attributable to natural selection, holding average effects and environment fixed, equals V_A(w)/w̄ (Price 1972, Ewens 1989).", "status": "proved" }, { "name": "total-change", "statement": "The total rate of change in mean fitness equals V_A(w)/w̄.", "status": "false under dominance, epistasis, frequency dependence or environmental change" } ], "note": "Okasha (BJPS 59, 2008) distinguishes the two readings; the proof attaches to the first only, and only the second is what a population measurement tests." }, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": null, "truth": 0.945, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.97 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.92 } ], "assessor_confidence": null, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAtLFqIIyu4r-GlMcBEfmDtbV-CHwWxQ49gVMtHIX6r48", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "fisher-kpp-speed", "key": "39ead6abda9bd90d", "label": "Fisher-KPP wave of advance of an advantageous gene", "statement": "An advantageous allele spreading through a continuous population advances as a travelling wave whose speed is set by the selection coefficient and the diffusion (dispersal) rate.", "quote": null, "thinker": "Ronald A. Fisher", "year": 1937, "work": "The wave of advance of advantageous genes", "chapter": "The wave of advance of advantageous genes (1937)", "kind": "model-theorem", "status": "proved", "proof": "literature", "verification": "literature", "math": true, "theorem": true, "notation": "u_t = D u_{xx} + s u(1-u); travelling waves u(x-ct) exist iff c \\ge c^* = 2\\sqrt{sD}; compactly supported initial data spread at asymptotic speed c^*", "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": { "tags": [ "one", "contingent" ], "note": "Minimal front speed 2\\sqrt{rD} for the scalar reaction-diffusion equation with compactly supported initial data." }, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": null, "truth": 0.975, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.99 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.96 } ], "assessor_confidence": null, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAgBKK_olLGBZFlS8ZzXODLNFauZHQfNTZ4g9NKVUfQ1E", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "fisher-sex-ratio", "key": "5f835063b62a9506", "label": "Fisher's principle of equal investment in the sexes", "statement": "Under random mating and autosomal inheritance, selection drives parents to invest equally in sons and daughters, which gives a 1:1 sex ratio when the two cost the same.", "quote": null, "thinker": "Ronald A. Fisher", "year": 1930, "work": "The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection", "chapter": "The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection (1930)", "kind": "model-theorem", "status": "proved", "proof": "literature", "verification": "literature", "math": true, "theorem": true, "notation": "ESS allocation: N_m c_m = N_f c_f; with c_m = c_f the unbeatable primary sex ratio is 1:1", "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": { "tags": [ "one", "contingent" ], "note": "Equal parental investment is the ESS under panmixia; LMC exceptions are predicted deviations, not alternative formalizations." }, "evidence": "mixed", "evidence_kind": "biological", "data_test": { "verdict": "mixed", "confidence": 0.85, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "biological", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/math-bio-claims/fisher-sex-ratio/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered. Data: United Nations World Population Prospects 2024, Demographic Indicators, medium variant CSV (WPP2024_Demographic_Indicators_Medium.csv.gz), variable SRB (sex ratio at birth, males per 100 female births), rows with LocTypeName == 'Country/Area', years 1950 to 1979 inclusive (before prenatal sex determination was widely available, so the ratio reflects biology rather than sex-selective abortion), country-years with total mid-year population >= 1 million. Criterion A (equality): the median SRB across qualifying country-years lies in [95, 105] (within 5% of equal numbers). Criterion B (uniform near-equality): at least 95% of qualifying country-years lie in [90, 110]. SUPPORTS if A and B both hold.", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered. REFUTES if the median SRB lies outside [90, 110] OR fewer than 80% of qualifying country-years lie in [90, 110]. MIXED otherwise (for example a consistent small excess of one sex between 5% and 10%, with B holding). INCONCLUSIVE (data-unavailable) if the file cannot be downloaded or has no SRB column.", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: un-wpp-2024-demographic-indicators-medium", "inference_method": "fetch.py downloads the gzipped CSV (16.6 MB). analysis.py keeps rows of type Country/Area for 1950-1979 with mid-year population >= 1 million and a non-missing SRB, and computes the median, mean, SD, 5th and 95th percentiles of SRB over country-years, the fractions inside [95,105] and [90,110], and per-country means; the pre-registered rule is applied.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": { "verdict": "representative-with-caveats", "assessors": [ { "assessor": "gpt-5-2025-08-07", "verdict": "representative-with-caveats", "confidence": null, "file": "test-data/claim-tests/math-bio-claims/fisher-sex-ratio/faithfulness.json" } ], "status": "agreed" } }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": null, "truth": 0.96, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.98 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.94 } ], "assessor_confidence": null, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAV8dgCyu0M1M0swQos9upVeXlZpnTGus856Dj8OAPSg8", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "fisher-infinitesimal", "key": "f58e1b9a860faba4", "label": "Fisher's infinitesimal model of quantitative inheritance", "statement": "Continuous traits determined by many Mendelian loci of small additive effect produce the observed correlations between relatives, so biometric and Mendelian inheritance are consistent.", "quote": null, "thinker": "Ronald A. Fisher", "year": 1919, "work": "The Correlation between Relatives on the Supposition of Mendelian Inheritance", "chapter": "The Correlation between Relatives on the Supposition of Mendelian Inheritance (1919)", "kind": "model-theorem", "status": "proved", "proof": "literature", "verification": "literature", "math": true, "theorem": true, "notation": "Cov(z_i, z_j) = 2\\Theta_{ij} V_A + \\Delta_{ij} V_D; in the limit of M \\to \\infty loci the offspring trait given parents is Gaussian with mean (z_1+z_2)/2 and segregation variance V_0(1-\\bar{F}), with error O(1/\\sqrt{M}) (Barton, Etheridge and Veber 2017)", "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": { "tags": [ "one", "contingent" ], "note": "The infinitesimal limit of Barton, Etheridge and Véber (2017) is the single modern formalization." }, "evidence": "supports", "evidence_kind": "biological", "data_test": { "verdict": "supports", "confidence": 0.75, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "biological", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/math-bio-claims/fisher-infinitesimal/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered. Data: Galton's 1886 family height records as distributed in the R HistData package (GaltonFamilies: 934 adult children in 205 families with father, mother and child heights in inches and child sex). Female child heights are multiplied by 1.08, as Galton did, to put both sexes on a common scale; mid-parent height is (father + 1.08*mother)/2. Residuals r are taken from the ordinary-least-squares regression of adjusted child height on mid-parent height. Criterion A (homoscedasticity): Levene's test (median-centred, Brown-Forsythe) of residual variance across the three mid-parent terciles gives p > 0.05 AND the ratio of the largest to the smallest tercile residual variance is < 1.5. Criterion B (normality): residual sample skewness |g1| < 0.5 and excess kurtosis |g2| < 1.0. Criterion C (sibling vs parent-offspring): the full-sibling intraclass correlation of adjusted height (one-way random-effects ANOVA estimator over families with >= 2 children) is >= r_po - 0.05, where r_po is the single-parent-offspring correlation implied by the child-on-mid-parent correlation r_mp as r_po = r_mp / sqrt(2) (which assumes uncorrelated parents). SUPPORTS if A, B and C all hold.", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered. REFUTES if A fails strongly (variance ratio > 2 or Levene p < 0.001) OR B fails strongly (|g1| > 1 or |g2| > 2) OR the sibling correlation is more than 0.15 below r_po. MIXED otherwise. INCONCLUSIVE (data-unavailable) if the file cannot be downloaded.", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: galton1886-families-histdata", "inference_method": "fetch.py downloads the CSV. analysis.py multiplies female child and mother heights by 1.08 (Galton's adjustment), forms mid-parent height, regresses adjusted child height on it, and tests the residuals: Brown-Forsythe Levene test and variance ratio across mid-parent terciles (A), sample skewness and excess kurtosis (B), and the one-way ANOVA intraclass correlation of siblings against the single-parent correlation implied by the mid-parent correlation (C). The pre-registered rule is applied.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": null, "truth": 0.935, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.96 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.91 } ], "assessor_confidence": null, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RASVH-3kfjv85VmJUYvOFmkWg_y5fZ-_fjfIk2udlcA6A", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "turing-ddi", "key": "9b4c6e3bf40206bf", "label": "Turing diffusion-driven instability", "statement": "A homogeneous steady state of two reacting chemicals that is stable without diffusion can become unstable to spatial perturbations when the chemicals diffuse at different rates, spontaneously producing a pattern.", "quote": null, "thinker": "Alan Turing", "year": 1952, "work": "The chemical basis of morphogenesis", "chapter": "The chemical basis of morphogenesis (1952)", "kind": "model-theorem", "status": "partial", "proof": null, "verification": "partial", "math": true, "theorem": false, "notation": "u_t = f(u,v) + D_u \\nabla^2 u, v_t = g(u,v) + D_v \\nabla^2 v; with tr J < 0 and det J > 0, instability at some wavenumber k iff D_v f_u + D_u g_v > 2\\sqrt{D_u D_v \\det J}, which requires D_u \\ne D_v", "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": { "tags": [ "one", "contingent" ], "note": "Linear instability conditions of the homogeneous steady state; nonlinear pattern existence is a separate, model-specific question, not a second reading of this claim." }, "evidence": "refutes", "evidence_kind": "computational", "data_test": { "verdict": "refutes", "confidence": 0.95, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "computational", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/math-bio-claims/turing-ddi/overnight-turing-n4/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "More than 90% of sampled cyclic n=4 sign patterns are detected as Turing-capable by the fixed finite parameter and wave-number search.", "disconfirming_observation": "The exact 95% binomial interval for the detected-capable fraction lies entirely below 0.9.", "admissible_datasets": "No external dataset; only seeded computational output from the enumerated n=3 and sampled n=4 sign-pattern ensembles.", "inference_method": "Count a topology once any sampled stable Jacobian becomes non-Hurwitz after diagonal diffusion at a tested positive wave number; apply a two-sided 95% Clopper-Pearson interval to the n=4 detected-capable count.", "explicit": true }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [ { "id": "hentschel-tgfb-fibronectin-limb", "relation": "models", "note": "The TGF-beta activator / FGF-dependent inhibitor system destabilises the uniform state into condensations through diffusion-driven instability, with the unstable wavenumber setting 1-2-3 skeletal elements.", "label": "Hentschel, Glimm, Glazier & Newman (2004) Proc. R. Soc. B / Kiskowski et al. (2004) Dev. Biol. multiscale TGF-beta / FGF-inhibitor reaction-diffusion and fibronectin haptotaxis PDE in developing Gallus gallus limb bud, coupled to a Glazier-Graner-Hogeweg cellular Potts cell lattice faithfully reproduces Gallus gallus domesticus embryonic wing bud & high-density mesenchymal micromass (HH20 stylopod humerus -> HH24 zeugopod radius+ulna -> HH27 autopod digits II-IV) morphology", "organism": "Gallus gallus domesticus embryonic wing bud & high-density mesenchymal micromass (HH20 stylopod humerus -> HH24 zeugopod radius+ulna -> HH27 autopod digits II-IV)", "verdict": "faithful", "score": 82.6, "thompson_verdict": null, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAetN1ztoqC8YKIS1xFFpJq-n4c_VhH8fJomxjgk1fbfc", "registry": "production", "report": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/morphoeval/kg/2026-10-19-tgfb-fibronectin-limb-audit-v3/REPORT.md" }, { "id": "kondo-pomacanthus-stripe-insertion", "relation": "models", "note": "Runs a Gierer-Meinhardt activator-inhibitor reaction-diffusion PDE whose diffusion-driven instability produces the angelfish stripes and their insertion.", "label": "Kondo & Asai (1995) Pomacanthus reaction-diffusion stripe insertion & Y-branch unzipping faithfully reproduces Pomacanthus semicirculatus & Pomacanthus imperator (marine angelfish) morphology", "organism": "Pomacanthus semicirculatus & Pomacanthus imperator (marine angelfish)", "verdict": "faithful", "score": 93.1, "thompson_verdict": null, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAcmAHjJmz6OI4KLH76UYNS21QnQuJg9nRspd1y3RsQJs", "registry": "production", "report": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/morphoeval/kg/2026-10-19-pomacanthus-stripe-insertion-audit-v3/REPORT.md" }, { "id": "menshykau-fgf10-shh-lung-turing", "relation": "models", "note": "Implements a Schnakenberg GDNF-RET reaction-diffusion system whose homogeneous steady state undergoes a diffusion-driven (Turing) instability.", "label": "Menshykau & Iber (2013), Zubkov et al. (2015) & Watanabe & Costantini (2004) kidney ureteric bud GDNF-RET-Wnt11 Turing branching morphogenesis with stromal BMP4/7-Gremlin1-FGF7 feedback and reduced-3D ampulla necking faithfully reproduces Mus musculus (embryonic E11.5-E13.5 mouse metanephric kidney ureteric bud tree, cap and stromal mesenchyme) morphology", "organism": "Mus musculus (embryonic E11.5-E13.5 mouse metanephric kidney ureteric bud tree, cap and stromal mesenchyme)", "verdict": "faithful", "score": 83.8, "thompson_verdict": null, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAUQYFOTTVviBRZY765_w433_y9US0tXBZvqVhNqrfqMw", "registry": "production", "report": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/morphoeval/kg/2026-10-19-kidney-ureteric-bud-gdnf-ret-audit-v3/REPORT.md" }, { "id": "murray-bos-taurus-turing-wavelength", "relation": "models", "note": "The simulation runs a two-species diffusion-driven-instability model to generate the predicted coat pre-pattern.", "label": "Turing RD claim for Holstein coat spotting (tested negative hypothesis) faithfully reproduces Bos taurus (Holstein-Friesian, 10 specimens) morphology", "organism": "Bos taurus (Holstein-Friesian, 10 specimens)", "verdict": "mostly faithful", "score": 74.6, "thompson_verdict": null, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAtXAz-snj7Cj_FaWUUMcagskmw5GaJa2biZxCtyVyp5c", "registry": "production", "report": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/morphoeval/kg/2026-10-26-bos-taurus-turing-wavelength-audit-v7/REPORT.md" }, { "id": "murray-mammalian-coat-markings", "relation": "models", "note": "Implements the Murray Thomas substrate-inhibition kinetics that are diffusively unstable above a critical diffusion ratio d_c.", "label": "Murray (1981) Thomas substrate-inhibition reaction-diffusion pre-pattern, conical tail spot-to-ring transition & P1 surface-FEM felid body faithfully reproduces African leopard (Panthera pardus) coat rosettes and tapered tail markings morphology", "organism": "African leopard (Panthera pardus) coat rosettes and tapered tail markings", "verdict": "faithful", "score": 84.2, "thompson_verdict": null, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA1AHuKB_8LkikMxpnscZQXGybM7Ft3in55CdbkARRUL8", "registry": "production", "report": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/morphoeval/kg/2026-10-19-mammalian-coat-markings-audit-v3/REPORT.md" }, { "id": "schnakenberg-limit-cycle-turing", "relation": "models", "note": "Runs the Schnakenberg two-species reaction-diffusion scheme including its Turing (diffusion-driven) instability regime alongside the Hopf limit cycle.", "label": "Schnakenberg (1979) tri-molecular limit-cycle & Turing reaction-diffusion morphogenesis faithfully reproduces Dictyostelium discoideum (cellular slime mold cAMP oscillations & fruiting body aggregation) morphology", "organism": "Dictyostelium discoideum (cellular slime mold cAMP oscillations & fruiting body aggregation)", "verdict": "faithful", "score": 89.8, "thompson_verdict": null, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RASV5WtalzeDowJjdWFKMypjsQ4Ibs_M5y5pY5V7-FM4U", "registry": "production", "report": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/morphoeval/kg/2026-10-19-limit-cycle-turing-audit-v3/REPORT.md" }, { "id": "sick-wnt-dkk-hair-follicle", "relation": "models", "note": "WNT short-range activator and DKK long-range inhibitor generate the placode lattice by diffusion-driven instability.", "label": "Sick et al. (2006) & Andl et al. (2002) WNT/DKK reaction-diffusion hair follicle spacing, secondary wave insertion, transgenic phenotypes & (Pass 3) 3D dermal condensate FGF20/BMP4 chemotaxis with hair peg downgrowth faithfully reproduces Embryonic mouse (Mus musculus) epidermal hair follicle placode lattice with dermal condensate formation and hair peg downgrowth; K14-Wnt / Dkk1 / Fgf20-null / BMP4-excess genotypes morphology", "organism": "Embryonic mouse (Mus musculus) epidermal hair follicle placode lattice with dermal condensate formation and hair peg downgrowth", "verdict": "faithful", "score": 85.9, "thompson_verdict": null, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAhci99g8HgHBhmw-xJHGU-_RejFQnvMPm_enNefWukX8", "registry": "production", "report": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/morphoeval/kg/2026-10-19-wnt-dkk-hair-follicle-audit-v3/REPORT.md" }, { "id": "turing-gray-scott", "relation": "models", "note": "The Gray-Scott and Kondo-Asai simulations rely on diffusion-driven instability of a homogeneous state with unequal diffusivities, the mechanism the claim states.", "label": "Turing (1952), Pearson (1993) & Kondo-Asai (1995) reaction-diffusion morphogenesis faithfully reproduces Marine angelfish (Pomacanthus imperator) skin stripes, spotted boxfish (Ostracion meleagris) spots & Gray-Scott chemical patterns morphology", "organism": "Marine angelfish (Pomacanthus imperator) skin stripes, spotted boxfish (Ostracion meleagris) spots & Gray-Scott chemical patterns", "verdict": "faithful", "score": 85.5, "thompson_verdict": null, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAWduJefzfuvpurmEOEUlwPaB8ZDYtsxjP51oA6BtYuOk", "registry": "production", "report": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/morphoeval/kg/2026-10-19-turing-audit-v2/REPORT.md" } ], "thumbnail": { "file": "docs/thumbs/hentschel-tgfb-fibronectin-limb.jpg", "morpholib": "hentschel-tgfb-fibronectin-limb", "source": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/docs/media/tgfb_fibronectin_limb_growth.gif" }, "testability": null, "truth": 0.975, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.98 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.97 } ], "assessor_confidence": null, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAaQ-9SCjYC7GBJ0ZtrPcVNxZBB7z-VNAdWa8ImGAi610", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "turing-wavelength", "key": "d8855b4924afc0ff", "label": "Turing wavelength selection", "statement": "The spacing of a Turing pattern at onset is set by the reaction rates and diffusivities, not by the size of the tissue, so changing these parameters predictably changes the number of repeated elements.", "quote": null, "thinker": "Alan Turing", "year": 1952, "work": "The chemical basis of morphogenesis", "chapter": "The chemical basis of morphogenesis (1952)", "kind": "model-theorem", "status": "proved", "proof": "literature", "verification": "literature", "math": true, "theorem": true, "notation": "at onset k_c^2 = \\sqrt{\\det J/(D_u D_v)}, \\lambda_c = 2\\pi/k_c; under uniform rescaling of D, \\lambda \\propto \\sqrt{D}", "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": { "tags": [ "one", "contingent" ], "note": "Wavelength at onset from the fastest-growing linear mode." }, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [ { "id": "economou-palate-ruguga-turing", "relation": "models", "note": "The FGF-SHH Turing model of palatal rugae changes ruga spacing under cyclopamine (broader) and FGF10/Sprouty perturbations (compacted), i.e. reaction parameters set the repeat spacing, though these phenotypes are seeded rather than checked against measured spacings.", "label": "Economou et al. (2012) FGF10/FGF7-SHH activator-inhibitor Turing stripe mechanism at mammalian palatal growth zones, coupled to quasi-static epithelial plate ridge elevation faithfully reproduces Mammalian secondary hard palate (Mus musculus E12.0-E15.5 & Equus caballus Rugae palatinae) morphology", "organism": "Mammalian secondary hard palate (Mus musculus E12.0-E15.5 & Equus caballus Rugae palatinae)", "verdict": "faithful", "score": 91.2, "thompson_verdict": null, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAFb20jBoPyqSbjflALnj5vTYrmjI89eFP-qVtWHLcpgk", "registry": "production", "report": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/morphoeval/kg/2026-10-19-palate-ruguga-turing-audit-v3/REPORT.md" }, { "id": "raspopovic-bmp-sox9-wnt-digits", "relation": "models", "note": "Digit spacing is set by the Turing network parameters and modulated by a distal FGF/Hoxd gradient that lengthens the wavelength, implementing parameter-controlled Turing wavelength selection.", "label": "Raspopovic et al. (2014) 3-node Bmp-Sox9-Wnt Turing digit patterning network modulated by distal FGF on a moving-boundary FEM limb-bud outgrowth mesh faithfully reproduces Embryonic mouse autopod (Mus musculus, E11.5-E13.5) morphology", "organism": "Embryonic mouse autopod (Mus musculus, E11.5-E13.5)", "verdict": "faithful", "score": 84, "thompson_verdict": null, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA4cO6XBU9RkaYEoJUF4vC_yYb-JeUeMQHlCe_ujGD0J4", "registry": "production", "report": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/morphoeval/kg/2026-10-19-bmp-sox9-wnt-digits-audit-v3/REPORT.md" }, { "id": "sheth-hox-turing-polydactyly", "relation": "models", "note": "The simulation lowers the Turing digit wavelength via distal Hox/Gli3 dose at roughly constant autopod width, so digit number rises, the parameter-not-size spacing control the claim asserts, though Sheth digit-period data are not quantitatively checked.", "label": "Sheth et al. (2012) Science distal Hoxa13/Hoxd11-13 + Gli3 dose modulation of Turing digit wavelength on a fan-shaped embryonic autopod, with Pass 3 AER-FGF8 mitogenic outgrowth on a deforming Lagrangian mesh faithfully reproduces Vertebrate embryonic autopod (Mus musculus distal Hox/Gli3 allelic series & postaxial hexadactylous autopod radiograph) morphology", "organism": "Vertebrate embryonic autopod (Mus musculus distal Hox/Gli3 allelic series & postaxial hexadactylous autopod radiograph)", "verdict": "faithful", "score": 91.3, "thompson_verdict": null, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA3cAMCDvZOGkFqOvynQG76WmzZXEflR-_ZsjQrjlzfG8", "registry": "production", "report": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/morphoeval/kg/2026-10-19-hox-turing-polydactyly-audit-v3/REPORT.md" }, { "id": "sick-wnt-dkk-hair-follicle", "relation": "models", "note": "The WNT/DKK reaction-diffusion pair sets follicle spacing from reaction and diffusion parameters, with secondary follicles inserted as the skin grows and Dkk1 overexpression changing follicle number.", "label": "Sick et al. (2006) & Andl et al. (2002) WNT/DKK reaction-diffusion hair follicle spacing, secondary wave insertion, transgenic phenotypes & (Pass 3) 3D dermal condensate FGF20/BMP4 chemotaxis with hair peg downgrowth faithfully reproduces Embryonic mouse (Mus musculus) epidermal hair follicle placode lattice with dermal condensate formation and hair peg downgrowth; K14-Wnt / Dkk1 / Fgf20-null / BMP4-excess genotypes morphology", "organism": "Embryonic mouse (Mus musculus) epidermal hair follicle placode lattice with dermal condensate formation and hair peg downgrowth", "verdict": "faithful", "score": 85.9, "thompson_verdict": null, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAhci99g8HgHBhmw-xJHGU-_RejFQnvMPm_enNefWukX8", "registry": "production", "report": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/morphoeval/kg/2026-10-19-wnt-dkk-hair-follicle-audit-v3/REPORT.md" }, { "id": "turing-gray-scott", "relation": "models", "note": "The Kondo-Asai angelfish model sets stripe spacing by reaction and diffusion parameters, a direct implementation of Turing wavelength selection, though the claim is not checked against measured spacings.", "label": "Turing (1952), Pearson (1993) & Kondo-Asai (1995) reaction-diffusion morphogenesis faithfully reproduces Marine angelfish (Pomacanthus imperator) skin stripes, spotted boxfish (Ostracion meleagris) spots & Gray-Scott chemical patterns morphology", "organism": "Marine angelfish (Pomacanthus imperator) skin stripes, spotted boxfish (Ostracion meleagris) spots & Gray-Scott chemical patterns", "verdict": "faithful", "score": 85.5, "thompson_verdict": null, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAWduJefzfuvpurmEOEUlwPaB8ZDYtsxjP51oA6BtYuOk", "registry": "production", "report": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/morphoeval/kg/2026-10-19-turing-audit-v2/REPORT.md" }, { "id": "murray-bos-taurus-turing-wavelength", "relation": "tests", "note": "The audit checks the spot spacing measured on 10 Holstein specimens against the wavelength a Turing reaction-diffusion model predicts, reporting a negative result.", "label": "Turing RD claim for Holstein coat spotting (tested negative hypothesis) faithfully reproduces Bos taurus (Holstein-Friesian, 10 specimens) morphology", "organism": "Bos taurus (Holstein-Friesian, 10 specimens)", "verdict": "mostly faithful", "score": 74.6, "thompson_verdict": null, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAtXAz-snj7Cj_FaWUUMcagskmw5GaJa2biZxCtyVyp5c", "registry": "production", "report": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/morphoeval/kg/2026-10-26-bos-taurus-turing-wavelength-audit-v7/REPORT.md" } ], "thumbnail": { "file": "docs/thumbs/economou-palate-ruguga-turing.jpg", "morpholib": "economou-palate-ruguga-turing", "source": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/docs/media/palate_ruguga_turing_growth.gif" }, "testability": null, "truth": 0.91, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.91 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.91 } ], "assessor_confidence": null, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAjJiCpfgPzPI0Oidz7C5KIqYJuGw5iIhz-iukSDtzO08", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "turing-morphogen-hypothesis", "key": "8af3e65524009be9", "label": "Reaction-diffusion of morphogens accounts for biological pattern", "statement": "Chemical substances that react and diffuse through tissue (morphogens) are sufficient to account for the main phenomena of morphogenesis.", "quote": null, "thinker": "Alan Turing", "year": 1952, "work": "The chemical basis of morphogenesis", "chapter": "The chemical basis of morphogenesis (1952)", "kind": "principle-or-framework", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": true, "theorem": false, "notation": "no canonical formalization: the claim asserts that a biological pattern is generated by a system of the form u_t = F(u) + D\\nabla^2 u with D not proportional to the identity", "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": { "tags": [ "not-mathematical" ], "note": "A research framework, not a proposition with a formalization." }, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [ { "id": "cervera-levin-mafe", "relation": "models", "note": "Uses a reaction-diffusion morphogen model with gap-junction-mediated diffusion to account for planarian head patterning.", "label": "Cervera–Levin–Mafe gap-junction reaction–diffusion and bioelectric synthesis faithfully reproduces Planarians; photograph is Schmidtea mediterranea, empirical PlanformDB subset is Dugesia japonica morphology", "organism": "Planarians", "verdict": "partially faithful", "score": 55.6, "thompson_verdict": null, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAnyAaMeArVgK24K_7QPPWClzS8NHokd6oybUkFDSDZFo", "registry": "unconfirmed", "report": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/morphoeval/kg/2026-10-17-cervera-audit-v2/REPORT.md" }, { "id": "hentschel-tgfb-fibronectin-limb", "relation": "models", "note": "Accounts for proximodistal limb skeletal patterning by reacting and diffusing morphogens (plus haptotaxis), the hypothesis the claim states.", "label": "Hentschel, Glimm, Glazier & Newman (2004) Proc. R. Soc. B / Kiskowski et al. (2004) Dev. Biol. multiscale TGF-beta / FGF-inhibitor reaction-diffusion and fibronectin haptotaxis PDE in developing Gallus gallus limb bud, coupled to a Glazier-Graner-Hogeweg cellular Potts cell lattice faithfully reproduces Gallus gallus domesticus embryonic wing bud & high-density mesenchymal micromass (HH20 stylopod humerus -> HH24 zeugopod radius+ulna -> HH27 autopod digits II-IV) morphology", "organism": "Gallus gallus domesticus embryonic wing bud & high-density mesenchymal micromass (HH20 stylopod humerus -> HH24 zeugopod radius+ulna -> HH27 autopod digits II-IV)", "verdict": "faithful", "score": 82.6, "thompson_verdict": null, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAetN1ztoqC8YKIS1xFFpJq-n4c_VhH8fJomxjgk1fbfc", "registry": "production", "report": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/morphoeval/kg/2026-10-19-tgfb-fibronectin-limb-audit-v3/REPORT.md" }, { "id": "kondo-pomacanthus-stripe-insertion", "relation": "models", "note": "Accounts for Pomacanthus stripe pattern and stripe insertion on a growing skin purely by reacting and diffusing morphogens.", "label": "Kondo & Asai (1995) Pomacanthus reaction-diffusion stripe insertion & Y-branch unzipping faithfully reproduces Pomacanthus semicirculatus & Pomacanthus imperator (marine angelfish) morphology", "organism": "Pomacanthus semicirculatus & Pomacanthus imperator (marine angelfish)", "verdict": "faithful", "score": 93.1, "thompson_verdict": null, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAcmAHjJmz6OI4KLH76UYNS21QnQuJg9nRspd1y3RsQJs", "registry": "production", "report": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/morphoeval/kg/2026-10-19-pomacanthus-stripe-insertion-audit-v3/REPORT.md" }, { "id": "manukyan-ocellated-lizard-ca", "relation": "models", "note": "A reaction-diffusion system on the scale-border geometry generates the dorsal skin colour labyrinth, an instance of reaction-diffusion accounting for a biological pattern.", "label": "Manukyan et al. (2017) Nature hexagonal skin-scale border thickness reduction & outer-totalistic cellular automaton — 3D skin-volume reaction-diffusion (Pass 3) faithfully reproduces Ocellated / jeweled lizard (Timon lepidus) dorsal skin scale labyrinth morphology", "organism": "Ocellated / jeweled lizard (Timon lepidus) dorsal skin scale labyrinth", "verdict": "faithful", "score": 83.6, "thompson_verdict": null, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA8e10SxbeyH-WCW30aJZOgI0aMiHjux9vZ2AkoAv9Jyo", "registry": "production", "report": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/morphoeval/kg/2026-10-19-ocellated-lizard-ca-audit-v3/REPORT.md" }, { "id": "menshykau-fgf10-shh-lung-turing", "relation": "models", "note": "Uses a ligand-receptor reaction-diffusion mechanism to generate ureteric bud branching patterns, an instance of morphogen reaction-diffusion accounting for tissue pattern.", "label": "Menshykau & Iber (2013), Zubkov et al. (2015) & Watanabe & Costantini (2004) kidney ureteric bud GDNF-RET-Wnt11 Turing branching morphogenesis with stromal BMP4/7-Gremlin1-FGF7 feedback and reduced-3D ampulla necking faithfully reproduces Mus musculus (embryonic E11.5-E13.5 mouse metanephric kidney ureteric bud tree, cap and stromal mesenchyme) morphology", "organism": "Mus musculus (embryonic E11.5-E13.5 mouse metanephric kidney ureteric bud tree, cap and stromal mesenchyme)", "verdict": "faithful", "score": 83.8, "thompson_verdict": null, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAUQYFOTTVviBRZY765_w433_y9US0tXBZvqVhNqrfqMw", "registry": "production", "report": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/morphoeval/kg/2026-10-19-kidney-ureteric-bud-gdnf-ret-audit-v3/REPORT.md" }, { "id": "painter-chemotactic-stripe-splitting", "relation": "models", "note": "The simulation runs Kondo-Asai reacting and diffusing Turing morphogens to generate and double the Pomacanthus stripes, implementing the morphogen reaction-diffusion mechanism the claim proposes.", "label": "Painter, Maini & Othmer (1999) Pomacanthus Turing-chemotaxis stripe doubling on a growing curved flank & Keller-Segel rippling with slime-trail tensor faithfully reproduces Pomacanthus semicirculatus juvenile pigment stripes (model target) & Myxococcus xanthus rippling cell populations (specimen) morphology", "organism": "Pomacanthus semicirculatus juvenile pigment stripes (model target) & Myxococcus xanthus rippling cell populations (specimen)", "verdict": "faithful", "score": 92.5, "thompson_verdict": null, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA7D6qW4GollGvBF4LbTWYp_1oqbHQbdxciNaCx-zCn0g", "registry": "production", "report": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/morphoeval/kg/2026-10-19-chemotactic-stripe-splitting-audit-v3/REPORT.md" }, { "id": "sick-wnt-dkk-hair-follicle", "relation": "models", "note": "Accounts for the hair-follicle placode pattern by reacting and diffusing morphogens (WNT and DKK).", "label": "Sick et al. (2006) & Andl et al. (2002) WNT/DKK reaction-diffusion hair follicle spacing, secondary wave insertion, transgenic phenotypes & (Pass 3) 3D dermal condensate FGF20/BMP4 chemotaxis with hair peg downgrowth faithfully reproduces Embryonic mouse (Mus musculus) epidermal hair follicle placode lattice with dermal condensate formation and hair peg downgrowth; K14-Wnt / Dkk1 / Fgf20-null / BMP4-excess genotypes morphology", "organism": "Embryonic mouse (Mus musculus) epidermal hair follicle placode lattice with dermal condensate formation and hair peg downgrowth", "verdict": "faithful", "score": 85.9, "thompson_verdict": null, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAhci99g8HgHBhmw-xJHGU-_RejFQnvMPm_enNefWukX8", "registry": "production", "report": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/morphoeval/kg/2026-10-19-wnt-dkk-hair-follicle-audit-v3/REPORT.md" }, { "id": "turing-gray-scott", "relation": "models", "note": "Runs Turing/Kondo-Asai reaction-diffusion morphogen models to generate angelfish stripes and boxfish spots, implementing the claim that reacting, diffusing morphogens account for pattern.", "label": "Turing (1952), Pearson (1993) & Kondo-Asai (1995) reaction-diffusion morphogenesis faithfully reproduces Marine angelfish (Pomacanthus imperator) skin stripes, spotted boxfish (Ostracion meleagris) spots & Gray-Scott chemical patterns morphology", "organism": "Marine angelfish (Pomacanthus imperator) skin stripes, spotted boxfish (Ostracion meleagris) spots & Gray-Scott chemical patterns", "verdict": "faithful", "score": 85.5, "thompson_verdict": null, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAWduJefzfuvpurmEOEUlwPaB8ZDYtsxjP51oA6BtYuOk", "registry": "production", "report": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/morphoeval/kg/2026-10-19-turing-audit-v2/REPORT.md" } ], "thumbnail": { "file": "docs/thumbs/cervera-levin-mafe.jpg", "morpholib": "cervera-levin-mafe", "source": "https://github.com/fractastical/morpholib/blob/35d30f4cf/docs/media/cervera_levin_mafe_gj_block.gif" }, "testability": null, "truth": 0.4, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.62 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.18 } ], "assessor_confidence": null, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RACK9s48ZO9wtNaYNScBuwNuP9H5IvYKiFHzqYRd6CGtw", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "kimura-fixation-probability", "key": "33c725eb78005593", "label": "Kimura fixation probability of a mutant allele", "statement": "The probability that a mutant allele eventually fixes in a finite population depends on its initial frequency, its selective advantage and the effective population size, and equals its initial frequency when it is neutral.", "quote": null, "thinker": "Motoo Kimura", "year": 1962, "work": "On the probability of fixation of mutant genes in a population", "chapter": "On the probability of fixation of mutant genes in a population (1962)", "kind": "model-theorem", "status": "proved", "proof": "literature", "verification": "literature", "math": true, "theorem": true, "notation": "u(p) = \\frac{1-e^{-4N_e s p}}{1-e^{-4N_e s}}; neutral limit u(p) = p, so a new mutant fixes with probability 1/(2N)", "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": { "tags": [ "one", "contingent" ], "note": "Diffusion-limit fixation probability (1 - e^{-2s})/(1 - e^{-4Ns})." }, "evidence": "supports", "evidence_kind": "biological", "data_test": { "verdict": "supports", "confidence": 0.8, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "biological", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/math-bio-claims/kimura-fixation-probability/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered. Data: the 'fly' matrix in the CRAN package popgenr 0.2 (CC0; Laruson and Reed 2021), a 19 x 107 matrix of the number of bw75 allele copies (out of 32) in each replicate at each generation, transcribed from Buri (1956). At the last recorded generation, a line is 'fixed' if the count is 32 and 'lost' if the count is 0; m = fixed + lost, k = fixed. SUPPORTS if m >= 20 AND the two-sided exact binomial test of k against Binomial(m, 0.5) gives p > 0.05 AND |k/m - 0.5| < 0.15. Reported but not decisive: the mean bw75 frequency across all 107 lines at the last generation (predicted 0.5 under neutrality, since the expected frequency is constant under drift) and the number of fixed-or-lost lines.", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered. REFUTES if the exact binomial test gives p < 0.01 (fixation significantly favours one allele) OR |k/m - 0.5| >= 0.25. MIXED otherwise (0.01 <= p <= 0.05, or 0.15 <= |k/m - 0.5| < 0.25). INCONCLUSIVE (underpowered) if m < 20; INCONCLUSIVE (data-unavailable) if the package source cannot be downloaded.", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: buri1956-drosophila-bw75-popgenr-fly", "inference_method": "fetch.py downloads the CRAN tarball, extracts data/fly.RData and converts it with Rscript to derived/buri1956_fly.csv (committed, 1.7 KB). The object turned out to be a 20 x 33 generation-by-allele-count table (each row sums to 107 populations), not a 19 x 107 per-replicate matrix as the pre-registration assumed; the pre-registered quantities (number of populations fixed for bw75, k = 32 copies, and lost, k = 0, at the last recorded generation) are read directly from it. analysis.py applies the exact two-sided binomial test of fixed against Binomial(fixed + lost, 0.5) and reports the mean bw75 frequency and heterozygosity by generation, from whose decay an effective size is estimated for context.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": null, "truth": 0.97, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.98 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.96 } ], "assessor_confidence": null, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA76F4g68zgxUhMgNanl8KsuUwKDJhYuUgXowdNzSsnMQ", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "kimura-substitution-rate", "key": "0d764a2a30ffbd95", "label": "Neutral substitution rate equals the mutation rate", "statement": "For neutral mutations the long-run rate of molecular substitution equals the mutation rate per generation, independent of population size, which yields a molecular clock.", "quote": null, "thinker": "Motoo Kimura", "year": 1968, "work": "Evolutionary Rate at the Molecular Level", "chapter": "Evolutionary Rate at the Molecular Level (1968)", "kind": "model-theorem", "status": "proved", "proof": "literature", "verification": "literature", "math": true, "theorem": true, "notation": "k = 2N\\mu \\cdot \\frac{1}{2N} = \\mu", "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": { "tags": [ "identity", "contingent" ], "note": "Substitution rate k = 2N\\mu \\cdot 1/(2N) = \\mu is an algebraic consequence of neutral fixation probability (identity); that observed rates equal the mutation rate is the contingent claim." }, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": null, "truth": 0.945, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.99 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.9 } ], "assessor_confidence": null, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RA9HaX7bZOfE23harco9VYjsBn9AIFS8Z9jFgGWf_Zj0w", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "kimura-fixation-time", "key": "c077bc89658e66b3", "label": "Mean time to fixation of a neutral mutant", "statement": "A neutral mutant that does go to fixation takes on average about four times the effective population size, in generations, to do so.", "quote": null, "thinker": "Motoo Kimura", "year": 1969, "work": "The average number of generations until fixation of a mutant gene in a finite population", "chapter": "The average number of generations until fixation of a mutant gene in a finite population (1969)", "kind": "model-theorem", "status": "proved", "proof": "literature", "verification": "literature", "math": true, "theorem": true, "notation": "\\bar{t}_1(p) = -\\frac{4N_e(1-p)\\ln(1-p)}{p}; as p = 1/(2N) \\to 0, \\bar{t}_1 \\to 4N_e generations", "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": { "tags": [ "one", "contingent" ], "note": "Mean conditional fixation time 4N generations in the diffusion limit." }, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": null, "truth": 0.965, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.98 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.95 } ], "assessor_confidence": null, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAmXKsET-uSzQ4u-9Su6YaLgGOfY6-UTj3o690-xTgmZU", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "kimura-heterozygosity", "key": "ba0c211f82528508", "label": "Neutral equilibrium heterozygosity (Kimura-Crow)", "statement": "Under neutral mutation to new alleles and drift, expected heterozygosity reaches an equilibrium that rises with the product of effective population size and mutation rate.", "quote": null, "thinker": "Motoo Kimura", "year": 1964, "work": "The number of alleles that can be maintained in a finite population", "chapter": "The number of alleles that can be maintained in a finite population (1964)", "kind": "model-theorem", "status": "proved", "proof": "literature", "verification": "literature", "math": true, "theorem": true, "notation": "H = \\frac{\\theta}{1+\\theta}, \\theta = 4N_e\\mu (infinite-alleles model)", "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": { "tags": [ "one", "contingent" ], "note": "Equilibrium heterozygosity 4N\\mu/(1+4N\\mu) under infinite alleles; Lewontin's paradox is the data side." }, "evidence": "refutes", "evidence_kind": "biological", "data_test": { "verdict": "refutes", "confidence": 0.9, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "biological", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/math-bio-claims/kimura-heterozygosity/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered. Data: Buffalo (2021) combined_data.tsv from github.com/vsbuffalo/paradox_variation (commit b8f91d5, 2021-09-27), metazoan species (kingdom == Animalia) with a non-missing diversity value (pairwise nucleotide diversity, column 'diversity') and a non-missing census-size estimate (column 'log10_popsize', the posterior mean of log10 census size from the author's range x density model; if the file carries another census-size point estimate instead, the column actually used is recorded in 'method'). One row per species. SUPPORTS if Spearman rho(log10 pi, log10 N) > 0.5 with p < 0.001 AND the ordinary-least-squares slope of log10 pi on log10 N has a point estimate >= 0.3 with a 95% confidence interval that includes some value >= 0.5 (diversity rises at least about a third as fast as census size on a log scale, i.e. within a factor of about 3 of the law's slope of 1). AMENDMENT (2026-10-31, before any data were downloaded, at the request of the holdout thread): species of class Aves are excluded from the primary analysis and from all criteria above; bird rows are held out and only reported separately, unfitted, as a holdout check. The taxonomic class is taken from the file's own taxonomy columns.", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered. REFUTES if the 95% confidence interval of the slope lies entirely below 0.25 (diversity rises less than a quarter as fast as census size on a log scale, so the law with N as the proxy for Ne is quantitatively wrong by orders of magnitude across the range of N: the Lewontin's-paradox pattern) OR rho <= 0. MIXED otherwise. INCONCLUSIVE (underpowered) if fewer than 50 species qualify; INCONCLUSIVE (data-unavailable) if the file cannot be downloaded.", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: buffalo2021-paradox-variation-combined-data, holdout: class Aves rows excluded from fitting (see holdout/README.md)", "inference_method": "fetch.py downloads combined_data.tsv at the pinned commit. analysis.py keeps Animalia rows with a diversity value > 0 and a log10_popsize value (one row per species), drops the 13 class-Aves species (held out, never fitted), and on the remaining species computes Spearman rho between log10 diversity and log10 census size and an ordinary-least-squares regression of log10 diversity on log10 census size with a t-based 95% confidence interval on the slope. The decision rule is the pre-registered one.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": { "verdict": "representative-with-caveats", "assessors": [ { "assessor": "gpt-5-2025-08-07", "verdict": "representative-with-caveats", "confidence": null, "file": "test-data/claim-tests/math-bio-claims/kimura-heterozygosity/faithfulness.json" } ], "status": "agreed" } }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": null, "truth": 0.975, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.99 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.96 } ], "assessor_confidence": null, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAlRjBbAisfvsyyfOF8NcrKgK8gGaf-Y7_5b4qBxWP8cE", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "kimura-neutral-theory", "key": "014ea9c97a754f57", "label": "Neutral theory: most molecular substitutions are neutral", "statement": "Most evolutionary changes at the molecular level are caused by random drift of selectively neutral or nearly neutral mutations, not by positive selection.", "quote": null, "thinker": "Motoo Kimura", "year": 1968, "work": "Evolutionary Rate at the Molecular Level", "chapter": "Evolutionary Rate at the Molecular Level (1968)", "kind": "empirical-law", "status": "untested", "proof": null, "verification": "untested", "math": true, "theorem": false, "notation": "empirical claim: for most sites |N_e s| \\lesssim 1, so the fraction of substitutions driven by positive selection \\alpha is small; tested with d_N/d_S and McDonald-Kreitman \\alpha = 1 - \\frac{D_s P_n}{D_n P_s}", "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": { "tags": [ "not-mathematical" ], "note": "An empirical claim about the distribution of fitness effects." }, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": null, "truth": 0.67, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.7 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.64 } ], "assessor_confidence": null, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RArFb4BtIMiI27aXPjqWGqjibHUwcsry-w7u-X-s1Qdtw", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "hamilton-rule", "key": "633ff94b1388fcc7", "label": "Hamilton's rule", "statement": "A gene for social behaviour increases in frequency when the benefit to the recipient, weighted by genetic relatedness, exceeds the cost to the actor.", "quote": null, "thinker": "W. D. Hamilton", "year": 1964, "work": "The genetical evolution of social behaviour. I", "chapter": "The genetical evolution of social behaviour. I (1964)", "kind": "model-theorem", "status": "proved", "proof": "literature", "verification": "literature", "math": true, "theorem": true, "notation": "\\Delta \\bar{p} > 0 \\iff r b - c > 0, with r, b, c defined as regression coefficients (Queller form via the Price equation)", "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": { "tags": [ "several", "identity", "contingent" ], "readings": [ { "name": "regression form", "statement": "rb > c with r, b, c the partial regression coefficients of the Price-equation decomposition (Gardner, West and Wild 2011).", "status": "proved; close to an identity" }, { "name": "causal/phenotypic form", "statement": "An altruistic trait spreads when genealogical relatedness times fitness benefit exceeds fitness cost, with b and c as fixed payoffs.", "status": "holds only under additivity and weak selection" } ], "note": "The regression form is exact because its coefficients are defined to make it so; the phenotypic form is the one tested in the field." }, "evidence": "inconclusive", "evidence_kind": "computational", "data_test": { "verdict": "inconclusive", "confidence": 0.99, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "computational", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/math-bio-claims/hamilton-rule/overnight-hamiltons-moran/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "The refit regression matches the sign of exact expected frequency change at every non-absorbing state with nonzero expected change, and the frozen predictor disagrees in sign at least once at an endpoint state.", "disconfirming_observation": "The frozen additive predictor agrees in sign at every state, or the refit regression disagrees with any nonzero exact expected frequency change.", "admissible_datasets": "", "inference_method": "Enumerate all 64 labelled binary configurations of six haploids in three fixed pairs using fractions.Fraction. For each configuration, compute exact fitnesses and all Moran birth-death transitions, then uniformly average transitions conditional on cooperator count to emit the requested seven-row table. Fit exact ordinary least-squares coefficients to pooled individual records at each count, freeze the count-three coefficients for the additive predictor, and compare both predictor signs with the aggregated expected frequency change.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": null, "truth": 0.95, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.99 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.91 } ], "assessor_confidence": null, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RALzgEQVcQQcFWyvNpDGVnJ6TDDmu0yDNOIqOOzlYQWjw", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "hamilton-haplodiploidy", "key": "a72c767ae2b7b3f3", "label": "Haplodiploidy hypothesis for eusociality", "statement": "Because full sisters in haplodiploid species share three quarters of their genes, more than a mother shares with her offspring, haplodiploid insects are predisposed to evolve sterile worker castes.", "quote": null, "thinker": "W. D. Hamilton", "year": 1964, "work": "The genetical evolution of social behaviour. II", "chapter": "The genetical evolution of social behaviour. II (1964)", "kind": "conjecture", "status": "refuted", "proof": null, "verification": "refuted", "math": true, "theorem": false, "notation": "with a singly mated queen, r_{sister,sister} = 3/4 > r_{mother,daughter} = 1/2, but r_{sister,brother} = 1/4", "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": { "tags": [ "one", "contingent" ], "note": "Relatedness coefficients 3/4 (sister-sister) and 1/4 (sister-brother) are proved; the explanatory claim is contingent and largely abandoned." }, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": null, "truth": 0.405, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.55 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.26 } ], "assessor_confidence": null, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAFGCl74Ya9DLrklItqtHXWruzbuWriNcga165DUUfCxs", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "hamilton-lmc", "key": "2cc590477d373530", "label": "Local mate competition sex ratio", "statement": "When a few mothers lay eggs on a patch and their offspring mate there before the daughters disperse, the evolutionarily stable sex ratio is female-biased, and the bias weakens as the number of mothers grows.", "quote": null, "thinker": "W. D. Hamilton", "year": 1967, "work": "Extraordinary Sex Ratios", "chapter": "Extraordinary Sex Ratios (1967)", "kind": "model-theorem", "status": "proved", "proof": "literature", "verification": "literature", "math": true, "theorem": true, "notation": "unbeatable proportion of males x^* = \\frac{n-1}{2n} for n foundresses per patch (diploid case)", "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": { "tags": [ "one", "contingent" ], "note": "Unbeatable sex ratio (n-1)/2n under local mate competition." }, "evidence": "inconclusive", "evidence_kind": "none", "data_test": { "verdict": "inconclusive", "confidence": 1, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "none", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/math-bio-claims/hamilton-lmc/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered. Data: Cook et al. (2015) 'DNA methylation and sex allocation in the parasitoid wasp Nasonia vitripennis', Dryad doi:10.5061/dryad.15nj0, file DryadData.xlsx; only control (untreated or vehicle-treated) females are used, with the number of co-foundresses and the numbers of sons and daughters per brood or host as given in the file. SUPPORTS if Spearman rho(number of foundresses, proportion of sons) > 0 with p < 0.05 across broods AND the mean absolute deviation between the observed mean proportion of sons at each foundress number n >= 2 and (n - 1) / (2n) is <= 0.10.", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered. REFUTES if rho <= 0 or p >= 0.05 (no increase of the son proportion with foundress number). MIXED if the increase is present but the deviation from (n - 1) / (2n) exceeds 0.10. INCONCLUSIVE (not-operationalizable) if the file does not record foundress number per brood. INCONCLUSIVE (data-unavailable) if Dryad keeps blocking automated download (as of 2026-10-31 it serves a JavaScript proof-of-work challenge to scripted requests, which this project does not circumvent) and no manually downloaded copy with a recorded checksum is supplied.", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: cook2015-nasonia-methylation-sex-allocation-dryad", "inference_method": "fetch.py requested the file(s) by their Dryad file-stream URLs with a plain HTTP client and received HTTP 403 with a proof-of-work challenge page (the Dryad API download endpoint requires an account token). Per BEST_PRACTICES.md, sites that block automated requests are not circumvented, so no data were inspected and no analysis was run. fetch.py accepts a manually downloaded copy placed in data/ and records its checksum; the pre-registered analysis can then be run without changing the criteria.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": null, "truth": 0.96, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.97 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.95 } ], "assessor_confidence": null, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAyKO_1H7jBvqRqeffziXlXatCOasJmOQcaHBjKJcgPSM", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "hamilton-senescence", "key": "f077103d7435a5ae", "label": "Declining force of selection with age", "statement": "The strength of selection on survival falls with age after reproduction begins, so senescence is an inevitable outcome of natural selection.", "quote": null, "thinker": "W. D. Hamilton", "year": 1966, "work": "The moulding of senescence by natural selection", "chapter": "The moulding of senescence by natural selection (1966)", "kind": "model-theorem", "status": "refuted", "proof": null, "verification": "refuted", "math": true, "theorem": false, "notation": "s(a) = \\frac{\\partial r}{\\partial \\ln p_a} = \\frac{1}{T}\\sum_{x=a+1}^{\\infty} e^{-rx} l_x m_x, non-increasing in a", "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": { "tags": [ "several", "contingent" ], "readings": [ { "name": "sensitivity formula", "statement": "The force of selection on age-specific survival, s(a) = \\sum_{x>a} l_x m_x e^{-rx} / T, is non-increasing in a.", "status": "proved" }, { "name": "inevitability", "statement": "Mortality must therefore rise with age in every species.", "status": "refuted as stated (Jones et al. 2013)" } ], "note": "The formula is a theorem about the model; the inevitability claim added assumptions the model does not supply." }, "evidence": "mixed", "evidence_kind": "biological", "data_test": { "verdict": "mixed", "confidence": 0.6, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "biological", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/math-bio-claims/hamilton-senescence/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered. Data: COMADRE Animal Matrix Database v4.26.4.0 (RData file served at compadre-db.org/Data/ComadreDownload; data user agreement and citation guidelines accepted). Matrix selection: MatrixCriteriaAge == 'Yes' (age-classified), MatrixSplit == 'Divided' (U and F submatrices available), MatrixComposite in {'Individual', 'Mean'}, MatrixTreatment == 'Unmanipulated', MatrixCaptivity == 'W' (wild), matrix dimension >= 5, no missing entries in U or F. For each qualifying matrix, survival of age class a is the column sum of U for class a; the last class is dropped from the trend if U has a non-zero diagonal entry there (an open-ended plus group whose survival mixes ages). Mature classes are those whose F column sum is > 0. For each species, qualifying matrices of the same dimension are averaged element-wise (so each species contributes once); species with fewer than 4 mature age classes after dropping the plus group are excluded. Rising adult mortality = Spearman rho between age-class index and mortality (1 - survival) over the mature classes is > 0. SUPPORTS if at least 80% of qualifying species show rising adult mortality AND the mean rho across species is > 0.3. AMENDMENT (2026-10-31, before any data were downloaded, at the request of the holdout thread): species of class Aves are excluded from the primary analysis and from all criteria above; bird species are held out and only reported separately, unfitted, as a holdout check. Class is taken from COMADRE's 'Class' metadata column.", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered. REFUTES if fewer than 50% of qualifying species show rising adult mortality. MIXED otherwise (50% to 80%, or >= 80% with mean rho <= 0.3). INCONCLUSIVE (underpowered) if fewer than 15 species qualify; INCONCLUSIVE (data-unavailable) if the file cannot be downloaded or read.", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: comadre-animal-matrix-database-4.26.4.0, holdout: class Aves rows excluded from fitting (see holdout/README.md)", "inference_method": "fetch.py downloads the RData file and exports metadata and U, F, C submatrices to JSON with an R script (jsonlite). analysis.py keeps age-classified, divided, unmanipulated, wild, individual-or-mean matrices of dimension >= 5 with finite entries; averages a species' matrices of its most common dimension; takes survival per class as the U column sum, drops a terminal class with a self-loop (open plus group), defines mature classes by positive F column sums, and computes Spearman rho between class index and mortality over >= 4 mature classes (constant mortality counted as rho = 0). Bird species are excluded before the verdict. The pre-registered rule is applied.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": null, "truth": 0.78, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.76 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.8 } ], "assessor_confidence": null, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAz7luS9K5ZqKG1eNjle3YDeV8d9pzghACXDtandgAaXE", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "maynardsmith-ess", "key": "dc5ad94a2757d18b", "label": "Evolutionarily stable strategy conditions", "statement": "A strategy is evolutionarily stable if, once common, it cannot be invaded by any rare alternative strategy.", "quote": null, "thinker": "John Maynard Smith", "year": 1973, "work": "The Logic of Animal Conflict", "chapter": "The Logic of Animal Conflict (1973)", "kind": "model-theorem", "status": "proved", "proof": "literature", "verification": "literature", "math": true, "theorem": true, "notation": "I is an ESS iff for all J \\ne I: E(I,I) > E(J,I), or E(I,I) = E(J,I) and E(I,J) > E(J,J); every ESS is an asymptotically stable rest point of the replicator dynamics (Taylor and Jonker 1978), not conversely", "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": { "tags": [ "one", "contingent" ], "note": "Definition plus the asymptotic-stability link to replicator dynamics." }, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": null, "truth": 0.965, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.98 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.95 } ], "assessor_confidence": null, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAJmKQTaX9jLHK0l_2Dzn_mTXugxx-typkqrLaMXqRDE4", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "maynardsmith-hawk-dove", "key": "b73e58ad022067c2", "label": "Hawk-Dove mixed ESS", "statement": "When the cost of injury exceeds the value of the contested resource, the stable outcome is a mixture in which animals escalate with probability equal to the ratio of resource value to injury cost.", "quote": null, "thinker": "John Maynard Smith", "year": 1982, "work": "Evolution and the Theory of Games", "chapter": "Evolution and the Theory of Games (1982)", "kind": "model-theorem", "status": "proved", "proof": "literature", "verification": "literature", "math": true, "theorem": true, "notation": "payoffs E(H,H) = (V-C)/2, E(H,D) = V, E(D,H) = 0, E(D,D) = V/2; for C > V the unique ESS plays Hawk with probability p^* = V/C", "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": { "tags": [ "one", "contingent" ], "note": "Mixed ESS p* = V/C when V < C." }, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": null, "truth": 0.975, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.99 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.96 } ], "assessor_confidence": null, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAqKW5Atc4lp6FOLtkMVa6QooCgjsyN2AdlW5c_Rxsl18", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "maynardsmith-war-of-attrition", "key": "128bf0071f6e93ce", "label": "War of attrition ESS", "statement": "In contests settled by display, where the animal willing to persist longer wins and costs grow with time, the stable strategy is to choose a persistence time at random from an exponential distribution whose mean equals the resource value.", "quote": null, "thinker": "John Maynard Smith", "year": 1974, "work": "The theory of games and the evolution of animal conflicts", "chapter": "The theory of games and the evolution of animal conflicts (1974)", "kind": "model-theorem", "status": "proved", "proof": "literature", "verification": "literature", "math": true, "theorem": true, "notation": "with cost linear in time at unit rate and resource value V, the ESS persistence time has density p(x) = \\frac{1}{V} e^{-x/V}", "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": { "tags": [ "one", "contingent" ], "note": "Exponential persistence-time distribution as the unique ESS (Bishop and Cannings 1978)." }, "evidence": "inconclusive", "evidence_kind": "none", "data_test": { "verdict": "inconclusive", "confidence": 1, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "none", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/math-bio-claims/maynardsmith-war-of-attrition/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered. Data: 'Vibrating aggression: spider males perform an unusual assessment strategy during contest displays', Dryad doi:10.5061/dryad.bg79cnpjg, file fight.csv (male-male contests of the orb-web spider Trichonephila clavipes), restricted to contests recorded as not escalating to physical contact, using the contest duration column as given. SUPPORTS if n >= 20 AND a Kolmogorov-Smirnov test of exponentiality with the rate estimated from the data (p-value calibrated by 10,000 parametric bootstrap replicates, i.e. a Lilliefors-type test) gives p > 0.05 AND the coefficient of variation of the durations lies in [0.7, 1.3].", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered. REFUTES if the bootstrap-calibrated test gives p < 0.01 AND the coefficient of variation lies outside [0.5, 1.5]. MIXED otherwise. INCONCLUSIVE (underpowered) if n < 20. INCONCLUSIVE (data-unavailable) if Dryad keeps blocking automated download (as of 2026-10-31 it serves a JavaScript proof-of-work challenge to scripted requests, which this project does not circumvent) and no manually downloaded copy with a recorded checksum is supplied.", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: spider-contest-display-durations-dryad-bg79cnpjg", "inference_method": "fetch.py requested the file(s) by their Dryad file-stream URLs with a plain HTTP client and received HTTP 403 with a proof-of-work challenge page (the Dryad API download endpoint requires an account token). Per BEST_PRACTICES.md, sites that block automated requests are not circumvented, so no data were inspected and no analysis was run. fetch.py accepts a manually downloaded copy placed in data/ and records its checksum; the pre-registered analysis can then be run without changing the criteria.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": null, "truth": 0.955, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.97 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.94 } ], "assessor_confidence": null, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAooLrA2r1rhu64qqxpgxkb3k084B4NhJgJt_wY3uU2UA", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "maynardsmith-twofold-cost", "key": "d00cc195371a71d5", "label": "Twofold cost of sex", "statement": "An asexual mutant female in a sexual population with equal sex ratio produces twice as many grandchildren as a sexual female, so sex needs a compensating advantage of up to twofold to persist.", "quote": null, "thinker": "John Maynard Smith", "year": 1978, "work": "The Evolution of Sex", "chapter": "The Evolution of Sex (1978)", "kind": "model-theorem", "status": "proved", "proof": "literature", "verification": "literature", "math": true, "theorem": true, "notation": "with equal fecundity and a 1:1 sex ratio, the odds of asexual to sexual females double each generation: \\frac{q_{t+1}}{1-q_{t+1}} = 2\\frac{q_t}{1-q_t}", "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": { "tags": [ "identity", "contingent" ], "note": "Under equal fecundity and a 1:1 sex ratio the twofold rate difference is bookkeeping (identity); whether those assumptions hold in a population is the contingent part." }, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": null, "truth": 0.955, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.98 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.93 } ], "assessor_confidence": null, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAc7PnAQLghGVkgB5kYrXxt77ZQmedbO4CnZRVd85MyVo", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "maynardsmith-hitchhiking", "key": "72f6fa38b3af3d98", "label": "Genetic hitchhiking (selective sweep)", "statement": "When a favourable mutation sweeps to fixation, it reduces genetic variation at closely linked neutral sites, and the reduction is larger the tighter the linkage relative to the strength of selection.", "quote": null, "thinker": "John Maynard Smith", "year": 1974, "work": "The hitch-hiking effect of a favourable gene", "chapter": "The hitch-hiking effect of a favourable gene (1974)", "kind": "model-theorem", "status": "proved", "proof": "literature", "verification": "literature", "math": true, "theorem": true, "notation": "the relative heterozygosity H_{after}/H_{before} at a neutral site at recombination fraction c is an increasing function of c/s that tends to 0 as c/s \\to 0; the affected region has a width of order s in recombination units, up to logarithmic factors in N", "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": { "tags": [ "one", "contingent" ], "note": "Reduction in linked neutral diversity after a sweep, under the deterministic-sweep approximation." }, "evidence": "supports", "evidence_kind": "biological", "data_test": { "verdict": "supports", "confidence": 0.85, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "biological", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/math-bio-claims/maynardsmith-hitchhiking/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Pre-registered. Data: 1000 Genomes Project Phase 3 chromosome 22 genotype VCF (release 20130502, all 2504 samples) and the HapMap Phase II GRCh37 genetic map for chromosome 22. SNP filter: records with VT=SNP in INFO, biallelic (no MULTI_ALLELIC flag, single ALT), FILTER PASS. Windows: non-overlapping 200 kb windows starting at 16,000,000 bp (GRCh37) up to the last SNP. Diversity per window: pi = sum over SNPs of 2p(1-p) * 2n/(2n-1), with p the INFO AF value and 2n = 5008 chromosomes, divided by the window length (200,000 bp). Windows with fewer than 200 qualifying SNPs are excluded as unassessable (centromere-proximal or low-accessibility regions). Recombination rate per window: (map cM at window end minus map cM at window start) / 0.2 Mb, with cM linearly interpolated from the genetic map. SUPPORTS if Spearman rho(pi, recombination rate) across windows is >= 0.2 with two-sided p < 0.01.", "disconfirming_observation": "Pre-registered. REFUTES if rho < 0 with p < 0.05 (diversity lower where recombination is higher) OR if |rho| < 0.1 with p > 0.05 and at least 100 windows (no detectable relationship). MIXED otherwise (0 <= rho < 0.2, or 0.01 <= p). INCONCLUSIVE (data-unavailable) if either file cannot be downloaded.", "admissible_datasets": "Planned datasets: 1000genomes-phase3-chr22-genotypes-20130502, hapmap-phaseII-genetic-map-grch37", "inference_method": "fetch.py downloads the chr22 VCF (205.6 MB) and the genetic-map archive. analysis.py streams the VCF, keeps PASS biallelic records with VT=SNP and without MULTI_ALLELIC, sums 2p(1-p)*2n/(2n-1) from the INFO AF value over non-overlapping 200 kb windows from 16.0 Mb, divides by window length to get pi, and takes the recombination rate per window from the linearly interpolated HapMap map; windows with fewer than 200 SNPs are excluded. Spearman and Pearson correlations between pi and rate across windows are computed and the pre-registered rule applied.", "explicit": false }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": { "verdict": "representative-with-caveats", "assessors": [ { "assessor": "gpt-5-2025-08-07", "verdict": "representative-with-caveats", "confidence": null, "file": "test-data/claim-tests/math-bio-claims/maynardsmith-hitchhiking/faithfulness.json" } ], "status": "agreed" } }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": null, "truth": 0.965, "truth_by": [ { "assessor": "GPT-5.6 Sol", "p_true": 0.99 }, { "assessor": "Grok 4.7", "p_true": 0.94 } ], "assessor_confidence": null, "nanopub": "https://w3id.org/np/RAIxRlJnRUZ7gynA8jmKzIAWUmtMCmI-ErvLILqDKiBP0", "registry": "production", "draft": false }, { "id": "hardy-weinberg", "key": "780c0c43376cd5f9", "label": "Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium", "statement": "In an infinitely large, randomly mating diploid population with no selection, mutation or migration, the genotype frequencies at a biallelic autosomal locus reach p^2, 2pq, q^2 after a single generation and stay there, with allele frequencies unchanged.", "quote": null, "thinker": "G. H. Hardy and Wilhelm Weinberg", "year": 1908, "work": "Mendelian Proportions in a Mixed Population", "chapter": "Mendelian Proportions in a Mixed Population (1908)", "kind": "model-theorem", "status": "proved", "proof": "literature", "verification": "literature", "math": true, "theorem": true, "notation": "f(AA) = p^2,\\; f(Aa) = 2pq,\\; f(aa) = q^2,\\quad p + q = 1", "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": { "tags": [ "one", "contingent" ], "note": "Hardy-Weinberg is the control case: a single formalization everyone agrees on, with a direct genotype-count test." }, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": null, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": null, "nanopub": null, "registry": null, "draft": false }, { "id": "price-equation", "key": "3f7fd6bfaf553450", "label": "The Price equation (covariance form)", "statement": "For any population partitioned into entities i with fitness w_i and character value z_i, the change in the population mean character between generations equals the covariance of fitness with character plus the fitness-weighted mean of within-entity transmission change, each divided by mean fitness.", "quote": null, "thinker": "George R. Price", "year": 1970, "work": "Selection and Covariance", "chapter": "Selection and Covariance (1970)", "kind": "model-theorem", "status": "proved", "proof": "literature", "verification": "literature", "math": true, "theorem": true, "notation": "\\bar{w}\\,\\Delta\\bar{z} = \\mathrm{Cov}(w_i, z_i) + \\mathrm{E}(w_i\\,\\Delta z_i)", "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": { "tags": [ "identity", "contingent" ], "note": "The covariance decomposition holds for any partition of any population (identity). Where the line between the selection term and the transmission/environment term is drawn is a modelling choice the equation does not force; that choice is the contingent part (doctor_memory, Moltbook, 2026-11-01)." }, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": null, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": null, "nanopub": null, "registry": null, "draft": false }, { "id": "hygromorph-bilayer-curvature", "key": "e5dd9933b5180d35", "label": "Bilayer curvature from differential swelling (Timoshenko)", "statement": "A thin two-layer strip whose layers swell by different amounts bends with a uniform curvature proportional to the swelling-strain mismatch, with a geometric coefficient fixed by the thickness ratio and modulus ratio of the layers; the pine cone scale is such a bilayer, its outer (active) sclerenchyma layer swelling along the scale and its inner (passive) layer not.", "quote": null, "thinker": "Etienne Reyssat & L. Mahadevan", "year": 2009, "work": "Hygromorphs: from pine cones to biomimetic bilayers", "chapter": "Hygromorphs: from pine cones to biomimetic bilayers (2009)", "kind": "model-theorem", "status": "proved", "proof": "lean", "verification": "lean", "math": true, "theorem": true, "notation": "\\kappa = \\frac{6(1+m)^2}{h\\,[3(1+m)^2 + (1+mn)(m^2 + 1/(mn))]}\\,\\Delta\\varepsilon, \\quad m = h_1/h_2,\\ n = E_1/E_2,\\ h = h_1+h_2; \\text{ for } m = 1, n = 1: \\kappa = \\tfrac{3}{2}\\,\\Delta\\varepsilon / h", "lean_theorems": [ "ThompsonLaws.Hygromorphs.bilayerCurvature_linear", "ThompsonLaws.Hygromorphs.bilayerCurvature_zero", "ThompsonLaws.Hygromorphs.bilayerCurvature_symmetric", "ThompsonLaws.Hygromorphs.timoshenkoCoefficient_pos", "ThompsonLaws.Hygromorphs.bilayerCurvature_sign", "ThompsonLaws.Hygromorphs.bilayerCurvature_ofEquilibrium" ], "formalization": null, "evidence": "supports", "evidence_kind": "biological", "data_test": { "verdict": "supports", "confidence": 0.4, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "biological", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/plant-hygromorph-mechanics/hygromorph-bilayer-curvature/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "Published measurements on real Pinus cone scales (layer thicknesses h1 and h2, Young's moduli E1 and E2 of the sclerenchyma and sclereid layers, hygroscopic strain mismatch delta_eps between dry and wet, and the dry-to-wet change in scale curvature or opening angle) give a Timoshenko prediction kappa_pred that matches the measured curvature change within a factor of 1.5, with the scale bending towards the passive layer.", "disconfirming_observation": "The Timoshenko prediction from the measured h1, h2, E1/E2 and delta_eps differs from the measured curvature change by more than a factor of 3, or predicts bending in the wrong direction; this would show that the scale is not adequately described as a well-bonded, uniform, linearly elastic two-layer strip (for instance because swelling is strongly non-uniform through the thickness, the layers slip, or the scale is too thick for Euler-Bernoulli kinematics).", "admissible_datasets": "Peer-reviewed, open-access publications reporting measurements on real pine cone (Pinus) scales, not on biomimetic bilayers or simulations; the values must be tabulated or quoted in the text, or digitisable from figures whose axes are labelled with numeric values; thicknesses in the same cross-section as the curvature measurement; moduli measured along the scale axis (tensile or nanoindentation) on the dry and/or wet tissue; swelling strain along the scale axis between the same two hydration states as the curvature change. Model fits reported by the papers themselves are not admissible as measurements but may be quoted for comparison. Combining geometry and curvature from one paper with moduli and strain from another is admissible only as a secondary, lower-confidence analysis and must be stated.", "inference_method": "For each specimen set compute kappa_pred from the Timoshenko formula with the measured inputs; propagate the stated uncertainties (or the plausible range of any input that is only bounded) by evaluating the formula at the extremes; compute r = log10(kappa_pred / kappa_meas), where kappa_meas is the measured curvature change or theta_meas / L for reported opening angles. Verdict thresholds: |r| <= 0.18 supports, 0.18 < |r| <= 0.48 mixed, |r| > 0.48 or wrong sign refutes; a secondary sensitivity statistic is the ratio under the m = 1, n = 1 simplification kappa = 1.5 delta_eps / h, reported but not used for the verdict.", "explicit": true }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": null, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": null, "nanopub": null, "registry": null, "draft": false }, { "id": "hygromorph-response-time", "key": "2c8f9e8e7d2069cc", "label": "Hygromorph response time scales as thickness squared", "statement": "The time a hygromorphic bilayer takes to respond to a change in ambient humidity is set by diffusion of water through its thickness, so it grows as the square of the thickness divided by the diffusion coefficient.", "quote": null, "thinker": "Etienne Reyssat & L. Mahadevan", "year": 2009, "work": "Hygromorphs: from pine cones to biomimetic bilayers", "chapter": "Hygromorphs: from pine cones to biomimetic bilayers (2009)", "kind": "model-theorem", "status": "proved", "proof": "lean", "verification": "lean", "math": true, "theorem": true, "notation": "\\tau \\sim h^2 / D", "lean_theorems": [ "ThompsonLaws.Hygromorphs.diffusiveTime_scale", "ThompsonLaws.Hygromorphs.diffusiveRate_eq", "ThompsonLaws.Hygromorphs.diffusionMode_hasDerivAt_time", "ThompsonLaws.Hygromorphs.diffusionMode_hasDerivAt_space", "ThompsonLaws.Hygromorphs.diffusionMode_deriv_space", "ThompsonLaws.Hygromorphs.diffusionMode_heat", "ThompsonLaws.Hygromorphs.diffusionMode_boundary", "ThompsonLaws.Hygromorphs.diffusionMode_decay" ], "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": null, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": null, "nanopub": null, "registry": null, "draft": false }, { "id": "hygromorph-antisymmetric-twist", "key": "6654e58dda613419", "label": "Antisymmetric fibre angles turn differential swelling into twist", "statement": "When the two layers of a swelling bilayer have their stiff fibres at equal and opposite angles to the strip axis, the in-plane shear strains of the layers are equal and opposite, so the through-thickness mismatch is a pure shear mismatch that drives helical twisting rather than bending; this is how chiral seed pods and wheat awns open.", "quote": null, "thinker": "Shahaf Armon, Efi Efrati, Raz Kupferman & Eran Sharon", "year": 2011, "work": "Geometry and Mechanics in the Opening of Chiral Seed Pods", "chapter": "Geometry and Mechanics in the Opening of Chiral Seed Pods (2011)", "kind": "model-theorem", "status": "proved", "proof": "lean", "verification": "lean", "math": true, "theorem": true, "notation": "\\varepsilon_{12}^{(j)} = \\tfrac{1}{2}(\\varepsilon_L - \\varepsilon_T)\\sin 2\\phi_j; \\text{ with } \\phi_1 = +\\phi,\\ \\phi_2 = -\\phi: \\ \\Delta\\varepsilon_{12} = (\\varepsilon_L - \\varepsilon_T)\\sin 2\\phi, \\ \\Delta\\varepsilon_{11} = 0", "lean_theorems": [ "ThompsonLaws.Hygromorphs.shearStrain_neg", "ThompsonLaws.Hygromorphs.axialStrain_neg", "ThompsonLaws.Hygromorphs.shearStrain_mismatch", "ThompsonLaws.Hygromorphs.axialStrain_mismatch", "ThompsonLaws.Hygromorphs.strainInStripAxes_entries" ], "formalization": null, "evidence": "supports", "evidence_kind": "computational", "data_test": { "verdict": "supports", "confidence": 0.95, "preregistered": true, "data_kind": "computational", "path": "test-data/claim-tests/plant-hygromorph-mechanics/hygromorph-antisymmetric-twist/marom-crosscheck-01/result.json", "test_contract": { "expected_observation": "For random inputs, every output the published pipeline shares with our Lean definitions agrees within the stated output-rounding bound.", "disconfirming_observation": "At least one input in an unmutated configuration where the published code and the Lean-defined function differ by more than the rounding bound.", "admissible_datasets": "None: the inputs are random draws from the stated grid; the reference is the published code at a pinned commit, independent of our Lean file.", "inference_method": "Exhaustive comparison over all draws against the rounding-aware bound; fault-injection controls must trip the same comparison.", "explicit": true }, "revisions": [], "faithfulness": null }, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": null, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": null, "nanopub": null, "registry": null, "draft": false }, { "id": "flytrap-snap-geometry", "key": "51f0513c983988d9", "label": "Venus flytrap snaps when a geometric parameter exceeds a threshold", "statement": "A doubly curved leaf with a slowly changing natural curvature snaps between two stable shapes only if the dimensionless parameter combining its size, thickness and curvature is large enough; below the threshold it deforms smoothly, and the snap time is set by the leaf's elastic and poroelastic time scales rather than by cellular motor speed.", "quote": null, "thinker": "Yoël Forterre, Jan M. Skotheim, Jacques Dumais & L. Mahadevan", "year": 2005, "work": "How the Venus flytrap snaps", "chapter": "How the Venus flytrap snaps (2005)", "kind": "model-theorem", "status": "partial", "proof": null, "verification": "partial", "math": true, "theorem": false, "notation": "\\alpha = L^4 \\kappa^2 / h^2 \\gtrsim \\alpha_c \\approx 0.8 \\text{ for bistability (snap-buckling); } \\tau_{snap} \\sim \\tau_{poroelastic} = \\mu L^2 / (k E) \\text{ when } \\alpha \\gg \\alpha_c", "lean_theorems": null, "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": null, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": null, "nanopub": null, "registry": null, "draft": false }, { "id": "stimulus-response-systems-category", "key": "340c8cf3d64e1bd8", "label": "Stimulus–response systems with simulation-preserving maps form a category", "statement": "Stimulus–response dynamical systems (a state space, a stimulus space and an evolution law) together with pairs of smooth maps on states and stimuli that commute with time evolution form a category: identities satisfy the simulation condition and the condition is closed under composition, so a chain of locally valid scale transitions in a material hierarchy is globally valid.", "quote": null, "thinker": "Lee Marom", "year": 2026, "work": "A category-theoretic framework from biological mechanics to engineered stimulus-response systems", "chapter": "A category-theoretic framework from biological mechanics to engineered stimulus-response systems (2026)", "kind": "model-theorem", "status": "proved", "proof": "lean", "verification": "lean", "math": true, "theorem": true, "notation": "\\text{Obj: } (X, E, f),\\ \\dot x = f(x,e);\\ \\text{Mor: } (\\alpha, \\alpha_E) \\text{ with } d\\alpha_x\\big(f(x,e)\\big) = g\\big(\\alpha(x), \\alpha_E(e)\\big);\\ (\\beta,\\beta_F)\\circ(\\alpha,\\alpha_E) = (\\beta\\circ\\alpha, \\beta_F\\circ\\alpha_E) \\text{ again satisfies the condition}", "lean_theorems": [ "ThompsonLaws.Hygromorphs.StimulusResponseHom.id", "ThompsonLaws.Hygromorphs.StimulusResponseHom.comp_simulation", "ThompsonLaws.Hygromorphs.StimulusResponseHom.comp", "ThompsonLaws.Hygromorphs.StimulusResponseHom.id_comp", "ThompsonLaws.Hygromorphs.StimulusResponseHom.comp_id", "ThompsonLaws.Hygromorphs.StimulusResponseHom.comp_assoc", "ThompsonLaws.Hygromorphs.StimulusResponseHom.mapsSolutions", "ThompsonLaws.Hygromorphs.stimulusResponseCategory", "ThompsonLaws.Hygromorphs.stimulusResponseCategory_comp_simulation" ], "formalization": null, "evidence": null, "evidence_kind": null, "data_test": null, "morpholib": [], "thumbnail": null, "testability": null, "truth": null, "truth_by": [], "assessor_confidence": null, "nanopub": null, "registry": null, "draft": false } ] }